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USFS Mission - Tanzania - May 2009 - Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa - For FRAME

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Tiêu đề Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa Regions, Tanzania
Tác giả Joe Gurrieri, Beverly Young, Robert Sassor
Trường học usda forest service
Chuyên ngành geology & ground-water programs
Thể loại technical assistance mission
Năm xuất bản 2009
Thành phố ogden
Định dạng
Số trang 57
Dung lượng 2,08 MB

Cấu trúc

  • 1. Executive Summary (5)
  • 2. Introduction (6)
    • 2.1 Geographic Context (6)
    • 2.2 Climate (7)
  • 3. Background and Context: Water Quality (9)
    • 3.1 Source Water Protection (10)
    • 3.2 Water Quality Standards and Monitoring (11)
  • 4. Background and Context: Hydrogeology (13)
    • 4.1 Hydrogeologic Setting (13)
      • 4.1.1 Tabora Region: Urambo, Uyui, and Sikonge Districts (13)
      • 4.1.2 Rukwa Region: Mpanda District (17)
  • 5. Field Visits and Observations (19)
    • 5.1 Field Visits (19)
    • 5.2 Observations (20)
  • 6. Recommendations (22)
    • 6.1. Borehole Drilling (22)
    • 6.2 Pump Installation (22)
    • 6.3 Source Protection and Village Water Point Management (23)
    • 6.4 Periodic Sanitary Inspections and Water Quality Testing (23)
    • 6.5 Technical Capacity Development (23)
    • 6.6 Tabora Region, Sikonge District (24)
    • 6.7 Rukwa Region, Mpanda District (24)
  • Appendix 1: Mission Terms of Reference (29)
  • Appendix 2: Mission Itinerary (31)
  • Appendix 3: Individuals Consulted (38)
  • Appendix 4: Potable Water Standards (40)
  • Appendix 5: Geophysical Survey Techniques (42)
  • Appendix 6: Notes from Locations Visited (43)
  • Appendix 7: Handpump Documentation (54)
    • 1. Afridev Deepwell Handpump (54)
    • 2. India Mark II Handpump (54)
    • 3. India Mark III Deepwell Handpump (54)
    • 4. NIRA Handpump (55)
    • 5. Vergnet Hydropump HPV 60 / HPV 100 (56)
  • Appendix 8: Borehole Drilling – Project and Contract Design (57)

Nội dung

Executive Summary

The US Forest Service (USFS), in conjunction with the US Agency for International

In 2009, USAID collaborated with Africare to establish twelve boreholes in the Tabora and Rukwa regions of Tanzania This initiative aimed to enhance water access by informing the design and placement of water schemes according to best practices and international quality standards The mission also focused on building the capacity of local officials and communities to effectively manage water and sanitation practices, promote health and sanitation linked to water source protection, ensure compliance with Tanzanian laws on community investments in water schemes, and foster equal gender representation in water user groups, ultimately aiming for long-term project sustainability.

During a three-week field visit, USFS consultants analyzed existing geological, climatic, hydrologic, and borehole data while conducting hydrogeological assessments and evaluating current water points This report outlines the field observations and provides recommendations for both general water point development and specific sites examined.

For successful borehole development, it is essential to conduct geophysical surveys to identify optimal drilling locations for two or three exploratory small-diameter boreholes, thereby enhancing the chances of locating sufficient groundwater The presence of a qualified independent supervising hydrogeologist at the drilling site further increases the likelihood of success It is recommended that drilling contracts adhere to the specifications provided by the Lake Tanganyika Water Basin staff Additionally, drilling logs, including those from nonproductive boreholes, are vital pieces of information that should be shared with Africare, the District Water Engineer, and the relevant Water Basin Office.

Groundwater sampling for physical and chemical parameters should occur at borehole completion, while bacteriological samples are to be collected after handpump installation For village-level operations, the Nira-85 handpump is recommended for shallow wells, and the Afridev for deep wells To ensure the long-term sustainability of these water sources, a protective area with a 30-meter radius around the borehole or shallow well is advised, with restricted activities supported by local water committees Additionally, many abandoned shallow wells should be properly sealed to eliminate potential contaminant pathways to the aquifer.

Additional water sector support could be given to these activities to further expand access to improved water sources and strengthen institutional capacity:

 protect and improve existing shallow wells, especially in the Tabora region, which has the second least access to improved water in Tanzania (WaterAid 2006);

 develop institutional capacity to perform microbiological testing;

 develop a database to store borehole information;

 begin a groundwater mapping program; and

 sponsor a technical training workshop on groundwater development.

Introduction

Geographic Context

A total of 2,100 km were traveled to evaluate water resource opportunities in the following twelve villages of the Tabora and Rukwa regions, the locations of which are shown in Figure 1:

 Sikonge District o Utimule o Msuva villages o Usega sub-village of Sikonge

 Mpanda District o Usense sub-village of Uruwira o Kibaoni o Ilalangulu o Kikulwe sub-village of Ikuba o Makuyugu sub-village of Mamba o Majimoto

Figure 1:Village Locations for Improved Water Supplies.

Climate

Climate change significantly impacts water resources and regional development in Tanzania, presenting numerous challenges These challenges include increasing population pressure, land use issues such as sanitation, and potential ecological effects due to variations in local temperature and rainfall Addressing these concerns is crucial for ensuring adequate water availability in the region.

The Tabora and Rukwa regions experience a semi-humid tropical climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 800 to 1100 mm, and an average of 1010 mm recorded at Tabora airport Approximately 90% of this precipitation occurs during the six-month rainy season from November to April, characterized by a bimodal distribution The wet season lasts from November to May, while a dry spell is noted in January and February, followed by a prolonged dry period from June to October Groundwater infiltration from rainfall varies between 50 to 300 mm per year, as indicated in the Hydrogeologic Map of Africa.

Forested areas provide a steady supply of surface and groundwater to surrounding areas

Although the consequences of deforestation on rainfall are difficult to assess in quantitative terms, deforestation may decrease the amount of water that infiltrates to recharge aquifers and

Izenga plays a vital role in sustaining spring flows, as the region's remaining forests are essential for ensuring a consistent and gradual release of water to streams and springs This process is crucial for maintaining perennial water flow and supporting the recharge of aquifer systems.

Figure 2: Precipitation in southern Africa (The red line represents the global average precipitation of 860 mm.)

Source: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006.

Background and Context: Water Quality

Source Water Protection

Protecting resources and source water is crucial for ensuring drinking water quality Source water protection addresses various pollution hazards, including latrines, animal waste, agricultural chemicals, and industrial sources Additionally, direct pathways into aquifers, such as abandoned wells, leaking pipes, and catchment areas, pose significant risks For boreholes equipped with hand pumps, these risks to source water are particularly concerning.

 entering of contaminated surface water directly into borehole;

 entering of contaminants due to poor construction or damage to the borehole casing; and

 leaching of microbiological and other contaminants into the aquifer.

To ensure the safety of groundwater sources, it is essential to implement control measures that protect the aquifer and surrounding areas from contamination while maintaining the physical integrity of wells In the United States, federal regulations mandate the identification and evaluation of potential contaminants within the source water protection area and advocate for the creation of a source water protection plan A critical zone, known as the control or exclusion zone, encompasses a minimum radius of 30 meters around the well Additionally, Tanzanian standards for drinking water stipulate the necessity of fencing a 50-meter radius around water intakes to safeguard them from animals, pit latrines, and septic tanks.

Effective resource and source protection includes the following elements:

 developing and implementing a catchment management plan, which includes control measures to protect surface water and groundwater sources;

 ensuring that planning regulations include the protection of water resources (land-use planning and watershed management) from potentially polluting activities and that those regulations are enforced; and

 promoting awareness in the community about the impact of human activity on water quality.

Water Quality Standards and Monitoring

Ensuring a safe drinking water supply requires that the source is free from harmful microbes, parasites, and various hazards, including chemical, physical, and radiological threats to health Waterborne diseases like diarrhea, typhoid, and cholera are significant causes of illness and death in developing countries Additionally, drinking water must be appealing in taste, appearance, and odor to encourage individuals to choose it over potentially contaminated alternatives Since water treatment is often limited, protecting the source and its surrounding infiltration area is crucial for maintaining water safety.

The World Health Organization (WHO) sets international standards for drinking water that prioritize both health and aesthetic qualities The organization focuses primarily on controlling microbial quality, using thermotolerant coliform bacteria, specifically Escherichia coli, as the key indicator of microbiological safety While only a limited number of chemicals pose significant health risks through drinking water when present in excessive amounts, fluoride, arsenic, and nitrate are among those identified as causing widespread health effects in humans.

High fluoride exposure, prevalent in certain regions of Tanzania, can cause dental mottling and, in severe instances, debilitating skeletal fluorosis.

In 1974, Mjengera and Mkongo reported an average fluoride level of 1.20 mg/l in the Tabora region, with a range from 0.00 to 7.60 mg/l across 44 samples Notably, elevated fluoride levels are typically found in areas with volcanic rock formations, which are absent in both the Tabora and Rukwa regions.

Excessive exposure to naturally occurring arsenic in drinking water poses a significant cancer risk and can lead to skin lesions Research by Kassenga and Mato (2008) identified elevated arsenic levels in the mining areas of the Lake Victoria Basin, while no such elevated arsenic data has been reported for the Tabora or Rukwa regions.

Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater and surface water are primarily caused by leaching or runoff from agricultural fertilizers and contamination from human or animal waste While high nitrate concentrations have been observed in the Dodoma area, similar documentation is lacking in the Tabora and Rukwa regions due to insufficient data It is important to note that excessive nitrate levels can pose health risks, particularly leading to methaemoglobinaemia in bottle-fed infants.

The Tanzania Standard TZS 789:2008 outlines essential water quality requirements for drinking water, encompassing community standpipes and wells Both Tanzania and the World Health Organization (WHO) establish a microbiological standard that mandates the absence of coliform bacteria, specifically E coli, in water supplies Additionally, specifications regarding nitrates, fluoride, arsenic, and other contaminants can be found in Appendix 4.

Groundwater quality data in the area is limited, with key findings from a 1991 investigation revealing turbidity levels between 2 and 85 NTU, conductivity ranging from 231 to 880 mS/cm, pH values from 7.2 to 8.0, alkalinity between 110 and 400 mg/L, and hardness levels from 130 to 460 mg/L In the Mpanda District, some wells remain unused due to high salinity, likely originating from playa deposits in the Rukwa Graben.

Background and Context: Hydrogeology

Hydrogeologic Setting

4.1.1 Tabora Region: Urambo, Uyui, and Sikonge Districts

The Tabora region features rivers that flow westward into Lake Tanganyika, characterized by gently rolling plains and extensive wetlands known as mbugas These wetlands form in low-lying areas due to perched water tables above clay substrates Groundwater flow in the region is influenced by topography, with water moving from higher to lower elevations, while flat areas experience minimal groundwater flow.

The Tabora region, encompassing the Urambo, Uyui, and Sikonge districts, is characterized by ancient Precambrian crystalline basement rocks that exhibit low permeability, leading to limited aquifer storage and infiltration Erosion has obscured much of the structural evidence, resulting in scarce rock outcrops and linements, with no significant faulting identified While aquifers are present regionally, their response to pumping is inconsistent, attributed to discontinuities and barrier boundaries within the fracture systems or the low-permeability regolith This variability contributes to a high borehole failure rate and a wide range of yields, despite the seemingly uniform climate, morphology, and geological conditions across the region.

The aquifer exhibits low transmissivity, ranging from 1 to 100 m²/day In the Urambo district, yields can reach up to 8,000 liters per hour, while in the Sikonge district, yields typically fall below 1,000 liters per hour.

Shallow groundwater is found in the sandy and gravelly weathered surface materials, as well as in sandy layers beneath ferricrete deposits, supporting many wetlands and hand-dug wells in the region Deeper aquifers exist within the weathered or fractured bedrock A hydrogeologic conceptual model illustrating basement rock aquifers in areas with varying relief is depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Simplified hydrogeological map of sub-Saharan Africa showing the number of rural people living on each hydrogeologic setting Tanzania is dominated by basement rock aquifers.

Sources: A: Acworth, 1987; B: Clark, 1985; and International Association of Hydrogeologists, Briefing Note, Groundwater and Rural Water Supply in Africa

According to Wright & Burgess (1992), several constraints hinder the development of basement aquifers, including a high borehole failure rate of 10-40%, the presence of shallow groundwater and permeable fractures in the bedrock that increase vulnerability to surface pollutants and drought, and the low storativity of these aquifers.

The hydrogeology of a basement complex in a region with varying relief shows that weathered regolith is thinner on ridges and thicker in valleys, allowing for significant water extraction from the saprolite in these low-lying areas, as well as from basal breccia and major fault and fracture zones in the bedrock However, during prolonged droughts, wells may run dry, and aquifer recharge can be adversely affected by specific land-use changes.

Basement rock aquifers are found within the weathered residual overburden and fractured bedrock, requiring a significant areal extent, thickness, and adequate hydraulic conductivity to effectively yield groundwater Conditions for substantial aquifers are primarily met in the lower weathering zones 'c' and 'd' Although the clay-rich zone 'b' can store significant water when saturated, it typically functions as an aquiclude, potentially confining groundwater in zones 'c' and 'd', while also exhibiting localized permeability.

The vertical profile of crystalline basement rocks reveals variations in weathering, permeability, and porosity, with permeability influenced by lithology In situ weathering of the bedrock contributes to zones 'a' and 'b', while permeability tends to increase at greater depths due to the reduced formation of secondary clay minerals.

Permeability in zones 'c' and 'd' typically increases due to weathering, unless clay minerals fill the fractures In contrast, the permeability of fresh fractured bedrock varies based on its location and the extent of fracturing present.

According to Acworth (1987), land-use practices that are inadequate can lead to contamination migrating from the surface, particularly in areas with semi-confining or non-confining layers The most effective borehole locations typically intersect these layers, highlighting the importance of proper land management to prevent environmental contamination.

1 See the report’s Glossary for definitions.

Zone 'c' weathering, extending from 10 to 15 meters, leads to fractures in zone 'd' that enhance permeability, while the disaggregated material in zone 'c' offers substantial water storage Wells or boreholes reaching this depth typically yield enough water to support a handpump (MacDonald and Davies, 2000).

Tanzania's low relief basement rock regions feature a significant saprolite zone, as noted by Acworth (1987), which has replaced the previously existing zone 'd' fractured material This decrease in relief has led to a slower groundwater flow rate, resulting in diminished chemical solution processes and the development of interstitial clay platelets Consequently, this has resulted in lower hydraulic conductivity, leading to reduced well yields and an increased likelihood of encountering dry wells during drilling.

Basement rock aquifers lack extensive structural information, making electrical resistivity soundings valuable for determining weathering depth Ideally, dug wells or boreholes should be located at the slope's middle or "toe" to maximize access to weathered and saturated materials Utilizing dug wells, potentially supplemented by collectors or hand pump-equipped boreholes, effectively taps into groundwater resources However, the aquifer's limited capacity to transmit groundwater throughout its thickness highlights the significance of vertical drainage from the overlying materials during development.

Water supply in the Mpanda district is a significant challenge for villages, particularly during the dry season when surface water sources dry up While rainwater is available from January to May, the scarcity of potable water becomes critical in the dry months, making the identification of sustainable groundwater sources essential However, finding high-quality groundwater can be uncertain, as borehole yields typically range from 800 to 8000 liters per hour and some sources exhibit elevated salinity Despite these challenges, the Mpanda district has a higher number of boreholes compared to the Tabora region, thanks to its favorable hydrogeology that contributes to a greater success rate in borehole drilling, with depths generally between 60 to 70 meters.

The villages in the Mpanda district, except for Usense, are situated on playa deposits of the Rukwa Graben, which consist of silt, sand, clay, and slope wash from the Ufipa Escarpment, underlain by metamorphic rocks of the Ubendian System A significant advancement in the district is the implementation of geophysical surveys prior to borehole drilling, enhancing the likelihood of accessing wells with sufficient yield and low salinity However, some wells in Mpanda remain unused due to high salinity, likely originating from the playa deposits To mitigate this issue, it is advisable to position the screen intake zone deeper than the playa deposits and to limit the gravel pack to a few meters from the surface Additionally, grouting from the surface to just above the first screen zone can prevent the migration of salts and potential microbial contamination into the shallow annular space, thereby safeguarding well water quality.

Field Visits and Observations

Field Visits

Site visits were conducted in 12 villages as part of a USAID-funded project, where Africare staff, District Water Engineers, WASH technicians, and US Forest Service advisors engaged with local officials and water committees Training sessions focused on essential topics such as water, sanitation, hygiene, maintenance accounts ("Water Funds"), and source water protection Detailed notes from these visits can be found in Appendix 6, while Table 2 provides demographic information, time estimates for water collection, and details on water fund reserves for each village.

Table 2: Village Demographics and Details from Water Committee

Distance or time for collecting water

Charge for Water, per 20 liter bucket, TZS

Izengabatogwile Urambo Uyumbu 2,326 281 * 5 km in dry season

Msuva Sikonge Ipole 2,839 ~ 30-40 minutes roundtrip

Usega (subvillage) Sikonge Sikonge 1,200 200 70,000 50 (non- handicapped)

Usense Mpanda Uruwira 833 4 mile round trip

Kibaoni Mpanda Kibaoni 834 + 428 4 hours/day 800,000 3000/HH/yr

Ilalanguru Mpanda Kibaoni 3,000 3 hours/day 1,066,890 20

Kikulwe (subvillage) Mpanda Usevya 1,080 180 3 hours/day

Makuyugu(subvillage) Mpanda Mamba 3,253 510 3-4 hours/day 500,000 1000/HH/yr

(with plan to raise to 3000/HH/yr)

* notes show that there are 43 households in subvillage to be served by the improved water point

+ this population was given as those able to work, not entire village population

Evaluations of current water sources provided essential background information, leading to the identification of a proposed borehole site using GPS for subsequent geophysical investigation The GPS locations for these proposed sites are detailed in Table 3 Given the villages' topography and poor surface water quality, groundwater emerges as the most viable option for development Additionally, certain sites, such as Utimule and Msuva, feature year-round water-table springs that could be considered for a powered-pumping system, contingent upon the village and local officials' ability to maintain and finance such a technically demanding and costly system.

Table 3: GPS Coordinates for Proposed Borehole Sites

Village Region District Ward Proposed borehole Site 1

GPS Coordinates Proposed borehole Site 2

Izengabatogwile Tabora Urambo Uyumbu S 05°15.768’ E 032°16.809’ S 05°15.181’ E 032°17.384’ Utura Tabora Uyui Mabama S 05°12.221’ E 032°29.132’ S 05°12.174’ E 032°29.181’ Utimule Tabora Sikonge Ipole S 05°58.564’ E 032°47.535’ S 05°58.651’ E 032°47.595’

Ilalanguru Rukwa Mpanda Kibaoni S 07°07.126’ E 031°08.390’ S 07°07.127’ E 031°08.346’ Kikulwe Rukwa Mpanda Usevya S 07°04.290’ E 031°13.712’ S 07°04.351’ E 031°13.740’ Makuyugu Rukwa Mpanda Mamba S 07°21.686’ E 031°24.897’

Observations

Villages in the Tabora region face significant challenges in accessing improved water sources, relying primarily on traditional hand-dug wells that often suffer from seasonal scarcity Both the quantity and quality of water are major concerns, leading to women and children spending up to four hours each day collecting water.

Africare and MIMAMPI have collaborated effectively with village executives and water committees to educate the community and enhance their skills in managing new water points These villages are equipped with land management plans, enabling them to oversee activities within the borehole protection areas.

Shallow hand-dug wells remain a vital water source for many villagers, despite their often poor condition These wells frequently suffer from inadequate sanitation and ineffective source water protection practices, compromising water quality and safety.

Africare, MIMAMPI, and District Water Engineers are collaborating with villagers to establish Water Funds, but many villagers lack a clear understanding of the costs associated with maintaining water pumps Most villages struggle to maintain adequate reserves for parts, tools, and technician expenses, with the Sikonge district recommending a reserve balance of 2 million TZS and the Urambo District Water Engineer suggesting 4 million TZS MIMAMPI has set a standard for villages to contribute 800,000 TZS towards the water project, aligning with the National Water Policy that mandates a 5% contribution from villages There is a pressing need for project villages to enhance their Water Fund balances to ensure sustainable water management.

Numerous abandoned traditional and improved wells pose potential contaminant pathways to the aquifer, highlighting the urgent need for proper closure During field visits, USFS staff stressed the importance of sealing these wells to ensure health and safety.

In the Mpanda district of the Rukwa region, many handpumps and boreholes are non-functional, with some having broken parts awaiting repair Notably, one borehole collapsed due to an earthquake, leading to the removal of its pump.

During our field visits, we found that the Tanzania Standard for Drinking Water TZS 789:2008's recommendations for protecting improved water sources from contaminants were not being followed, particularly for boreholes Many boreholes, even those developed within the last two years, lacked adequate protective measures beyond a concrete apron and drainage channel Notable potential sources of groundwater contamination included pit latrines, agricultural chemicals, domestic livestock, and activities like clothes washing and bathing A key takeaway from our visit was the importance of establishing a borehole protection area, with a strong recommendation for villages to implement a 30-meter fenced radius around each borehole to enhance safety and water quality.

The Tanzania Standard for Drinking Water provides guidelines for microbiological and chemical sampling; however, there is a notable absence of regular monitoring In the Mpanda district, only one coliform sampling result was found in the borehole development records, while no records were available for the Tabora districts Although physical and chemical parameters were initially tested, there has been no periodic follow-up This lack of coliform sampling is attributed to the challenges of transporting cooled samples to distant laboratories promptly, as the Ministry of Water operates 16 laboratories across the country, none of which are conveniently located near the visited districts.

Tobacco cultivation is prevalent in the Tabora districts, where the insecticide Thiodan, known for its active ingredient endosulfan, is commonly used This pesticide poses significant risks as it is toxic to birds, bees, mammals, and particularly harmful to fish, raising concerns about potential groundwater contamination Therefore, protecting source water in these regions is crucial.

 Urambo and Sikonge Districts have inadequate gravel sources This can/will lead to improper gravel pack around the borehole casing and thus poor yields.

In Tanzania, the commonly used handpumps include the Nira-85 for shallow wells up to 20 meters deep, while the Afridev and India Mark II or III handpumps are utilized for deeper boreholes For detailed specifications of these handpumps, please refer to Appendix 7.

Recommendations

Borehole Drilling

To enhance the success rate of borehole drilling, it is essential to conduct geophysical surveys to identify geologically favorable locations Employing a qualified independent hydrogeologist at the drill site will ensure proper oversight of drilling operations, well construction, and geological logging, thereby increasing the likelihood of obtaining a productive borehole Given that 10 to 40% of deep boreholes, especially in basement complex rocks, may yield insufficient water, groundwater development programs should include contingency plans, such as drilling multiple exploratory boreholes and improving shallow wells if necessary When drafting drilling contracts, utilize language from the Lake Tanganyika Basin Office to mitigate risks of fraud and ensure compliance with Tanzanian drinking water standards, while also mandating the sharing of drilling logs Groundwater samples should be collected during test pumping to assess chemical and physical characteristics, with bacteriological testing postponed until the permanent pump is operational Additionally, boreholes should be sited away from flood-prone areas to prevent bacterial contamination, and ongoing community engagement is vital to keep villagers informed about project timelines and expectations.

Pump Installation

When selecting a pump for borehole or shallow well applications, it is essential to collaborate with the DWE to ensure compatibility with the water source depth while prioritizing village-level operated maintenance (VLOM) The Afridev pump is highly recommended for deep boreholes, while the Nira-85 is suitable for shallow wells Additionally, for individuals with disabilities in the Usega sub-village, a foot-operated pump like the Vergnet Hydropump should be considered to enhance accessibility and usability.

Source Protection and Village Water Point Management

To ensure the protection of water sources, it is essential to establish fenced protection areas with a 30 m radius around boreholes and shallow dug wells, prohibiting contaminating activities within these zones Africare and MIMAMPI, the project’s implementing partners, should prioritize building these fences post-installation of the new borehole handpump Additionally, there should be a focus on enhancing and safeguarding shallow dug wells, as they remain vital water sources for local communities Promoting gender balance in water committees is crucial, with a target of at least 50% female representation in villages lacking this balance Furthermore, training a minimum of two water technicians for pump maintenance, including at least one woman, is necessary for sustainable management To protect valuable aquifers, all abandoned shallow wells and deep boreholes must be filled with grout or cement to prevent contamination Lastly, each village should establish a minimum water fund of 800,000 TZS to support these initiatives.

Periodic Sanitary Inspections and Water Quality Testing

i Develop institutional capacity to perform microbiological testing for total coliform and

E coli and basic chemical parameters within the Mpanda district and Tabora town

Portable field sampling kits can be powered by AC power supply, 12V DC battery, or a vehicle's cigarette lighter It is recommended to conduct microbiological testing twice a year and annual nitrate testing as laboratory facilities become accessible, along with acquiring conductivity meters for the Rukwa region to address groundwater salinity issues Additionally, establishing an operations and maintenance program that includes regular sanitary inspections of water points is essential, as outlined in MacDonald's book, "Developing Groundwater: A Guide for Rural Water Supply."

Technical Capacity Development

To enhance groundwater development, it's essential to explore information-sharing avenues, such as organizing technical training workshops Additionally, creating a comprehensive database to archive borehole data will ensure that future initiatives benefit from past experiences Implementing a groundwater mapping program is also crucial; these maps will help district officials identify areas with inadequate water supply coverage, guiding targeted interventions Furthermore, the maps will aid in determining suitable groundwater supply technologies, enabling water managers to select the most effective well type for specific geological conditions, such as basement complex rocks.

 If water occurs shallower than 15m below ground level in the regolith with a minimum yield of 0.5 m 3 /hr, such an area would be suitable for shallow dug wells

 If water occurs between 15 and 30m in the regolith with a minimum yield of 0.5 m 3 /hr, then the area would be suitable for shallow drilled wells

For areas where water is found at depths greater than 30 meters, either in the overburden or bedrock, deep boreholes are recommended for effective water extraction This approach is essential for developing groundwater resources, particularly in rural settings, as outlined in "Developing Ground Water: A Guide to Rural Water Supply" by Alan.

MacDonald, Jeff Davies, Roger Calow and John Chilton to Regional Water Engineers and DWEs.

Tabora Region, Sikonge District

In the Sikonge District, developing shallow hand-dug wells is recommended as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to deep boreholes, emphasizing the need for proper construction with protective measures The village of Utimule must collaborate with district officials to cease operations at a nearby gravel pit to prevent contamination of the aquifer, as its location poses a risk of draining pollutants into the water source; this pit could potentially be transformed into an aquifer recharge basin In Usega sub-village, a community fish farm raises concerns, as an existing shallow well is located dangerously close to a fish pond, necessitating microbiological testing to assess potential contamination; future pond developments should be strategically distanced from water sources Additionally, it is crucial to either relocate the hand-dug well near the windmill or modify the surrounding area to ensure proper drainage away from the well, safeguarding it from agricultural runoff and seasonal flooding.

Rukwa Region, Mpanda District

To enhance water quality and reduce salinity in the Rukwa Rift Valley, it is advisable to casing-off the salt-bearing playa deposits for boreholes in the Mpanda division Additionally, the Mkukuba River, which flows from the Ufipi Escarpment and currently powers the local Mission, presents a significant opportunity for further investigation into its water supply potential Furthermore, the Makuyugu sub-village should establish its own water committee, as the current responsibilities are managed by the Mamba village water committee.

Aquiclude: impermeable beds of geologic material that hinder or prevent groundwater movement.

Aquifer: A rock formation that is sufficiently porous and permeable to be useful for water supply.

Borehole: A cylindrical hole (usually greater than 20 m deep and less than 0.5 m in diameter) constructed to allow groundwater to be abstracted from an aquifer

Graben: a depressed block of land bordered by parallel faults Graben is German for ditch.

Groundwater: The name given to water stored in an aquifer in pore spaces or fractures in rocks or sediments

Hydrology: The study of groundwater.

Permeability refers to the ability of rock or soil to transmit groundwater, but it also has a specific definition: it describes how easily a rock can allow any fluid to flow through it under varying pressure conditions.

Regolith is a layer of loose rock that lies atop bedrock, forming the surface of most terrestrial landscapes In contrast, saprolite refers to a deposit of clay and weathered rock that remains in its original location.

Water point: The point at which water is intended to emerge from a public, improved water supply, such as a tap or handpump.

Water table: The upper surface of a groundwater body in an unconfined aquifer It can be measured by the static water level in a well or borehole in an unconfined aquifer

Transmissivity: A measure of how much water can be transmitted to a pumping well.

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International Association of Hydrogeologists “Briefing Note, Groundwater and Rural Water Supply in Africa.”

Kaliba, A R M., 2002 “Participatory Evaluation of Community-Based Water and Sanitation Programs: The Case of Central Tanzania.” Kansas: Kansas State University

Kassenga and Mato (2008) investigated arsenic contamination in drinking water sources within mining areas of the Lake Victoria Basin in Tanzania Their study, published in the International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, highlights the significant levels of arsenic present and explores effective removal methods using stabilized ferralsols The findings emphasize the critical need for water quality management in regions affected by mining activities to ensure safe drinking water for local communities.

MacDonald, A M and Davies, J., 2000 “A brief review of groundwater for rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa.” Technical Report WC/00/33, Overseas Geology Series.

MacDonald, A., Davies, J., Calow, R., and Chilton, J., 2005 Developing Groundwater: A

Guide for Rural Water Supply ITDG Publishing.

Mjengera, H.J and Mkongo, G.B Occurrence of Fluoride in Water Sources and Water

Defluoridation in Tanzania Ministry of Water, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania http://www.maji.go.tz/modules/documents/index.php? action=downloadfile&filename=OCCURRENCE OF

Mjengera, H.J, 2007 “Water Quality and Health Aspects.” Ministry of Water Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

North Carolina Wildlife Factsheet on Wildlife and Tobacco Pesticides http://www.ncwildlife.org/pg07_wildlifespeciescon/pg7f2b7.htm (Accessed on June 10, 2009)

Research on Poverty Alleviation, 2005 “Poverty and Human Development Report.” http://www.repoa.or.tz/documents_storage/PHDR_2005_Chap2.pdf (Accessed June 8, 2009)

Tindimugaya, C 2004, People-centered approaches to water and environmental sanitation, groundwater mapping and its implications for rural water supply coverage in Uganda 30th WEDC International Conference, Vientiane, Lao PDR

United Nations “Millennium Development Goals.” http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/environ.shtml (Accessed on June 16, 2009).

United Republic of Tanzania, Office of the Vice President, 2005 “National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty.”

(http://www.povertymonitoring.go.tz/documents/mkukuta_main_eng.pdf; Accessed June 6, 2009)

United Republic of Tanzania Ministry of Water, 2006 “Water Sector Development Program, Program Implementation Manual.” Volume 5: Environmental and Social Management

The article references a comprehensive framework for groundwater exploration, as outlined in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development's guide by van Dongen and Woodhouse (1994) This resource serves as an essential tool for project managers, detailing effective techniques for locating groundwater For further information, visit the official website at http://www.maji.go.tz (accessed June 6, 2009).

WaterAid Tanzania, 2004 “WaterAid Tanzania Policy Programme Budget Analysis

Workshop.” Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

WaterAid Tanzania, 2006 “Water Point Mapping Report.” Unpublished internal report \

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006 “Navigating Peace.”

World Health Organization, 2003 “Right to water.” Health and human rights publication series; no 3 http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/rightowater/en/ (accessed April 30, 2009)

World Health Organization “Coverage estimates improved drinking water.” Joint monitoring programme for water supply and sanitation www.wssinfo.org/pdf/country/TZA_wat.pdf

World Health Organization “Guidelines for drinking-water quality [electronic resource] incorporating first addendum.” Vol 1, Recommendations – 3rd ed

Wright, E P., and Burgess, W G (eds) 1992 “The Hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in Africa.” Geological Society Special Publication No 66, pp 1-27.

Mission Terms of Reference

Africare Ugalla Community Landscape Conservation Project

Terms of Reference for the hydrological survey in sampled 12 villages

Africare - Ugalla Community Landscape Conservation Project (UCLCP) a five years project implemented by Africare in Mpanda, Sikonge, Urambo and Uyui district in Western Tanzania and funded by USAID.

The UCLCP aims to enhance biodiversity in the Ugalla landscape by employing an integrated livelihood approach, aligning with USAID Tanzania's strategic objective SO13, which focuses on conserving biodiversity in specific landscapes and seascapes through livelihood-driven initiatives.

The UCLCP aims to enhance conservation efforts in the Ugalla landscape by expanding the area under improved practices by 1 million hectares over the next five years Additionally, the initiative seeks to reduce poverty among the local population by 35% through the sustainable and efficient use of the region's abundant natural resources Furthermore, it will build upon previous USAID investments in the Ugalla landscape to ensure lasting impact and progress.

The IR (Intermediate Results) of this capacity-building project are as follows:

 IR1:Policies and laws that integrate conservation and development applied

 IR2: Participatory landscape scale conservation practiced

 IR3: Conservation enterprises generate increased and equitable benefits from sustainable use of natural resources

In the financial year 2008/2009, USAID awarded a grant of $321,000 to Africare for a water project in selected villages of UCLCP and MIMAMPI, allocating $221,000 for UCLCP and $100,000 for MIMAMPI The project aims to establish 12 water sources—7 for UCLCP and 5 for MIMAMPI—utilizing deep wells, gravity flow systems, or rainwater catchments based on hydrological study findings MIMAMPI, or Misitu na Mazingira Mpimbwe, is a community-based organization in Mpimbwe division, Mpanda district, focused on the management of forest and natural resources.

US Forest Service through its Program Management Specialist Ms Catherine Hughes visited the proposed sites to be established water sources in Mpimbwe division

2.1 Conduct hydrological survey in sampled 12 villages

The primary goal of this survey is to identify sustainable, cost-effective, and eco-friendly water sources in 12 selected villages, comprising 5 from MIMAMPI and 7 from UCLCP The survey will concentrate on specific tasks aimed at achieving this objective.

(a) Determine available water sources in sampled villages

In partnership with the local community, the team will identify available water sources, such as gravity flow, deep wells, and rainwater catchments, in the area chosen by the community If the selected location does not provide adequate quality or quantity of water, the team has the option to select an alternative site within the same village.

The team will prioritize potential water sources in a specific location based on Environmental Appraisal Reports conducted before the Hydrology team's involvement These reports will identify suitable areas for deep well construction, focusing on locations that are distanced from sewage disposal and artisanal mine drainage, such as mercury contamination.

In order to ensure the proposed water sources are sustainable, the team should recommend the best water sources management approach.

The following outputs need to be accomplished in order to achieve the set survey objectives.

(a) A list of potential water sources in a surveyed village

(b) Preference of water sources in each location/ village

(c) Specific location (GPS) to establish water source (for the case of deep well)

(d) Cost of establishing preferred water source

(e) The best water sources management approach in each location/ village

All outputs should be documented in a report submitted in electronic format (MS Word) no later than a week after the end of the survey in Tabora.

The area to be surveyed includes 5 villages (Kibaoni, Ilalanguru, Ikuba, Mamba and Majimoto) proposed by MIMAMPI and 7 UCLCP villages in Mpanda (1), Urambo (2), Sikonge (3) and Uyui (1).

The survey is expected to be planned and conducted in collaboration with UCLCP field staff

The proposed methodology should be participatory and The US Forest Service Officials should be as a facilitator

USFS officials must collaborate with local communities and project staff to ensure effective data collection, providing project staff with valuable hands-on experience and knowledge in hydrological surveys.

The survey will be undertaken over a period of 17 effective working days as detailed in Table 3 (omitted here).

UCLCP will conduct the survey by providing transportation, stationeries, and allowances to district and project officials, while USAID Tanzania will cover the allowances and additional expenses for USFS officials.

Mission Itinerary

Monday, May 18, 2009: Dar to Urambo

1100 Meeting with Africare  Shidumu Mawe, Project

Coordinator for the Tabora and Rukwa Regions

 Calvin Meta, the Monitoring and Evaluation Officer

1230 Meeting at the Tabora Regional Office  Kazi Moto, Assistant Regional

1600 Meeting with the Urambo District Water

 Lucky Mgeni, Acting District Water Engineer, Urambo District

1630 Meeting at the Urambo District Council

 Rejim Maganga, Acting District Executive Director, Urambo District

Tuesday, May 19, 2009: Nsogolo and Izengabatogilwe Villages (Urambo District)

0810 Depart Urambo for Nsogolo Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta and Lucky Mgeni

0930 Meeting with the Uyumbu Ward Wildlife

Management Area Office and the village

 Saada Kalungwana, Chair of the Water Committee

 Zainab Omari, Member of the village government, et al.

1000 Visit proposed borehole sites and village water sources

 Mashaka Musa, Village Water Technician

1420 Arrive at Izengabatogilwe; meeting with village and water committee leadership to discuss sanitation, hygiene and the importance of water source maintenance

1500 Visit proposed borehole sites and village water sources

Wednesday, May 20, 2009: Utura Village (Uyui District)

0845 Depart Urambo for Utura Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe and Calvin Meta

1000 Arrive in Utura; meeting with village leadership and water committee members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

 Faustino Misango, Acting District Water Engineer

 Peter Joseph, former District Executive Officer

 Mashaka Salamani Tingwa, Water Committee Chair

 Haruna Saidi, Water Committee Treasurer

1100 Visit proposed borehole sites and village water sources

Thursday, May 21, 2009: Utimule Village (Sikonge District)

0845 Meeting at the Sikonge District Council office

 Mr Ikanga, Acting District Administrative Officer

 Mr Doto, Division Officer for Sikonge

0900 Meeting with the District Executive Director  Paul Kulila, District Executive

0915 Travel to Utimule Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Paschal Ngunda, Severino Kagyabukamo, Jafari Wibonella and Linus Salema

1000 Meeting with the Ipole Ward WMA office  Manyungunyungu Kasema,

Vice-Chairperson for the Ipole Ward WMA

 Sarah Simba, Secretary for the Board of Trustees for the WMA

 Sabina Muhaija, Ward Executive Officer

1100 Arrival at the Utimule school; meeting with village leadership and water committee members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

1200 Visit proposed borehole sites and village water sources

1400 Wrap-up meeting with community members, village government representatives and the village Water Committee

1515 Lunch with the community; depart for

Friday, May 22, 2009: Msuva Village (Sikonge District)

0900 Depart for Msuva Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Paschal Ngunda, Jafari Wibonella, Linus Salema and Severino Kagyabukamo

1015 Arrive in Msuva; meeting with village leadership and water committee members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

 Shilinde P Mwandu, Village Executive Officer

 Emmanuel Alan Katoto, Chairman of the Water Committee

1115 Visit proposed borehole sites and village water sources

 Sabina Muhaija, Ward Executive Officer

1400 Wrap-up meeting with community members, village government representatives and the village Water Committee

1530 Lunch with the community; depart for

Saturday, May 23, 2009: Usega sub-Village of Sikonge Village (Sikonge District)

0930 Depart for Usega Traveling with*: Paschal Ngunda,

Jafari Wibonella, Severino Kagyabukama, Linus Salema and Calvin Meta

At 09:45, we arrived at the Usega sub-village in Sikonge, where we engaged in a meeting with local village leaders and members of the water committee The discussion focused on the critical topics of sanitation and hygiene, emphasizing the vital role of maintaining water sources for the community's health and well-being.

 Hassan Kasonta, Chairman of the Environmental Association/Water Committee

 Mr Nzige, Sikonge village Executive Officer

 Mr Kalungurana, Sikonge village Chairman

1130 Visit proposed borehole sites and village water sources

1300 Wrap-up meeting with Usega representatives regarding the proposed site for the borehole and measures to protect it

1345 Debriefing meeting with Africare and District

1540 USFS debriefing about proposed borehole sites in villages visited May 18 through 23

Sunday, May 24, 2009: Travel Day (Sikonge to Mpanda)

0900 Depart for Mpanda Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe and Calvin Meta

Monday, May 25, 2009: Usense sub-Village of Uruwira Village (Mpanda District)

0840 Meeting with the Mpanda District Water

Technician; attempted to meet with the

 Haruna Juma Kalunkumia, District Water Technicain

0920 Depart Mpanda for Usense Traveling with: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya and Michael Sungula

1120 Arrive in Usense; meeting with village leadership and water committee members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

 Mtemi Tafuna Mwiga, Village Chief

 Khaji Juma, Chairman of the Water Committee

1245 Visit proposed borehole sites and a village water source

1430 Wrap-up meeting with community members, village government representatives and the village Water Committee regarding the proposed borehole site and measures needed to protect it

Tuesday, May 26, 2009: Kibaoni Village (Mpanda District)

0900 Depart Majimoto Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya and Michael Sungula

1245 Arrive in Kibaoni; meeting with village leadership and water committee members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

 Donata Magange, Chair, Water Committee

 Lardslaus Monguajua, Village Executive Officer

1400 Visit the proposed borehole site and a functioning borehole in Kibaoni

Wednesday, May 27, 2009: Ilalangulu Village (Mpanda District)

0900 Depart Majimoto Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya and Michael Sungula

1030 Arrive in Ilalangulu; meeting with village leadership and water committee members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

 Raymond Kimambo, Village Executive Officer

 Waja Hassani, Chair of the sub- village

 Edgar Sylvester Blanket, Chair of the Water Committee

 Valenciana Kenyesha, Secretary of the Water Committee

 Linus Kinsi, Treasurer of the Water Committee

1300 Visit proposed borehole sites, a current borehole and a spring in the nearby Mirumba village

Thursday, May 28, 2009: Kikulwe sub-Village of Ikuba Village (Mpanda District)

0900 Depart Majimoto Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya and Michael Sungula

1000 Meeting with the Ward Executive Officer in

 Abraham Yongolo, Ward Executive Officer

1045 Arrive in Ikuba; meet with community members, village government representatives and the village Water Committee

 Protus Ryasu, Chiar of the Water Committee

 John Iganda, Secretary of the Water Committee

Friday May 29, 2009: Mamba Village (Mpanda District)

0900 Depart Majimoto Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya and Michael Sungula

0930 Arrive in Mamba; meet with community members

 Pascal Leonard Saanane, Ward Councilor

 Henry John Sokoni, Village Chairperson

 Mustafa Kopeta, Village Executive Officer

 John Laza, Chair of the Water Committee

 Elly Ngowi, Member, MIMAMPI Board

0950 Meeting with village leadership and water committee members; discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

1145 Discuss spring protection interventions and impending renovations to a spring box

1200 Depart Mamba for the Makuyugu sub-village of Mamba, which will be the recipient of the borehole

1235 Arrive at the Makuyugu school; meet with teachers and students

 Ligi Makenzi, Chair of the sub- village

 Johnas Luhende, Chair of the school

1300 Visit proposed borehole site; discuss site protection

1350 Arrive at spring box in Mamba; tour supply system and local hydropower dam

1435 Lunch with village leaders and water committee members

Saturday, May 30, 2009: Majimoto Village (Mpanda District)

1000 Travel to village meeting Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya and Michael Sungula

1015 Meeting with village leadership and water committee members; discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the importance of water source maintenance

 Thomas Senga, Ward Executive Officer

 John Bosco Choma, Village Chairman

 Lukuba Masaya, Chair of the Water Committee

1150 Visit proposed borehole sites; discuss site protection

1300 Meeting with the MIMAMPI General

 Michael Sungula, General Secretary, MIMAMPI

 Jevita Nkolo, Chair, MIMAMPI Board

Sunday, May 31, 2009: Katavi (Rest Day)

Monday, June 1, 2009: Mpanda to Tabora (Travel Day)

1000 Meeting with operators of a gold and silver mining facility

1000 Meeting with the Tabora Development

1100 Meeting with the Tanganyika Basin Office  Benard Chikarabhani,

1400 Meeting with the Sikonge District Water

1700 Meeting with Africare  Calvin Meta, Monitoring &

Wednesday, June 3, 2009: Tabora to Dar es Salaam (Travel Day)

0900 Check-in at the Tabora airport

Thursday, June 4, 2009: Dar es Salaam

All Day Report Write-up

Friday, June 5, 2009: Dar es Salaam

All Day Report Write-up

2030 Check-in at Dar es Salaam International

Airport; return flight to the US

*Titles and contact information for individuals in these lists are contained in Appendix 3.

Individuals Consulted

Africare Field Conservation Officer (Sikonge)

E-mail address: metatz@yahoo.com

Africare Field Conservation Officer (Mpanda)

E-mail addresses: eliyamgaliya@yahoo.com kihigihigi@yahoo.com

Africare Field Conservation Officer (Urambo)

Africare Project Coordinator, Tabora and Rukwa Regions

E-mail address: shidumumawe@yahoo.com

E-mail address: jstephen@africare.or.tz

AfricareField Conservation Officer (Sikonge)

District Water Engineers and Technicians

Acting District Water Engineer, Urambo District

District Water Engineer, Sikonge District

E-mail address: paschalngunda@yahoo.com

E-mail address: esmsengi@yahoo.com

Acting District Water Engineer, Uyui District

E-mail address: bmchikarabhani@yahoo.com

Tabora Development Foundation Trust Advisor

E-mail addresses: mlimukad@yahoo.com taboradft@gmail.com

Senior Technician, Water Department, Sikonge District E-mail address: jwibonella@yahoo.co.uk

Potable Water Standards

Type of test count Coliform count per 100 ml at

37 o C E Coli (fecal coliform) count per 100 ml at 44 o C

Unsatisfactory More than 10 1 or more

Table 5: The chemical and physical limits for quality of drinking water supplies

No Name of Constituent Symbol Units Limits

9 Silver Ag mg/l Not mentioned

2 This table was extracted from the Tanzania Standard TZS 789:2008.

18 PV (Oxygen abs KMnO4) O2 mg/l 20

22 Organic matter as carbon in chloroform extract) mg/l 0.5

23 Phenolic substances as phenol mg/l 0.002

Geophysical Survey Techniques

Geophysical surveys are conducted to identify locations to drill a borehole A variety of technologies and techniques are used, which are outlined briefly here

In regions where boreholes yield satisfactory results 80% of the time without geophysical methods, the advantages of employing geophysics often do not justify the expenses However, in locations where geophysics is essential for effective borehole placement, the geological context will determine the most appropriate geophysical technique, whether it be remote sensing or comprehensive field studies.

Techniques for analyzing basement rocks focus on locating areas of deep weathering and intense fracturing Geophysical surveys, such as resistivity and ground conductivity, have proven effective in identifying thicker weathering zones within these rocks (Clark 1985) Resistivity is a well-established method that provides a depth profile of electrical resistivity by passing currents through the ground at various electrode spacings Electromagnetic techniques, including very low frequency (VLF) and ground conductivity measurements, are straightforward methods that assess the bulk electrical conductivity of the ground by inducing and measuring electrical currents with two coils Commonly used equipment for these techniques includes EM34 and EM31 (MacDonald and Davies 2000).

A quick reconnaissance of an area for well location can be effectively achieved by combining profiling techniques with depth sounding methods In the Tabora Region's basement complex and the consolidated sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the Mpanda Division, the integration of electromagnetic (VLF) surveys and resistivity is commonly employed Electromagnetic surveys allow for rapid coverage of large areas, enabling the identification of promising sites for more detailed resistivity sounding, which provides specific information at targeted locations Additionally, in the Mpanda Division, electromagnetic surveys aid in mapping high salinity areas, while resistivity can reveal salinity variations with depth in layered aquifers Furthermore, magnetic profiling can identify fracture zones based on specific magnetic properties A summary of geophysical methods and their applicability in various geological settings is presented in Table 7.

Table 7: Suitability of Common Geophysical Methods in Different Hydrogeological Environments Hydrogeological

++ very suitable + suitable O not very suitable

Notes from Locations Visited

Nsogolo Village (Uyumbu Ward, Urambo District, Tabora Region)

In December 2008, Nsogolo was provided with its first four boreholes by WaterAid, and all are still operational today However, it remains uncertain if these boreholes will supply water during the dry season The boreholes have depths ranging from 40 to 80 meters and yield approximately 3 to 8 cubic meters of water per hour.

The USFS mission visited two locations in Nsogolo: 1) the proposed site for a borehole; and 2) one of the functioning boreholes installed last year.

The Nsogolo community has chosen a prime location for their project, strategically situated between a dispensary and a school This site is approximately 1 km away from the nearest existing borehole, making it a practical and accessible choice for the community's needs.

USFS recommendation: an area of 30 meters around the borehole be protected from cattle grazing, agriculture and other activities which could contaminate the well

This is one of four boreholes drilled by WaterAid; it was completed on December 6,

The well, reaching a depth of 39.38 meters with a static water level of 4.31 meters, is equipped with an Afridev hand pump that provides turbid water Approximately 50 households, totaling around 350 people in Nsogolo, rely on this well for their water needs, with some women washing laundry just 6 meters away from the pump.

Recommendations for wellhead protection area:

 Pesticides used on crops surrounding the well should be prohibited within a

30 meter radius, if not larger;

 Potentially contaminating activities, such as washing laundry, should also be conducted outside of the 30 meter radius;

 Tobacco and maize farming are major activities in the region, and steps should be taken to protect the aquifer from pesticides and fertilizers commonly used on this crop; and

 The District Water Engineer suggested that a fence be built around the well identifying the 30 meter distance from the well, within which potentially contaminating activities would be prohibited.

Izengabatogilwe Village (Uyumbu Ward, Urambo District, Tabora Region)

In Izenga, several key locations were assessed for water sources, including the community-identified borehole site in a nearby forest close to the school, a dry shallow well adjacent to the government office, and a functioning surface well located near a residence.

3 Personal communication, Lucky Mgeni, May 18, 2009 concrete ring well not far from the school; and 6) a location proposed by WaterAid for a borehole which is now also a surface well

Nestled within a centrally located forest, this site offers convenient access to both the eastern and western parts of the community Its proximity to local schools and government offices enhances its appeal, making it an attractive location for development.

This well was dug near the local government office in 1967 and went dry in the 1980’s

USFS recommendation: the hole should be filled to avoid the contamination of ground water through the disposal of trash, etc The village agreed to do so

An uncovered well, situated close to a residence, has a water surface approximately 7-8 meters underground, with plastic bottles and debris visible on the surface During the dry season, this well often runs dry, forcing residents to walk up to 5 kilometers to find water.

Community members have noted that the water quality from this well in Izenga is superior to that of other wells Although the well is lined with concrete rings that exhibit some cracks, these cracks do not encircle the well completely, raising hopes that external contamination will be prevented.

The well is partially covered, but the pump was vandalized and is no longer attached to the well It is located within walking distance to the school

The USFS recommends rehabilitating the well by covering it and installing a new pump A government representative indicated that the Urambo District Council is expected to invest in this community improvement.

WaterAid identified this site as a potential borehole location, currently featuring a shallow surface well about 1.5 meters deep During September and October, villagers can collect limited water from this well, which serves approximately 20 households Although it may be a suitable spot for a well, its distance from the rest of Izenga makes it an impractical option for a borehole.

The two viable locations for the borehole are the wooded area and the existing ring well Although the wooded site offers a more central position, the ring well location is expected to provide a better water supply The Acting District Water Engineer recommends drilling a new borehole fifty meters away from the current ring well.

Utura Village (Mabama Ward, Uyui District, Tabora Region)

The Utura village has a naturally high water table

Dug in 1998, this open well has a static water level of 6 meters and typically experiences drying during the dry season Although the water is turbid, there are no visible signs of waste present in it.

This site is situated in a fertilized mint field, which raises concerns about its suitability Additionally, the ongoing construction of a nearby church and the presence of a latrine less than thirty meters away further diminish the site's optimal conditions.

The site is situated on government land, designated for use as determined by local authorities Its location is advantageous, being distanced from residential areas and agricultural land, and it is positioned on a slight elevation that may enhance drainage capabilities.

Excavated in 1974, this spring was ultimately abandoned due to contamination from cattle dung, potential sewage runoff, and tobacco seed bed treatment Despite these issues, the pool fed by the spring is home to various fauna, including tadpoles, fish, and water beetles.

The USFS has endorsed the second proposed borehole site, with the community committing to plant trees around the well and install a protective fence Additionally, they have agreed to train two technicians in pump maintenance to ensure its proper upkeep.

Utimule Village (Ipole Ward, Sikonge District, Tabora Region)

Handpump Documentation

Afridev Deepwell Handpump

The Afridev Pump is a robust lever action handpump designed for heavy-duty applications, capable of serving communities of up to 300 individuals With a maximum recommended lift of 45 meters, it ensures reliable water access Recognized as a public domain pump, the Afridev Pump is endorsed by RWSN and SKAT HTN.

(Switzerland) specifications The Afridev Pump is fully corrosion resistant, easy to install and has excellent potential for community-based maintenance (VLOM).

 Approximate discharge: 1000 liters per hour o Setting at 30m: Capacity 0.4125 litres/stroke Output 1240 litres/hour

 UPVC brass lined cylinder assembly with extractable plunger and foot valves assemblies

 Pump performance with 63mm cylinder (basis 50 full strokes /minute):

 Minimum 100 mm bore; Maximum borehole diameter 150mm

 Manual installation possible, special lifting gear may be needed over 30m

 Stainless Steel pump rods recommended for water of pH>6.5 or iron content >1ppm

 Adjustable handle /lever length to suit different installation depths

Routine pump maintenance requires minimal training and only one tool Additionally, worn or old seals and valve bobbing can be replaced manually, eliminating the need for specialized equipment.

 Manufactured by TWSSC Ltd (Morogoro, Tanzania) +255-56-30-42

India Mark II Handpump

The India Mark II Pump, designed by UNICEF, is a robust conventional lever action handpump

It is designed for heavy-duty use, serving communities of 300 persons The maximum recommended lift is 50 m The India Mark II is a public domain pump defined by Indian

The India Mark II pump does not possess corrosion resistance and requires specialized skills for both installation and maintenance, which disqualifies it from being classified as a VLOM (Village Level Operation and Maintenance) pump.

Reports indicate that maintaining this pump can be challenging, particularly when issues arise with the riser pipes, necessitating their removal and potentially leaving a community without water for an extended period This challenge prompted the development of the India Mark III and other improved pump designs.

India Mark III Deepwell Handpump

The India Mark III Pump is a durable lever action handpump suitable for shallow to medium deep wells, designed for heavy-duty use by communities of up to 300 people It offers a maximum lift of 30 meters, with an alternative 150 mm cylinder version capable of lifting up to 50 meters Defined by Indian Standards and RWSN specifications, the India Mark III Pump is a public domain product that requires specialized installation skills and supports community-based maintenance (VLOM).

 Designed for water depth of 20 - 45 m

 Approximate discharge: 0.9 cubic meters per hour o Pump performance (basis 50 full strokes /minute):

 50mm cylinder setting at 45m: Capacity 0.222 litres/stroke, Output 800 litres/hour

 63.5mm cylinder setting at 30m: Capacity 0.375 litres/stroke, Output 1125 litres/hour

 Stainless Steel pump rods/riser for water of pH>6.5 or iron content>1 ppm

 Many components are the same as the India Mark II Pump

 Cylinder assembly is different than Mark II allows for the plunger and valve assemblies to be repaired more easily without lifting the riser main

Mark III is also different in that its riser pipe 65 mm

 Bureau of Indian Standard Specifications IS-13056: 1991

 Most, if not all, India Mark III pumps are manufactured in India

The India Mark III/VLOM 50 is a redesign of the India Mark III (newly designed cylinder)

 Lifts water from a depth of 20 - 45 m

 Discharge: 0.6 cubic meters per hour

 Benefits over previous India Mark designs include: 50 mm riser makes lowers the cost, cylinder assembly changes mean that no tools are required for valve maintenance

The India Mark III/VLOM 65 is a deep well pump in the India Mark III family

 Recommended for water depth of 20 - 45 m

 Approximate discharge: 0.9 cubic meters per hour

NIRA Handpump

The Nira AF-85 Pump is a robust direct action pump ideal for low lift wells, featuring a buoyant pump rod that minimizes handle forces Designed for heavy-duty use, it effectively serves communities of up to 300 people, with a maximum recommended lift of 15 meters Its fully corrosion-resistant construction ensures durability, while its easy installation supports excellent community-based maintenance (VLOM) Please note that the Nira AF-85 pump is not publicly available, and interested parties must contact the manufacturer for specifications and further information.

 Manufactured in Finland, Ghana and Tanzania.

 Approximate maximum capacity: 3.6 cubic metres per hour

Suction height approximately 12m (without bottom valve 4m)

 Brochure for NIRA pumps in Africa can be found at: http://www.nira.info/service.cntum?pageId8193

 Manufactured by Tanira Ltd, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania tel./fax 255-22-2863851 / 2864573 tanira@tanira.org

Vergnet Hydropump HPV 60 / HPV 100

The Hydropump HPV60 and HPV100, operated by a foot pedal, utilize hydraulic transmission to move a piston through a flexible hose to a rubber diaphragm in the pumping element Designed for heavy-duty use, these pumps serve communities of up to 300 people and can lift water to a maximum height of 60 meters Vergnet pumps are fully corrosion-resistant and easy to install, with simple maintenance requirements for above-ground components, though below-ground repairs can be challenging and diaphragm replacements can be costly Operating the pump requires significant effort, which may pose difficulties for children and smaller users despite the ability to apply full body weight to the pedal Vergnet Groupe, based in France, is the manufacturer and supplier of these pumps.

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