Uses of Active Plant-Based Learning (APBL) in K-12 Educational Settings A White Paper Prepared for the Partnership for Plant-Based Learning by Scott P. Lewis, Ph.D.

Uses of Active Plant-Based Learning (APBL) in K-12 Educational Settings A White Paper Prepared for the Partnership for Plant-Based Learning by Scott P Lewis, Ph.D.1 The author would like to thank Amy Gifford, Billie Goldstein, and Cindy Klemmer, for their review of earlier drafts of this document Table of Contents Pages Introduction 2-3 Section Rationales for Using Plants in Learning 4-7 Section Research Findings from the Education Literature 8-19 Section Best Education Practices That Reflect Taking an Active Approach and That Support National Standards 20-28 Section Exploration of Exemplary Plant-based Programs Situated at Schools or Institutions from a Survey Conducted for this Paper 29-46 Section Conclusion and Recommendations 47-49 References 50-56 Appendix 57 Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide a scholarly review of the relevant research literature on active plant-based learning (APBL) It establishes a foundation for educational leaders’ understanding and support of the important role that APBL can play in educational settings In support of this goal, the paper reviews research on plant-based learning, including studies that have examined the impacts of gardening on students, and connects it to the larger body of research on active learning In reviewing this research, we discuss the potential of APBL for addressing important educational goals We begin with a definition of active, plant-based learning, followed by a brief history of plant-based education in the United States, and then a detailed outline of this paper Active Plant-Based Learning refers to activities, programming, and curricula that use plants as a foundation for integrating learning in and across disciplines through active, real-world experiences that also have personal meaning for children and youth Plant-based education in the United States goes back more than 100 years The naturestudy movement, which was an attempt to reform elementary education in this country from about 1890 to1930, promoted outdoor work and first-hand observations of common plants and animals as a way to improve teaching methods and students’ connections to the earth (Doris, 2002; Shair, 1999) In the late 1800s, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society provided educators with training for teaching gardening in schools (Subramaniam, 2002) The first school garden in this country was developed in 1891 in Roxbury, Massachusetts, at the George Putnam School by Henry Lincoln Clapp, who had studied school gardens in Europe By 1918, “youth gardening” was well established, and there was at least one school garden in every state (M.R Sealy as cited in Subramaniam, 2002) School gardening was considered a patriotic duty of students during the two world wars, but Sealy notes that gardening later waned in importance as schools focused on other areas, such as technology A revival of school gardening in the U.S occurred in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of reform efforts connected to the “War on Poverty.” During this time, a growing concern about the environment also motivated many educators to focus on developing school gardens In recent years, a resurgence in school gardening has been attributed to national and regional conferences, beginning in 1989 with a symposium sponsored by the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and continuing in 1993 with the Youth Gardening Symposia conducted by the American Horticultural Society (Heffernan, 1997) These conferences have focused on ways that children’s gardens could support educational goals as well as beautify school grounds Today, plant-based learning is found in a diverse array of programs in the schools, such as gardening and horticulture programs, formal biology and botany courses, environmental education, nutrition education, science fairs, and school ground restoration projects Many exciting school-based programs have been started in recent years with the development of excellent new curricula such as GrowLab, Life Lab, Junior Master Gardener, Project Learning Tree, Fast Plants, and Project Wild Plant-based learning also takes place outside the school setting when children visit parks and botanical gardens, participate in extramural club projects such as removing invasive plant species, and study nature at summer camps Examples of programs linked to plant-based learning in K-12 education are listed in the appendix Rather than evaluating or recommending particular program content, the focus here is on determining why studying and working with plants is desirable, why an active approach to learning with plants is preferable to a traditional approach, and what practices are noteworthy in the review and planning of plant-based education In order to address the wide range of possible plant-based education programs that could be offered in grades K-12, this paper takes a broad look at research in plant-based education as well as active learning Section begins by offering three rationales for the importance of plant-based learning in K-12 education Section addresses research connected to this learning Because there is currently only a modest amount of research specifically assessing children’s learning when they are engaged in active plant-based activities, this section is divided into two parts to provide a larger theoretical base for thinking about plant-based learning The first part, 2A, is a summary of the findings in the educational literature on plant-based learning In part 2B, a researchbased argument is developed for the importance of active learning in general This second part draws from research in the fields of education and psychology It includes a discussion of the types of “alternative conceptions” that children may have about plants It also includes a discussion of how active learning can be facilitated through a social constructivist approach This is further developed in Section 3, which describes a general model developed for science education that has been modified to specifically address active plant-based learning Section of the paper includes a review of exemplary plant-based programs in the U.S and the active learning practices they support In Section 5, the final section of the paper, recommendations are given for ways to implement active plant-based programs and to overcome potential barriers to such programs Section Rationales for Using Plants in Learning A Recognition of the Importance of Plants One important reason for using plants in learning is that the majority of people are “generally poorly acquainted with plants, looking down on them or simply ignoring them” (p 17, Hallé, 2002) Wandersee and Schussler (2001) describe this tendency to overlook plants as “plant blindness.” Apparently, much of the time most people can’t see the forest or the trees! Our poor awareness of plants seems to be inversely related to their importance Plants are absolutely vital to our existence They are primary producers, converting the sun’s energy and atmospheric gases into living matter through photosynthesis; almost all consumers, including humans, depend on them directly or indirectly for food Plants also supply us with a host of products, including medicines, fuel, fiber, building materials, paper, beverages, and perfumes We are literally surrounded by plants and their byproducts They provide us with great beauty in natural settings and in humanfashioned landscapes around our homes and places of work They are the great lungs for the planet, providing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis They help filter pollutants from our air and water Plants help provide cooling through transpiration, and recycle large quantities of water that are then released to the atmosphere through this process They hold soil in place, and counteract the effects of atmospheric changes such as increased amounts of carbon dioxide, slowing the impacts of global warming They provide shelter and habitats for animals Over the centuries, plants have played a crucial role in the growth of civilization They have served as the objects of search for hunter-gatherers, the basis of the development of agriculture, the spur for global exploration, and the object of experimentation in scientific quests to learn about the building blocks of life (Paye, 2000) Thus, learning about plants contributes not only to our appreciation of the complex web of life on this planet but also to our understanding of who we are as humans (For a more detailed discussion of ways that plants benefit people, see http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/Plant_Biology/Why_Plants.html.) Although plants are critical to our existence, they seem to fade into the background as inanimate objects – mere scenery and staging – for most adults and children B Cross-Disciplinary Learning Is Enhanced by Study of Plants Another important reason for using plants in children’s learning has to with the strength and diversity of the connections between the study of plants and the core standards of many academic disciplines There are a significant number of important content standards that are associated directly or indirectly with plants The Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993) lists a number of standards by grade linked to the study of plants under a section titled “The living environment.” In grade 2, for example, students should know that “plants and animals both need to take in water, and animals need to take in food In addition, plants need light” (p 119) The National Science Education Standards (1996) link the study of plants to a variety of scientific domains In the life sciences, for example, students in grades K-4 are expected to learn about the characteristics of living organisms: “Each plant or animal has different structures that serve different functions in growth, survival, and reproduction” (p 129) In grades 9-12, students are asked to study plants through evolution: “The millions of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live on earth today are related by descent from common ancestors” (p 185) Under the physical science standards of “motions and forces” in grades 5-8, students should “comprehend that the sun is a major source of energy for changes on the earth's surface The sun loses energy by emitting light A tiny fraction of that light reaches the earth, transferring energy from the sun to the earth The sun's energy arrives as light with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation” (p 155) Plants, of course, are adapted to utilize some of this energy during photosynthesis Under the standard “Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges,” students in grades 9-12 are expected to know that “Humans have a major effect on other species For example, the influence of humans on other organisms occurs through land use – which decreases space available to other species – and pollution – which changes the chemical composition of air, soil, and water” (p 199) These are just a few of the many science standards that are directly or indirectly linked to the study of plants Readers are encouraged to review the Benchmarks for Science Literacy and the National Science Education Standards for a complete list The study of many other school subjects is also enhanced by using plants in the curriculum In mathematics, for example, the standards set by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) provide that students in pre-kindergarten through grade should count with understanding and recognize "how many" in sets of objects Teachers could address this standard by asking students to count how many there are of each of two kinds of plants in a collection As another example, the standards specify that students in grades 6-8 should select and apply techniques and tools to accurately measure length, area, volume, and angle, to appropriate levels of precision (2000) Teachers can meet these standards by having students plan and create a school garden Plant-based learning also leads to many other uses of mathematics For example, when students are engaged in selling produce that they raised in gardens, they employ calculation algorithms to total a bill or to make change Thus, many of the mathematics standards and many different kinds of mathematics are readily addressed through the use of plants Organized by themes, the Social Studies Standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994) also offer many opportunities for using plants to teach various subjects For example, in describing the first theme, “culture,” the standards declare that “social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of culture and cultural diversity.” Another theme states that “social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of people, places, and environments.” These requirements can be met, for example, by studying the way that food plants have been used and distributed in and by different cultures The introduction of the potato to Europe from the Americas had far-reaching consequences for the development of an important nutritional source and the subsequent famine and mass emigration from Ireland when the crop was devastated by a fungus The arts curriculum also provides fertile ground for the study of plants For example, the arts standard for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes requires that students in grades 5-8 “select media, techniques, and processes; analyze what makes them effective or not effective in communicating ideas; and reflect upon the effectiveness of their choices” (National Standards for Arts Education, 1994) Teachers can address this standard by having students create drawings or models of plants and plant development using different media These are but a few of the many academic standards that are addressed in teaching about plants The strength and diversity of the connections between plants and the various academic disciplines are being recognized by educators in many locales For example, a recent publication by the California Department of Education (2002) outlined specific state education standards for grades 2-6 in science, history/social science, mathematics, and English/language arts that could be linked to use of school gardens Not only can plants be used in learning about many different disciplines but, more importantly, they can be used as an integrating context for study For example, teachers at one school who were part of the survey for this study and who created an outdoor classroom for their school reported using their habitat for study of environmental education concepts, for a class on inventions, as a practice area for measurement skills, and for a lesson in social studies on imagining what life was like for Native Americans living in such a setting Using plants as an integrating context results in more coherent teaching, and provides opportunities for children to develop more in-depth understanding of interrelated subjects C Support from Studies of the Impact of Nature on People and the Movement to Restore School Grounds A third reason for using plant-based education comes from studies of human dependence on and interaction with nature Although this work usually does not single out the impacts of plants from the totality of nature (which includes other biotic and abiotic elements of the environment), it has implications about the consequences of using plants in educational settings that are important, particularly as they relate to efforts to use plants in school ground restoration Humans have a deep historical connection with nature Some have suggested that this connection has gradually evolved (Rivkin, 1997) Wilson (1984) says that this may include “an innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes” (p 1) This connection with nature may even have given rise to a special intelligence over the course of human evolution Howard Gardner, who developed the theory of multiple intelligences, recently added an eighth intelligence, which he calls the “naturalist intelligence” (Gardner, 1999) People who exhibit this intelligence can readily recognize and categorize flora and fauna as well as other important differences in the natural world Kellert (2002) also underscores the importance of humans’ links to nature, and posits that “direct experience of nature plays a significant, vital, and perhaps irreplaceable role in affective, cognitive, and evaluative development” (p 139) Citing the presentations of speakers at an international symposium on children, plants, and gardens, Heffernan (1994) discussed how natural places may contribute to children’s awareness of time and place and their sense of becoming individuals distinct from their parents Francis (1995) described gardens as sites where children develop ideas and attitudes toward the natural and built environments For many years, Rachel and Stephen Kaplan – researchers at the University of Michigan – have studied the psychological perspective of human interactions with nature These studies have investigated perceptions of nature, preferences for types of surroundings (e.g., urban scenes vs nature scenes), the experience of nature, and restorative benefits of interacting with nature They found that interactions with nature help restore mental effectiveness in such areas as recovery of directed attention and reduction of “mental clutter,” and also encourage reflection on important goals (1989) The recuperative powers of contact with nature have also been cited in efforts to restore school grounds The school ground naturalization movement, which began in the United Kingdom, was a response to the perception that the empty areas of mown lawns and asphalt on school grounds conveyed messages that were contrary to intended school outcomes (Evergreen, 2000) The movement is also concerned with the loss of children’s interactions with natural environments as a result of a variety of factors, including urbanization, pollution, television, video games, automobiles, and crime (Francis, 1995; Heffernan, 1994; Nabhan and Trimble, 1994; Rivkin, 1997) As a consequence, efforts have been made in the U.K to transform school grounds using trees, shrubs, and wildflowers This has inspired similar efforts in Canada, Sweden, and now in the United States One general benefit attributed to school ground naturalization is an improvement in children’s language skills as they engage in more creative play in more diversified spaces (A Taylor et al in Evergreen, 2000) In addition, students working to rebuild school grounds as more natural settings often experience a sense of pride in accomplishing a collective goal and in nurturing living things (Evergreen, 2000) In summary, the critical roles of plants in our lives, the suitability of plants for furthering the goals of a variety of educational disciplines and for creating a context for integrating these disciplines, and the special benefits of a human connection with the totality of nature, including plants, all provide key rationales for advocating the study of plants Recognizing the substantial value of using plants for learning, some educators have been incorporating plants into formal and informal education for many years The next section of this paper reviews research on these uses Section Research Findings from the Education Literature The use of plants in the curriculum has been found to contribute to a wide range of cognitive development and affective growth in children This portion of the paper describes these findings in two parts The first deals directly with how plants are seen as a focal point for learning, and the second takes a look at the role of active learning in educating children A Benefits of Learning with Plants The use of plants in children’s learning has been touted since as long ago as the 1600s, when Comenius advocated that gardens be attached to schools so that students might enjoy the sight of plants (Marturano, 1999) Since that time, a number of educators have weighed in on the benefits of using plants in schools Many of these benefits have been discussed anecdotally and will be described in the next subsection; recent work using a variety of quantitative and qualitative research tools offers more substantive evidence, and will be described in a subsection to follow Anecdotal Discussion of Benefits of Using Plant-Based Learning In an article outlining the origins of garden-based instruction, Marturano (1999) provides a historical review of why such learning was thought to be important for children She writes that Rousseau, for example, believed that gardens provide opportunities to train the senses, setting the stage for reasoning Friedrich Froebel, the creator of the kindergarten (literally, a garden of children), saw the garden as a place to build character and responsibility (Marturano, 1999) Maria Montessori believed that gardening also taught children moral education and encouraged the contemplation of nature (Waliczek, 1997) Gardening was also thought to encourage a focus on work (Clapp, 1901) John Dewey thought that gardens allowed children to develop their thinking skills He believed, for example, that having students work in such settings could lead to their understanding the role of farming and horticulture, as they studied growth, soil chemistry, and the impacts of factors such as light, air, pests, and pollinators (Marturano, 1999) In a commentary, Marturano herself extols the virtues of children’s participation in gardening as providing sustained opportunity for physical, emotional, social and cognitive development Activity in the out-of-doors brings joy and vigor to life The fragrances, textures, colors, tastes and sounds delight the senses The gardening experience encourages questioning, describing, predicting, sequencing, inferring and other thinking skills Planning a garden and arranging the garden plot are visible expressions of a mind at work Gardening provides an opportunity for children and adults to work together to set goals, solve problems, tend their garden and enjoy the fruits of their labors The learning that takes place in a garden is as significant for today’s urban and suburban youngsters as it is and was for their agrarian predecessors (p 63) The benefits of using plants delineated by various authors also refer to the acquisition of important skills, attitudes, concepts, and health benefits (both physical and psychological) For example, as students worked to create a butterfly garden, they were said to have developed responsibility and nurturing skills as well as science process skills They also were thought to have learned to evaluate problems, set goals, and make decisions in real-life contexts (Smith, 1995) Gardening may provide a way for students to improve their physical development, observation skills, and sense development (Starbuck et al., 2002); a way for teachers to create an atmosphere of cooperation and equality (Nelson, 1988); and a way for children to learn empathy, compassion, self-discipline, and a deep appreciation for the authentic (Waters, 1999) Reviewing a South Carolina program that was designed to support/promote environmental stewardship through caring for areas with plants, Vander Mey and McDonald (2001) suggest that important kinds of learning can take place in such a program, including job skills, teamwork, and a variety of academic skills in areas such as writing, sculpting, math, and nutrition Gardens are used as part of a therapeutic treatment for psychological issues, and as a way to help youth with disabilities (Moore, 1989; Morgan, 1989) The use of a school basement greenhouse and related/connected classroom lessons in a New York City public school was described as improving children’s attitudes about coming to school and their respect for living things (Stetson, 1991) Use of gardening activities reportedly enabled teachers to integrate a variety of subjects, such as mathematics, literature, science, and cultural geography, in an authentic, real-world way (Gwynn, 1988; Marturano, 1995; Warrick et al, 1993) This approach motivates students to learn important concepts more easily than when these subjects are artificially segregated Gardening activities are seen as a way of helping young children observe the natural processes of growing plants (Clemens, 1996) As previously mentioned, connecting people to nature through activities such as gardening is said to have positive restorative effects (Evergreen, 2000) This connection with nature may also lead to an improved environmental ethic (Pivnick, 2001), and may help children build sustainable development values (Moore, 1995) School gardens are also seen as a way to help children develop respect for different cultures and to help foster understanding in increasingly diverse schools (Heffernan, 1997) In a UNESCO report, Desmond et al (2003) looked at uses of gardening as an educational tool internationally, and discussed how gardening is viewed not only as a means of teaching ecological literacy, sustainable development, nutrition, diet, health, food production for trade, and vocational competencies, but also as a way to add “a sense of excitement, adventure, emotional impact and aesthetic appreciation for learning” (p 218) In 1995, the state of California launched a public school initiative called “A Garden in Every School” to develop lively plant-based environments for interdisciplinary learning Because the project description embodies many of the hoped-for benefits of gardening and working with plants that have been mentioned in this subsection of the paper, it is quoted here at length: By encouraging and supporting a garden in every school, we create opportunities for our children to discover fresh food, make healthier food choices, and become better nourished Gardens offer dynamic, beautiful settings in which to integrate every discipline, including science, math, reading, environmental studies, nutrition, and health Such interdisciplinary approaches cultivate the talents and skills of all students while 10 Students apply concepts and skills to new situations Mean 1.8 (s.d .8) N=41 Students are given time for reflection Mean 1.9 (s.d .9) N=41 Students take action to improve their own world Mean 1.8 (s.d .9) N=39 10 Students use varied evaluation techniques Mean 2.6 (s.d 1.1) N=38 Although this item was intended to address the nature of the variety of evaluations that students may have been using, some of the participants felt that it was confusing as written 11 Students create products or artifacts to represent understanding Mean 1.8 (s.d .8) N=41 12 Students revise products and artifacts Mean 2.3 (s.d 1.1) N=38 13 Students use language as a tool to express knowledge Mean 1.5 (s.d .9) N=41 14 Students express, debate, and come to a resolution regarding ideas, concepts, and theories Mean 2.4 (s.d 1.0) N=41 15 Students debate the viability of evidence Mean 2.7 (s.d 1.3) N=40 16 Learning is situated in a social context Mean 1.5 (s.d 1.3) N=40 17 Knowledgeable others help students learn new ideas and skills that they couldn’t learn on their own Mean 1.7 (s.d .8) N=40 18 Driving questions focus and sustain activities Mean 2.0 (s.d .8) N=40 19 The topics and/or questions are relevant to the student Mean 1.5 (s.d .7) N=41 20 Learning is connected to students’ lives outside school Mean 1.5 (s.d .7) N=40 21 Science concepts and principles emerge as needed to answer driving questions Mean 1.8 (s.d 1.0) N=40 45 Section Summaries Section A The participants completing this survey represent a wide range of geographical locations and urban/suburban/rural areas in the U.S Most programs serve predominantly working and/or middle-class students in grades K-6 Most of the surveys were submitted by educators who work at schools, but other institutions were well represented A majority of the respondents were teachers, but there were also several administrators, consultants, institutional staff, and garden coordinators/project directors completing surveys The mean length of time these programs have existed is about years The median number of children served weekly per program is about 80, with a median of classes attended by a median of adults Medians are reported for these indicators because of the large variation among programs Section B Participants gave a variety of descriptions of the nature and goals of their programs The most common goals included inquiry and solving problems, understanding specific science concepts, stewardship, life skills, encouraging high-level thinking, understanding of native habitats, health concepts, environmental awareness, lifelong love for gardening, and creating wildlife space Several other goals that were mentioned were tailored to participants’ particular sites These programs were initiated in a variety of ways A majority indicated that the program was designed through a participatory process, and almost all programs reported that they fostered partnerships with multiple community organizations A large percentage of the programs had mechanisms in place (e.g., grant development, committees, volunteer core) to ensure the program’s sustainability The median expense of the programs was around $1,100, but there was quite a bit of variation These expenses were frequently funded through a combination of regular budget and external sources such as grants, the PTA, community donations, and fundraising efforts such as plant sales Participants reported using several curricula, including materials they themselves developed They also reported a high integration of subjects (e.g., history, language arts, mathematics) associated with their programs A large number of participants indicated that their program addressed their specific state standards Participants used a variety of modes of instruction, and there was a high variance among programs as to how much of each kind was used Types of assessment used in the programs were varied As one might expect, pencil and paper types were reportedly used far less than presentations, observations, and student reports Participants also found evidence for program effectiveness in a variety of other ways, including student enthusiasm and awards won, and by noting other schools adding similar programs 46 Participants reported several ways of adapting their programs to the characteristics of the students Most frequent responses included using hands-on strategies, making the program physically accessible, addressing different modalities, simplifying it, making language adaptations, and individualizing it Respondents utilize safety precautions such as lessons on safety, monitoring children’s work, safety equipment, and safety tools Other adults worked with the participants on these programs This number varied considerably, and was reported at a median of 8, including other teachers, parents, gardeners, and interns Administrators were generally seen as supportive, and provided a variety of types of support, including encouragement, funding, and use of facilities The greatest obstacles for these exemplary programs were time, inclement weather, insufficient funding, vandalism, and lack of help Quotations from participants about their perceptions of the greatest benefits of their programs and how their programs reflect the institution’s personality and character provide powerful testimonials to the important impacts that such plant-based programs have in children’s lives Section C Notably, the overall results in this section indicate that survey participants felt that their programs utilized many of the strategies of the social constructivist model discussed in Section of this paper Thus we see that many of these items have a mean score of 2, i.e., point away from the “often” end of the spectrum They also have fairly low standard deviations, indicating that most participants’ answers clustered around these means While it is true that survey participants often exaggerate claims, the descriptions that were provided of the nature of the program and its goals support the conclusion that the programs surveyed here do, in fact, exhibit many of the best practices that educational researchers are touting Closer analysis of strategies rated as occurring most and least often did show some differences Items rated closest to “often,” with a mean of 1.5 or less, include: Students mindfully interact with concrete materials Instructor(s) and students use prior knowledge 13 Students use language as a tool to express knowledge 16 Learning is situated in a social context 19 The topics and/or questions are relevant to the student 20 Learning is connected to students’ lives outside school This ranking is supported by other statements that participants made in the survey about the hands-on nature of the program and the connections that students made using plants outside the classroom Conversely, items rated closer to the middle between “often” and “seldom,” with a mean of 2.5 or more, include: 10 Students use varied evaluation techniques 15 Students debate the viability of evidence 47 A possible ambiguity in the wording in number 10 was discussed earlier The response to item number 15 is interesting in that debate is an important feature of classroom science advocated by social constructivist science educators As participants in this survey may not necessarily be using plant-based education for science activities, they may have fewer opportunities for and less interest in using debates in their programs 48 Section Conclusion and Recommendations This paper has summarized • Rationales for using plant-based education in grades K-12; • Research related to plant-based learning, including a summary of the findings in the educational literature on plant-based learning and additional research that discusses potential benefits to be gained from working with plants and other materials in an active manner; • A model of best practices for active plant-based learning that incorporates a social constructivist framework; • Results of a survey that sampled exemplary plant-based programs comparing a variety of their features to each other and to the socio-cultural model The survey’s findings suggest that many of these programs utilize strategies that are recommended in the research on best educational practices On the basis of the results from the survey and the research described in the first part of the paper, several recommendations are now given: Additional research Although the survey provides some initial feedback about the nature of exemplary plantbased education programs, it would be helpful to gather additional data on such programs for several reasons, which are outlined below Such research could be conducted by members of the Partnership and/or by educational researchers who recognize the important role that plant-based education can play in children’s learning a Observation of settings to confirm ratings It was suggested that high self-ratings on the social constructivist scale were supported by details in several of the answers that participants provided; however, observations by a neutral party in the provider’s settings would be useful in confirming the frequent use of such strategies b Interviews with educators to obtain more details on how the programs were started and sustained Although participants did report on ways that the programs were begun, these were often only brief descriptions PPBL members should obtain more details about the genesis of these programs, especially given the range of program types that are possible Such findings would be very useful in supporting new programs Telling novice plant-based educators about mature, exemplary programs that showcase a wonderful garden and an active plant-based curriculum, with very involved students, may be counterproductive While some may be inspired, others may view this final product as unreachable without some detailed descriptions of the program’s initial stages, and the developmental path taken to create it c Overcoming obstacles Although participants reported having to deal with obstacles such as lack of time, funding, and volunteers, they still managed to operate outstanding programs How they managed to so is not clear from this survey, and could be explored in more in-depth interviews or case study reports 49 d Best ways to support exemplary programs There are some suggestions in participants’ answers about ways they have been supported (funding, praise, etc.) It would be revealing to talk in more depth with leaders of such programs about additional ways they think these programs could be sustained Some programs already have mechanisms in place to so (e.g., committees, recruitment of volunteers, built-in funding) However, some may only be in place as long as the educator who started them remains in that position For example, one of the teachers in this survey has an exciting gardening program at her school, but is on the verge of retiring She reports that the program will cease after this year, with her departure Recognition of the importance of local conditions Although many commonalities were found among the programs surveyed (e.g., use of many academic subjects), it should also be noted that local conditions played an important role in these programs The impact of local conditions can be seen in the nature and goals of the programs and the use of partners unique to an area (e.g., businesses, clubs, agricultural agents), as well as the special populations (e.g., youthful offenders, gifted children, ethnic groups) being served by such programs It is vital that Partnership members who want to assist such groups keep in mind the importance of these specific adaptations Recognition that educators are concerned about meeting state standards and ways to use class time effectively Educators are under increasing pressure to have their students perform well on State-mandated tests Participants in the exemplary programs described here recognize the importance of linking their work to such standards, and many indicate that they utilize their programs in an interdisciplinary way (This fact probably helps them establish more credibility with administrators.) Given the concerns that new teachers might feel about the need to devote time to preparing students for standardized tests, it may be helpful to discuss with them the ways that plant-based education programs can help teachers meet their state standards, and also provide meaningful learning experiences for their students through interdisciplinary work Recognition that many of the best programs are heavily dependent on external funding sources Many of the exemplary programs indicated that external funding through grants is necessary for their operation Thus, it is important for PPBL members to continue grant-funding efforts and to encourage others to so, providing guidance for teachers to learn grant-writing skills and linking them to funding sources Networking of programs/Mentoring One way to encourage new participants in plant-based education would be to connect them to more experienced educators who could share their methods This could be facilitated with the creation of an Internet e-mail list forum or Web site where people could ask questions and receive advice This would also be a good avenue for providing information about grants and professional development opportunities Program development for “solitary” educators Although most survey participants indicated that they work with other adults (e.g., other teachers), some participants were the sole adult working on their program Given that the sample of exemplary programs used in this study may be more likely to contain teams or collaborative groups who have interacted with members of the Partnership, the number of good plant-based education programs run by single educators is probably underrepresented It is important to develop ways to support these “solitary” educators 50 who are using plant-based education but are unable to find colleagues to work with at their own institutions 51 References Akey, A.K (2000) Influence of student-designed experiments with fast plants on their understanding of plants and of 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