Buddhist print culture in nineteenth century northern vietnam a case study of the woodblock collection in khê hồi temple

ESSAY NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜNG , PHẠM VĂN TUẤN , AND NGUYỄN VĂN THANH Buddhist Print Culture in Nineteenth-Century Northern Vietnam: A Case Study of the Woodblock Collection in Khê Hồi Temple T raditional villages in the flatlands of the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam usually contain a single Buddhist temple each, which—in combination with various other religious buildings—forms the collective religious environment of the village The Buddhist temple and “communal house” [đình] are of greatest importance, for the religious and ritual activities of the village revolves around them Buddhist temples are used to worship the Buddha and as the communal living quarters of Buddhist adherents Communal houses are used to worship spirits, are not populated, and are usually part of the cultural space of Confucian rituals Buddhist temples are places where female religious and laywomen come to worship and perform rituals around the full moon and important days of the year Communal houses and other Confucian structures are centers in which scholars, elders, and young students gather to worship and discuss history and literature Buddhist temples in the flatlands of northern Vietnam are usually integral to the development and continued existence of the villages in which they are located, and play an important role in the beliefs, religion, history, and culture of their respective villages Journal of Vietnamese Studies, Vol , Issue , pps – ISSN -X, electronic - ©  by The Regents of the University of California All rights reserved Please direct all requests for permission to photocopy or reproduce article content through the University of California Press’ Rights and Permissions website, at http://www.ucpressjournals.com/reprintinfo.asp DOI: https://doi.org/./vs.... 51 52 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH If one expands on this perspective to examine the links between Buddhist temples, a more complex and interesting picture emerges We are of the opinion that the area of the northern flatlands, if differentiated based on the level of influence exerted by various Buddhist temples on each other, can be divided into three main categories: the first category includes temples that wielded a wide influence stretching over multiple provinces; the second category includes temples with only a small influence on other temples within the same district or province, or at the very most perhaps in a neighboring province; and the third category includes small temples that had no influence on any neighboring temples These differing levels of influence might arise from two broad categories of factors: First, people in the form of Buddhist followers belonging to different Buddhist schools, each having their own school of thought and different religious practices, may have contributed to the influence of different temples Second, differences in philological knowledge as related to the dissemination of Buddhist knowledge through texts printed from woodblocks located within various temples may have contributed to the differing degrees of influence of certain temples as well This is significant because Buddhist temples were previously centers of engraving woodblocks and printing books According to Lê Quốc Việt and Cung Khắc Lược, engraved books in Vietnam can be divided into three groups: ) books printed under the organization and supervision of the imperial court; ) books printed by Buddhist temples and other religious centers/temples; ) books printed locally by associations and individuals. Our essay focuses on this philological factor in determining a temple’s sphere of influence; specifically, we will examine the influence that was generated from the production of woodblock-printed books This essay is a case study of Khê Hồi temple, a Buddhist temple belonging to the second tier of influence described above (i.e., it exerted some, but not a very widespread, influence on surrounding temples) This essay explores the issues surrounding the process of creating woodblocks at Khê Hồi temple and their subsequent dissemination in order to better understand the role that this particular temple played in the production and dissemination of Buddhist knowledge within the surrounding area The resources used in this essay are largely primary sources written in Literary Sinitic using Sinographs, and in Vietnamese using the Nôm script BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 53 (a character system based on Sinographs, used to represent vernacular Vietnamese), currently stored at Khê Hồi temple. These include material artifacts from woodblock and engraving tools to stelae onto which are carved Literary Sinitic records such as the Stele Inscription of Hoa Lâm Temple (Hoa Lâm tự bi chí 華林寺碑誌), Stele Inscription of the Future Buddha (Hậu Phật bi kí 后佛碑記), Homage to Amitābha (Nam mơ a di đà Phật 南無阿彌陀佛), Stele Inscription of Merit and Virtue (Cơng đức bi kí 功德碑記), and Stele Inscription of the Merit and Virtue of Renovating [Hoa Lâm Temple] (Trùng tu cơng đức bi kí 重修功德碑記) This essay also utilizes additional resources written in both Han and Nôm from the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies, Thắng Nghiêm temple, Phổ Nhân temple, and several other Buddhist temples in the Hà Nội area in order to scrutinize the printing practices of Khê Hồi temple We also conducted interviews with various Buddhist adherents currently in residence at Khê Hồi temple as well as with various members of the Buddhist clergy with knowledge of this temple Khê Hồi/Hoa Lâm Temple: History and Culture Khê Hồi temple is located in Khê Hồi village, Hà Hồi commune, Thường Tín district, Hà Tây province (now belonging to Hà Nội) about twenty-five kilometers south of Hoàn Kiếm Lake in central Hà Nội The temple is located toward the entrance of the village, next to the communal house Khê Hồi temple was once a center where Buddhist texts were printed and then distributed to other Buddhist temples Educational materials designed for adherents were also printed there Additionally, the temple was a site for the development of Buddhist followers and a center that connected with many other temples in a wide area encompassing the districts of Thường Tín, Thanh Oai, Phú Xuyên, Mỹ Đức (belonging to Hà Nội), and even reaching as far as Hà Nam province Khê Hồi temple (Khê Hồi tự 溪洄寺) also bears the Sinitic name of Hoa Lâm Temple (Hoa Lâm tự 花林寺 or 華林寺); however, it is usually called by the name of the village in which it is located (i.e Khê Hồi) This is a widespread method for naming Buddhist temples in northern Vietnam Although each temple has a proper Sinitic name (see images , , and  above), people refer to it by the name of the village to which it belongs This 54 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH IMAGES 1, 2, 3: Khê Hồi temple, also known by its Sinitic name, Hoa Lâm temple essentially avoids any confusion of temples with potentially similar names, since each village generally contained one temple It is presently impossible to determine with any degree of certainty the exact age of Khê Hồi temple Based on the extant stone stelae located at the site, however, we are able to ascertain several historical details regarding the temple during the Chính Hoà 正和 reign (–) of the Lê dynasty (–) This indicates that the temple must have been built before that period Aside from that, other stelae, records, and woodblocks located in the temple also help us to reconstruct the process of building and repairing the temple, as well as to document various activities associated with the temple and the cultural area of Khê Hồi village and its surrounding locale According to the information given in the Stele Inscription of Hoa Lâm Temple located in Khê Hồi temple, the temple was erected quite some time BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 55 ago, although a precise date remains unclear The stele records that people of former times claimed the temple to have been built by Ming dynasty settlers in Đại Việt For the next several hundred years there are no records of the Buddhist adherents living in the temple The temple began to enjoy a revival toward the end of the Lê dynasty The Stele Inscription of the Future Buddha, erected during the third year of the Cảnh Thịnh 景盛 reign () by a group of local officials, many of whom belonged to the Từ 徐 clan in the village, records an offering made by Nguyễn Đắc Trí of twenty-five coins along with one acre for the temple so that his parents could be worshiped as future Buddhas (hậu Phật 后佛) The stele shows that before the Nguyễn dynasty (–), Khê Hồi Temple was already a location of religious activities for the villagers After the Nguyễn dynasty was established, in the first and fourth years of the Gia Long 嘉隆 reign ( and ), steles were erected at the temple indicating that several local officials (including Từ Danh Nho and Từ Bá Lịch) and other people commended some villagers for donating money and land to the temple and chose to worship them as future Buddhas The Homage to Amitābha stele in Khê Hồi Temple records that the resident monk, Từ Niệm 慈念 (his full dharma name being Từ Niệm Tịch Chiếu Thích Minh Minh 慈念寂照釋明明), had the temple renovated in the thirteenth year of the Gia Long reign (), greatly ornamenting the design of the temple complex The back of the Stele Inscription of Merit and Virtue records that local officials from Hà Hồi commune along with resident monk Tịch Chiếu 寂照 (i.e Từ Niệm) had the temple renovated in the year Giáp Tuất () The content of the stele also notes that a large bell had previously been cast in the year Bính Thìn (); the rear hall, bell tower, and refectories were built during the year Đinh Tị (), while the upper hall and the triple gate were built during the year Kỉ Tị () Finally, the stele records that also in the year Giáp Tuất (), Buddhist statues were regilded By , the architectural aspects of Khê Hồi temple were essentially complete The resident monk, Từ Niệm, succeeded in garnering financial and material support for renovation not only from the local villagers but also from neighboring temples This type of cooperation was characteristic among Buddhist temples in Vietnamese villages; whenever a certain temple 56 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH undertook renovation or construction, the locals, along with other Buddhist temples from various regions, would donate to help the cause The Stele Inscription of Merit and Virtue also records the merits of various adherents from neighboring temples such as monetary donations from the monk Tịch Phú 寂富 and his companions from Hoa Nghiêm temple; from the monk Khoan Giai 寬佳 from Linh Quang temple (another name of Bà Đá temple) in Hà Nội; from the monk Tịch Đạt 寂達 of Đại Vi temple; and the monk Chiếu Hiền 照賢 of Báo Ân temple (Hà Nội) Chiếu Hiền along with many of his disciples with the character Chiếu 照 in their religious names (Chiếu Hán 照漢, Chiếu Vượng 照旺, Chiếu Huy 照輝, Chiếu Noãn 照暖, Chiếu Cừ 照渠) and those with the character Phổ普 (Phổ Triêm Tuyên Tuyên 普 霑宣宣, Phổ Thiền 普禪, Phổ Như 普如) were originally disciples of Tịch Chiếu In addition, Đọi temple in Hà Nam province had two Thiền (Zen) monks with the courtesy names of Phổ Minh 普明 and Thông Lãm 通覽 who also gave assistance Indeed, there was a close relationship between Đọi temple and Khê Hồi temple, a fact that we can see through the life of a novice at Đọi temple by the name of Từ Hoà who transferred to Khê Hồi temple to study with Từ Niệm Từ Hòa 慈和 (–) entered religion as a youth under the tutelage of Phổ Minh Chấn Đức 普明振德 of Đọi temple It is likely due to his master’s early passing that Từ Hoà relocated to Khê Hồi temple under the monk Từ Niệm Từ Niệm was a master in the line of succession of the Linji 臨濟 (Lâm Tế) School of northern Vietnam This fact is reflected in Từ Niệm’s full name, Từ Niệm Tịch Chiếu Thích Minh Minh (慈念寂照釋明明), where the character Tịch 寂 is taken from a succession gatha from the Linji/Lâm Tế School (Trí tuệ tịnh, Đạo đức viên minh, Chân tính hải, Tịch chiếu phổ thơng 智慧清淨, 道德圓明, 真如性海, 寂照普通). The Record of the Transmission of the Lamp of the Zen/Thiền Garden of Đại Nam (Đại Nam Thiền uyển truyền đăng lục 大南禪苑傳燈錄) of the Buddhist monk Phúc Điền 福田 (–) records the process of succession at Khê Hồi temple and gives more information about Từ Niệm Tịch Chiếu. He was of the Đỗ 杜 clan, a native of Thượng Phúc district, Hà Nội At a young age, he left his family and entered religious service under the master Từ Phong Hải Quýnh Từ Phong was a disciple of a monk by the name of Tính Dược; Tính Dược was in turn a disciple of a monk named Trịnh Thập Như Như of Liên BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 57 Phái temple in Hà Nội This was the orthodox Linji succession in the north Từ Niệm passed away in  at the age of sixty-nine Từ Niệm passed on his dharmic teachings to Từ Hoà, establishing him as Chiếu Thường 照常, with the dharma name of Thích Tại Tại 釋在在 Từ Hồ took on the responsibility of overseeing Khê Hồi temple along with Đọi temple (in Hà Nam) and developed a school of dharmic teachings that extended from what is now the southern part of Hà Nội to what now comprises the modern-day provinces of Hà Nam, Nam Định, and Ninh Bình According to the woodblocks remaining in Khê Hồi temple, Từ Hoà belonged to the Linji school of Liên Tông temple (Liên Phái temple in Hà Nội) Additionally, the Vinaya for Daily Use (Tỳ ni nhật dụng 毗尼日用) records that Phúc Điền had first professed his vows at the age of twenty. Từ Niệm presided over the ceremony At that time, Khê Hồi temple, Phúc Thông temple, Liên Phái temple, and another temple by the name of Nga Mi belonged to a system of temples of the Linji School, originating from the Liên Phái temple, which wielded great influence over Vietnamese Buddhism from the eighteenth to the nineteenth centuries In , Phúc Điền and Từ Hoà, along with many other male adherents from the north, entered Huế to take part in examinations and were awarded jiedao/giới đao 戒刀 (Buddhist monk’s knife) and dudie/độ điệp 度牒 (Buddhist ordination certificates) by the Minh Mạng emperor Phúc Điền was a famous and important monk in the nineteenth century and developed the Zen school of Linji along with the mountain school of Liên Phái temple (Bạch Mai, Hà Nội), and Báo Ân temple (Hoàn Kiếm, Hà Nội) Từ Hoà succeeded his master, Từ Niệm, and expanded the front and rear halls, had an octagonal pond dug, paved the entranceway, and constructed a bell tower, drum turret, and corridors He also trained many new disciples who would carry on his work through developing connections and eventually overseeing other temples in various places For example, Bảo Liên Phổ Thiền 寶蓮普禪 was the first patriarch of Đa Bảo temple (in Hà Nội) and Phổ Đoan Thanh Tùng 普端青松 succeeded him at Đọi temple In , Từ Hoà died and passed on succession to Từ Đạt 慈達 to oversee Khê Hồi temple Từ Đạt was a native of Bát Tràng village (Gia Lâm, Hà Nội) and continued to develop his predecessor’s work Từ Đạt passed on succession to Từ Khuê 慈珪, and Từ Khuê passed on succession to Từ Châu 慈珠 58 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH In the final years of the nineteenth century the temple was renovated yet again During this renovation, the temple erected a stele entitled Stele Inscription of Hoa Lâm Temple during the second year of the Đồng Khánh reign (), the content of which is translated in its entirety in the appendix At the beginning of the twentieth century, Khê Hồi temple became a major Buddhist summer retreat (kết hạ an cư 結夏安居) where surrounding monks gathered to study in summer At that time, the monk Thanh Soạn 清撰 presided over Khê Hồi temple until his death in  By the time the patriarch Thanh Soạn passed away, the North had entered a new period of history as a socialist society, and the school was suspended during this same period Thanh Soạn was the seventh patriarch of Khê Hồi temple His disciple, the monk Cừu, continued to watch over the temple until about  From –, a female monk from Hải Hưng province came to claim the temple and then passed it on to her female disciple Thích Đàm Tiến, who officially relocated to the temple in  and remains there today. According to the stelae, woodblocks, and oral information passed on by Thích Đàm Tiến (presently presiding over Khê Hồi temple), the history of succession at the temple is as follows: First Patriarch: Từ Niệm Tịch Chiếu Thích Minh Minh (慈念寂照釋明明) (?–) Second Patriarch: Từ Hòa Chiếu Thường 慈和照常 (–) Third Patriarch: Từ Đạt Phổ Thịnh Thích Quang Quang 慈達普盛釋光光 (?–?) Fourth Patriarch: Từ Kh Thơng Hun Thích Khiêm Khiêm 慈珪通暄釋謙謙 (?–?) Fifth Patriarch: Thịnh Châu Tâm Trúc Thích Hồng Hồng 盛珠心竺釋煌煌 (?–?) Sixth Patriarch: Từ Nhẫn Thanh Quy Thích Minh Minh 慈忍清規釋明明 (?–?) Seventh Patriarch: Thích Thanh Soạn 釋清撰 (?–) Eighth Patriarch: Phúc Nghiêm Thích Thanh Chỉnh 福嚴釋清整 (–). Aside from these patriarchs, there were many disciples who spread Buddhism to other places and took up residence in other temples According to the Text for Worshiping Patriarchs (Cúng tổ khoa 供祖科) stored at Khê Hồi temple, there were many monks with the character Thanh 清 in their names BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM IMAGE 4: 59 The posterior hall of the patriarchs is located in the back of the temple such as Thanh Soạn 清撰 who accepted positions at other temples This makes clear the role that Khê Hồi played in developing the Buddhist branch (sơn môn 山門, literally “mountain gate,” the gate to a monastery) of Buddhism in northern Vietnam Today, the architecture of Khê Hồi temple remains as of old The posterior hall of the patriarchs is located in the back (see image ) In front of the anterior hall is a bell tower The tight construction of the temple gives it a unique atmosphere and architecture Inside the temple, there is a statue of Amitabha Buddha built during the period when Từ Niệm presided over the temple In addition to that statue, there still exist many other old Buddhist statues, Sinographic couplets, and plaques that mostly date from the nineteenth to early twentieth centuries, the period during which Từ Niệm and Từ Đạt presided over the temple Woodblock Printing at Khê Hồi Temple WOODBLOCKS AT KHÊ HỒI TEMPLE: DISCOVERY, STATISTICS, CLASSIFICATION The authors of this essay examined Sino-Nôm textual materials at Khê Hồi temple during a fieldwork trip to Thường Tín District in the 60 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH Hà Tây province, on July ,  The Sino-Nôm textual materials at Khê Hồi temple are quite diverse In addition to plaques, couplets, stone steles, and bronze bells, the temple has also preserved many woodblocks related to Buddhism We initially focused on this woodblock collection (since the academic world had previously been unaware of its existence) and made selective prints of several books contained therein In , Nguyễn Tuấn Cường used resources made from the prints taken during this  trip to publish the first paper about the Khê Hồi temple woodblock collection, focusing in particular on Mandarin Lí’s Record of the Underworld (Lí tướng cơng minh ti lục 李相公冥司錄, called Lí tướng cơng chép minh ti 李相 公劄事冥司 in vernacular Vietnamese Nôm). Since this publication, researchers have discovered much more concerning the woodblock collection In , Đồng Dưỡng made several additions and corrections to Nguyễn Tuấn Cường’s  essay, which greatly illuminated multiple issues surrounding the woodblocks of Mandarin Lí’s Record of the Underworld. In , a group of officials from the Vietnam Institute of SinoNôm Studies (Viện Nghiên cứu Hán Nôm) printed the collection in its entirety; this resource is currently stored at the Institute (as of yet without a catalog number) In , we returned to Khê Hồi temple on three separate occasions to conduct additional research and interviews in order to prepare this essay As is commonly known, the tradition of book printing is oriented toward several different goals within the Buddhist temple: first, books are printed for the education of resident novices and monks; second, books are printed for wider dissemination among the community and populace for the propagation of Buddhism Coming from within this tradition, Khê Hồi temple commissioned the printing of several Buddhist texts and books and a number of these woodblocks are still kept in the temple The woodblocks are currently held in a wooden case, roughly three meters tall by two meters wide, located in the Tam Bảo 三寶 hall of Khê Hồi Temple Based on the Literary Sinitic text on the bookcase itself, in combination with the extant woodblocks that we have examined, we have determined the contents of this collection to be as follows (excluding fragmentary woodblocks): The total number of woodblocks according to the temple’s records totals  (excluding incomplete woodblocks that not belong to the seven texts BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 73 is historical evidence of printed Buddhist texts at the close of the thirteenth century, but such texts have been lost Hence, the surest evidence is that the fifteenth century marked the beginning of printing in Vietnam. In all three countries (Japan, Korea, Vietnam), after printing had been introduced, it became the primary method of producing books for a period of about one thousand years, before being replaced by modern printing methods in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Shawn McHale informs us that by , in the Hà Nội area alone, there were already  functioning printing houses, in which only one was a lithographer, the rest being woodblock printers By , modern printing technology had replaced traditional methods. From  to —which McHale refers to as a period of “Buddhist Revival”—in central areas such as Sài Gòn and Hà Nội, many Buddhist texts were printed using modern methods in the Quốc ngữ script (the romanized Vietnamese alphabet developed by Catholic missionaries in the seventeenth century), or in Sinographs with Quốc ngữ romanized transcriptions. The adoption of modern printing and modern print materials (books and newspapers) was a catalyst that led to the publication of many Buddhist works during the Buddhist Revival of –, outnumbering previous eras Because of this, McHale argues that Buddhism played a vital role in public life during this period When researching early twentieth-century Vietnam, it is certainly important not to focus only on the usual topics of nationalist opposition to imperialism, Confucianism, or Communism, and one should not neglect the large role played by Buddhism in the society of the period. But what about the period just before this Buddhist Revival, in the nineteenth century? McHale argues that while nineteenth-century print culture in Vietnam was much more vigorous than those of other Southeast Asian countries, it did not yet compare in scope to East Asian countries such Qing dynasty China or Tokugawa Japan McHale thus concludes that print culture in nineteenthcentury Vietnam did not command the same presence as it did in China and Japan and was therefore unable to support the circulation of Confucian texts to the same degree. We support McHale’s viewpoint that nineteenthcentury Vietnamese print culture could not compare with contemporaneous print cultures in China or Japan However, it seems that McHale is here basing his assertion on the printing of Confucian texts during this time 74 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH period If we look at the Buddhist texts printed during this period, perhaps we might reach different conclusions Of the  Sino-Nôm printing houses enumerated by Mai Hồng and Nguyễn Hữu Mùi, based on the collection of texts at the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies, we have counted  houses that printed Buddhist books (the majority being Buddhist temples)—over half (%) of the total houses. There were over a hundred temples that were active printing houses during the nineteenth century These numbers show that Buddhist temples comprised about one-third of all printing/woodblock houses in nineteenth-century Vietnam Because of this, it is impossible to deny the huge contributions of Buddhist temples to Vietnamese print culture during this time period Just in the Hà Nội area alone (including Bắc Ninh and Hải Dương), one may still view extensive woodblock collections that have been preserved in Buddhist temples even today A brief description of extant collections is provided below. The temples listed above printed books mainly during the period between the eighteenth century and the end of the nineteenth century Among these, there are several exceptionally large collections of woodblocks extant today: Bà Đá temple (Hà Nội) preserves about , woodblocks, Đa Bảo temple (Hà Nội) preserves about , woodblocks, Bổ Đà temple (Bắc Ninh) preserves about , woodblocks, Vĩnh Nghiêm temple (Bắc Giang) over , woodblocks, etc These are the largest centers of printing and engraving of Buddhist texts in northern Vietnam in which there are still surviving woodblocks There are also a number of temples with smaller woodblock collections, such as Khê Hồi (Hà Nội, over  woodblocks), Hoè Nhai temple (Hà Nội, around  woodblocks), Dâu temple (Bắc Ninh, over  woodblocks), etc Aside from these temples, the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies also preserves about , Buddhist woodblocks that originated from Buddhist temples in the vicinity of Hà Nội, while the Museum of Hà Nội also preserves some , woodblocks in its collection The enormous numbers given above still represent only a part of the total number of surviving collections—all of which constitute evidence of a robust and wellorganized printing and engraving tradition in Hà Nội and the surrounding areas from the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries Today, it is impossible to know with any certainty how many books were actually printed from woodblocks stored at the hundred-plus temples BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM TABLE 2: 75 Several centers for woodblock printing from the end of the 18th century to the 19th century Center for woodblock No printing Linh Tiên temple (Hà Nội) Century Number of existing woodblocks Condition of woodblocks 15th–18th set of lục thùi woodblocks Complete Incomplete Bổ Đà (Bắc Ninh) 17th–19th Nearly 3,000 Liên Phái temple (Hà Nội) 18th–19th 6–7 sets of the canon Good Bà Đá temple (Hà Nội) 18th–19th 6–7 sets of the canon Complete Láng temple (Hà Nội) 18th–19th set of thập vậtii woodblocks Incomplete Kim Liên temple (Hà Nội) 18th–19th sets of mantras Incomplete Hòe Nhai temple (Hà Nội) 18th–19th 5–6 sets of the canon Incomplete Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies (Hà Nội) 18th–19th Nearly 5,000 woodblocks Quán Sứ temple (Hà Nội) Incomplete 18th–20th Unclear Incomplete 10 Quảng Bá temple (Hà Nội) 18th–20th sets of the canon Incomplete 11 Kỳ Đà temple (Hải Dương) 19th set of lục thù woodblocks Complete 12 Mậu Hòa temple (Hà Nội) 19th set of lục thù woodblocks Complete 13 Bãi temple (Hà Nội) 19th set of lục thù woodblocks Complete 14 Thiên Hưng temple (Hà Nội) 19th set of mantras Incomplete 15 Mía temple (Hà Nội) 19th Unclear Incomplete 16 Đông Bộ Đầu temple (Hà Nội) 19th set of lục thù woodblock Incomplete 17 Khê Hồi temple (Hà Nội) 19th 5–6 sets of the canon Incomplete 18 Vĩnh Nghiêm temple (Bắc Giang) 19th–20th Over 3,000 iLục Incomplete thù 六殊 woodblocks: woodblocks for printing used in Buddhist funerals vật 什物 woodblocks: woodblocks for printing used for Buddhist invocations iiThập identified above from the time when the woodblocks were first carved to the present day The majority of the prints were for internal circulation within Buddhist temples, and for use by monks and disciples in their prayers and study There is also the possibility of texts existing outside the confines of the temple Presently, within the collection of the Institute for Sino-Nôm 76 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH Studies, there are  titles that are generally related to Buddhism dating from various time periods. This number is obviously much smaller than the number of Buddhist texts that must have circulated in the past, and which have been lost for various reasons or have been preserved within temples as artifacts of worship rather than texts for study The above list compiled by Mai Hồng and Nguyễn Hữu Mùi does include the Hoa Lâm Temple printing center (i.e Khê Hồi Temple) Mai Hồng and Nguyễn Hữu Mùi note that five works from the Hoa Lâm/Khê Hồi printing center now stored at the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies were printed between  and  We are now certain that three other works stored at the Institute were originally printed at Khê Hồi temple: the aforementioned Sutra on the Light-Emitting Perfection of Wisdom (catalog number AC./-, edition ), the Treatise on Adornment (AC./, ), and the Admonitions for Those in the Dark[-Robed] School (AC., ) Furthermore, based on the seven woodblock works of Khê Hồi temple discussed earlier, we are also able to determine that the temple was active in printing from  to , and that it even continued to print materials past the early twentieth century One can only imagine how many actual books were actually produced, even in the history of this single temple Conclusion Vietnamese Buddhist temples have a long tradition of printing books and exchanging print materials with other temples Some of these works were used for study within the temple or for summer courses Scriptures and other texts were also printed for use in Buddhist rituals and worship Large temples used printing along with the training of adherents, conducting of summer courses, and the exchange of disciples to promote and expand Buddhism throughout northern Vietnam Khê Hồi temple exemplifies this tradition From the end of the eighteenth century to the beginning of the nineteenth century, multiple wars followed one another and Buddhism fell into decline After the Nguyễn dynasty reunited the realm, Buddhism slowly recuperated, enjoying a sort of nineteenth-century renaissance Khê Hồi temple rose again to prominence fairly early, when in , Từ Niệm and Từ Hoà—master and disciple—began to print books at the temple At the same time, when other BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 77 temples were struggling to reverse the effects of war and return to their former glory, Khê Hồi temple was already steadily becoming a major patriarchal temple The history of succession at Khê Hồi temple remained stable until the beginning of the twentieth century—in fact, regular summer courses were still held at Khê Hồi temple into the s Only when the anti-French war ended in  and major societal changes were undertaken in northern Vietnam were the summer courses relocated to the center of Hà Đông From then on, Khê Hồi temple’s role in summer courses and printing came to an end The temple was no longer a center of Zen learning as it had been in the past Based on what we can learn from the woodblocks at Khê Hồi temple, it is clear that Buddhism played an important role in the creation and spread of printed material during the nineteenth century Woodblock printing was extremely widespread in multiple areas in East Asia in former times Regarding nineteenth-century Vietnamese print culture, focusing only on Confucianism leads us to overlook the huge quantity of Buddhist print materials It is thus important to ask why researchers have paid more attention to Confucian print culture than to its Buddhist counterpart during this period This may be due to the fact that Confucian sources were unquestionably considered culturally orthodox and were used in civil service examinations and education; hence, their rate of circulation was comparatively high, and they played an important role in public life During the nineteenth century, although Buddhist print culture was already very developed, it still circulated mainly within the network of Buddhist temples In fact, even today there remain a large number of Literary Sinitic and Nôm texts stored at temples Thus, one might argue that in the nineteenth century—although Buddhist print culture was already quite developed—it still was not widespread in public life, especially when compared with the period between –, by which time modern techniques of printing had already been adopted Finally, it was also during this period of –, along with the Buddhist Revival movement, that modern printing technologies suddenly increased the number of Buddhist texts that utilized the Quốc ngữ script, or parallel printings of Sinographic writing along with Quốc ngữ transcriptions, as noted by McHale However, it is interesting to note that during this same period a number of Sinograph and Nôm woodblocks from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were still printed and distributed Even more 78 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH interestingly, it was during this period that a number of new Sinograph/Nôm woodblocks were created within Buddhist temples following the tradition of previous centuries For example, the Collected Works of the Vietnamese Buddhist Canon (Việt Nam Phật điển tùng san 越南佛典叢刊), carved by the Tonkin Buddhist General Association (Tổng hội Phật giáo Bắc Kì 北圻佛教 總會) in  in Hà Nội, includes eight works divided into ten collections, totaling over , pages. The collection of Vĩnh Nghiêm temple also includes , woodblocks for the printing of more than nine books, which, excluding titles printed during the nineteenth century, also includes Itinerary [of a Journey to Mount] Yên Tử (Yên Tử nhật trình 安子日程) engraved in the seventh year of the Bảo Đại reign (), and the Mahayana [Method of] Cessation and Contemplation (Đại thừa quán 大乘止觀), engraved in the tenth year of the Bảo Đại reign (). These works may be regarded as the final products of woodblock printing in Vietnamese history This burst of woodblock printing may be understood as a reaction akin to the flaring of a candle before its extinguishment, a final flowering of traditional print culture in the face of the vigorous spread of modern printing in Vietnam, during the early decades of the twentieth century. ABSTRACT This essay is a study of the woodblock print culture at Khê Hồi temple in Thường Tín district, Hà Tây province (belonging to present day Hà Nội), a temple that is located in the same area as two other temples addressed in this volume (Thắng Nghiêm temple and Phổ Nhân temple) After describing the temple’s history and the various Buddhist schools that have influenced Khê Hồi temple, this essay proceeds to describe and analyze the temple’s extant woodblock collection (over  plates, and many books), which was discovered in  The essay goes on to examine the circulation of books printed from the temple’s woodblock collection by means of: () comparing the temple’s woodblocks with Buddhist texts in the collection of the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies and () examining neighboring temples to determine whether or not they have preserved books printed from Khê Hồi temple’s woodblocks Through analyzing the history of woodblocks and their circulation pertaining to Khê Hồi temple in the context of nineteenthcentury Buddhist woodblocks and texts in Northern Vietnam, this essay BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 79 argues that Buddhism played a preponderant role in the creation and dissemination of printed texts in nineteenth-century Vietnam During this period, although Buddhist print culture was already quite developed, the circulation of printed texts was largely limited to temples, and had not yet become widespread in secular society or the “public sphere” at large This would later change during the “Buddhist Revival” of –, when printing and print culture had already taken on their modern form KEYWORDS: Print culture, woodblocks, Khê Hồi temple, Buddhist texts Appendix: The Stele Inscription of Hoa Lâm Temple (Hoa Lâm tự bi chí) [English translation] The Stele Inscription of Hoa Lâm Temple The Stele Inscription of Hoa Lâm Temple, in Khê Hồi commune, Hà Hồi district, Thường Tín prefecture, Hà Nội province Our prefecture is located one mile east of the [prefectural] capital—my settlement is located therein The terrain of the area takes the form of coiling dragons and tigers—on the left it is protected by the Thiên Mã mountain, on the right it is girded by the Kim Ngưu river Within this settlement is a Buddhist temple located near the local deities’ temple The front of the temple faces the Khuê/Kui 奎 star, and the back faces the Ấn/Yin 印 star The temple is called Hoa Lâm temple It is said that this temple was built by Ming people but it is unknown how many generations ago There is a Buddha statue within the temple called “The Holy Image of Amitahba”; the common people’s prayers are often answered when praying to this statue This is the result of the energies from the terrain A man named Từ Niệm from Hướng Dương commune in our prefecture presides over [the temple] In addition to the mountain dwelling, more Zen halls were built to accommodate disciples Từ Hoà of Đọi mountain was the most exemplary of those who received succession During the Minh Mạng reign, Từ Hoà came to the capital to take the civil service examination The Minh Mạng emperor bestowed upon him a Buddhist monk’s knife [jiedao/giới đao 戒刀] and a Buddhist ordination 80 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH certificate [dudie/độ điệp 度牒] Through the generous grace of the emperor, the seal of the patriarchs was once again illuminated The anterior and posterior halls were repaired, a gate was built for the anterior hall and a pond was dug for the posterior hall This pond was octagonal and made with phong stone After this [the grounds] truly became a famous site, among the most well known in all of the upper Sơn Nam region. Từ Đạt was the next person to receive succession, after which he was succeeded by Từ Khuê (a native of Vân Tương commune, Hà Nội) who was in turn succeeded by Thịnh Châu (a native of Kì Bố commune, Nam Định) Between repairing the posterior hall and building the Zen gates, the construction plans grew daily, though the anterior hall remained in disrepair Is it possible that this was because it was waiting for a future successor? Thanh Quy was a member of the Từ Hoà’s clan After examining his ancestry, the people of our settlement knew that he qualified and asked him to take up the torch of his ancestors. During the Nhâm Ngọ year (), after discussion among the elders of the settlement, we decided to begin repairs The anterior hall was completely demolished and rebuilt Half of the posterior hall was left alone while repairs and additions were added to the other half Bell towers and areas to hold the summer classes were also built Outside of the posterior hall, another hall was built to venerate the past patriarchs and statues of the Buddhas were also newly made Now looking back on the past, it is difficult be unmoved The ancients said: If the people of former times did not make efforts, though something is beautiful it would not be apparent If the people of later times did not make efforts, though something is prosperous, it would not be transmitted. The merit of Thanh Quy, along with this temple, will be transmitted without decay In the Đinh Hợi year () I was commissioned to write this record I then wrote it in its entirety, and then ordered for it to be inscribed in stone so that Thanh Quy’s successors will take him as their model and therefore will not disgrace their patriarch To say that this is like “With the passing of spring, writing in response to a foreigner/At night’s reading, also hearing of the mysteries of Cangzhou”—would it be an egregious comparison to the powerful lines of Pi Ximei? The seventh day of the First Month after the First Morning Festival of the Đinh Hợi year, the second year of the Đồng Khánh reign (), written by the villager Từ Tế, pen name Nhữ Ấp, who was a local laureate BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 81 in the Kỉ Mão year exam (), working as Imperial Academy Editor, Education Officer in Khoái Châu prefecture, newly promoted as Chief of Cẩm Xuyên district [Original Sinographic text] 華林寺碑誌 () 河內省常信府上福縣河洄總溪洄社華林寺碑誌 ()吾府城東去一里許吾邑居焉  其地龍廻虎環 ，左天馬峰之衛翼 右金牛江為襟帶 邑中有寺 () 在神祠之側 前朝奎宿 ，後枕印星 名 曰華林寺 相傳明人所建不知其幾世代矣 寺中有佛號曰： () 彌陀聖 像 ，民間祈禱 ，稍著靈應 。蓋地氣使然也 吾縣向陽社人慈念主持於 此 ，因空山之茅屋 ，增廣禪房以聚徒說 () 法 得其衣缽者惟隊山慈 和為最 明命年間慈和來京應試 ，欽奉 () 聖祖仁皇帝賜戒Ȁ度牒各 一 () 皇恩特里、祖印重光 因而增修前後二堂 ，前堂開關、後堂鑿 池 池中八角 ，砌以蜂石 ，遂成為一大名藍 ，甲於山南上鎮 鉢場 () 慈達繼之 ，傳至慈珪河內雲湘社人 ，又傳至盛珠南定奇布社人 或修 後堂或砌禪關 ，規模日以寢大而前堂圯坏未及修理豈其開創以 () 漸 故猶有待於後人歟 清規以慈和族人尋尊問祖吾邑知其有為遂請之以 繼其燈 歲壬午謀與吾邑二三老父及 () 信者以興滯補敝、前堂則尽 撤其舊而一新之 後堂則半仍其舊而增厥之以為鐘鼓樓及解夏結夏之 所而後堂 () 之外復立一後堂以祀其歷代祖師其餘左右兩廊佛像扁 額浮屠房寵皆一一新其制度以今視昔蓋不啻什怕 () 倍蓰焉  古人 云  莫為之前雖美弗彰莫為之後雖盛弗傳 清規功德應與此寺而俱傳 於不朽矣 丁亥鳩工成囑余 () 為記 余命書其始末勒之珉 ，使夫後 之繼清規者皆當以清規為法 ，然後無忝于厥祖  若夫所謂“春過異國 人爭寫 ， () 夜讀滄洲怪亦聽”如皮襲美之雄詞者 ，則惡乎敢 () 同慶二年 ，歲次丁亥 ，元旦後人日 ，邑子 ，己卯科舉人 ，翰林院編 修 ，補授快州府教授 ，新陞錦川縣知縣 ，徐濟汝揖代撰 N GUYỄN T UẤN C ƯỜNG , P HẠM V ĂN T UẤN , and N GUYỄN V ĂN T HANH are researchers at the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies [Viện Nghiên cứu Hán Nôm] of the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences (VASS – Viện Hàn lâm Khoa học xã hội Việt Nam) in Hà Nội The first version of this article was presented at the international conference “Buddhist Literacy in Early Modern Northern Vietnam” at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New 82 NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH IMAGE 13, 14: Stele inscription of Hoa Lâm temple and its rubbing Jersey, USA, September –,  The authors would like to thank Professor John Duong Phan (formerly of Rutgers University, now of Columbia University) for organizing a wonderful conference as well as for his valuable comments on this article The authors are also indebted to Professor Liam Kelley (University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa) for his insightful comments and suggestions on revising this essay We also thank Nguyễn Thụy Đan for his translation of the first draft of this article from Vietnamese into English This research is funded by Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number .-. Notes  Lê Quốc Việt and Cung Khắc Lược, “Nghề in đồ hoạ sách thời Nguyễn,” [Woodblock Printing and Book Painting Professions in the Nguyễn Dynasty], Thông báo Hán Nôm học năm  [Report on Sino-Nôm Studies in ] (Hà Nội: Viện Nghiên cứu Hán Nôm, ), –  In this article, we will use the term “Sinograph(s)” to refer specifically to the script used to represent Literary Sinitic, and will thus distinguish it from the Nôm script (which is structurally related, but used to write the vernacular Vietnamese language)  The succession gatha of the Linji school in northern Vietnam is recorded in Kiến tính thành Phật 見性成佛 [Seeing (One’s) Nature and Becoming a Buddha], BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM         83 compiled in the sixth year of the Minh Mạng reign (), catalogue number A , Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies See Phạm Văn Tuấn, “Kệ phái truyền thừa Lâm Tế Đại Việt” [The Succession Gatha of the Linji school of Đại Việt], Thông báo Hán Nôm học năm  [Reports on Sino-Nôm Studies in ] (Hà Nội: Viện Nghiên cứu Hán Nôm, ), – Đại Nam Thiền uyển truyền đăng lục 大南禪苑傳燈錄 [Record of the Transmission of the Lamp of the Zen Garden of Đại Nam], catalog number VHv., kept in the Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies, compiled by Phúc Điền (–), records various accounts of Vietnamese Zen masters throughout the ages The Vinaya for Daily Use (Tỳ ni nhật dụng 毗尼日用), catalog number A., Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies These details were gathered by the authors through direct interviews with the current master presiding over Khê Hồi temple, female monk Thích Đàm Tiến, and her disciple Thích Đàm Hà Thích Thanh Chỉnh (–), Former Head of Board of Directors of Vietnam Association for Buddhism in the City of Hà Nội, was originally a disciple of Thích Thanh Soạn, but he presided over another temple Thích Thanh Chỉnh is regarded as the eighth-generation patriarch of the Khê Hồi Buddhist branch In , Thích Thanh Chỉnh passed away He was eventually reburied behind Khê Hồi temple Nguyễn Tuấn Cường, “Sơ nghiên cứu ván khắc văn bản giải âm Lí tướng cơng chép minh ti,” [Initial Studies on the Woodblocks of the Nơm Text Lí Tướng Công Chép Sự Minh Ti (Mandarin Li’s Story of the Hell)], Thông báo Hán Nôm học năm  [Reports on Sino-Nôm Studies in ] (Hà Nội: Viện Nghiên cứu Hán Nôm, ), – Đồng Dưỡng, “Trở lại với ván khắc sách Giải âm Lí Tướng cơng Minh ti lục,” [Returning to the Woodblocks of the Giải âm Lí Tướng cơng Minh ti lục (The Translation of Mandarin Lí’s Record of the Underworld)], Văn Hoá Phật Giáo [Buddhist Culture],  (): – The statistics of the woodblocks given here may have some errors because they are based on imprints made in  currently stored in the Institute of SinoNôm Studies Note that the sizes of the woodblocks also differ, making exact calculations difficult When the conditions are right, we will make another calculation based on the actual woodblocks Zen master Đức Hưng was responsible for the restoration of Lê dynasty architecture at Ngọa Vân Today steles, pagodas and ancestral tablets still remain Ngọa Vân is a collection of Buddhist structures from the Trần dynasty to the Lê dynasty, renovated by Đức Hưng Presently the architecture is mainly 84           NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH representative of the Lê dynasty However, the original architectural structures have all been destroyed See Nguyễn Tuấn Cường, “Sơ nghiên cứu” and Đồng Dưỡng, “Trở lại với ván khắc.” Oversaw: original text chứng san 證刊: Buddhist term referring to the spiritual acceptance and approval of a printing or engraving Original text: “後學慈和在在重刊, 皇朝萬萬年歲次癸亥秋吉日, 華林溪洄寺 藏板.” During the Lê dynasty, Khê Hồi community belonged to Sơn Nam commandary Around –, after the Minh Mạng emperor reorganized the provinces, Khê Hồi temple was included within Hà Nội Tính Quảng Thích Điều Điều 性廣釋條條 (–), Lê dynasty Zen master, lived during the eighteenth century, and made many contributions to Buddhism in northern Vietnam He restored and built temples from Hà Nội to Bắc Ninh, Hải Dương, and Quảng Ninh in addition to printing many texts and giving support for other printings of Buddhist materials Present day Quảng Bố commune, Lương Tài district, Bắc Ninh province On September , , we conducted an interview with the Head of the Vietnam Association for Buddhism, Thích Phổ Tuệ, on the history of Khê Hồi temple and the dissemination of Buddhist texts amongst northern Vietnamese temples He is  years old, virtuous, authoritative, wise, and has enough judgment to speak about this period and the spread of twentieth-century Buddhist literature He provided a wealth of information on the history of various temples and their collections However, he was unable to provide much detail concerning the history of Khê Hồi Temple Thích Minh Thanh is a disciple of Thích Viên Thành (–), who presided over Hương temple Thích Viên Thành played a crucial role in reviving and developing Buddhism not only at Hương temple but also in Hà Tây (present day Hà Nội) Thích Thiện Huy is a disciple of Thích Thanh Khốt (–) presiding over Phổ Nhân temple Thích Thanh Khốt had the religious name of Minh Đức, he began his religious life at Đa Bảo temple, originally renovated by disciples of Từ Hòa in the nineteenth century Thích Thanh Khốt was a Zen master who deeply understood Buddhism and was skilled at calligraphy Many temples have writings in his calligraphy See http://lib.nomfoundation.org/ This website indicates that presently Thắng Nghiêm temple has  Sino-Nôm texts and Phổ Nhân has  Peter Kornicki, “Japan, Korea, and Vietnam,” in A Companion to the History of the Book, eds Simon Eliot and Jonathan Rose (Oxford: Blackwell, ), – According to Lê Quốc Việt and Cung Khắc Lược, “Nghề in đồ hoạ,” Lương Nhữ Hộc 梁汝鵠 (–) went to China twice as an emissary in the BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM         85 second half of the fifteenth century and learned how to make woodblocks; after returning he taught this trade to residents of Hồng Lục and Liễu Chàng in Hải Dương, becoming the founder of the trade However, there is presently no other reliable source that documents this Further, although there are some theories that there were Buddhist printings in the first to third centuries, they are not credible Shawn McHale, Print and Power: Confucianism, Communism, and Buddhism in the Making of Modern Vietnam (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, ), – See also Nguyễn Thị Dương, “Nơi bán sách nghề in sách mộc Hà Nội đầu kỷ XX,” [Book Shops and the Profession of Woodblock Printing in Hà Nội in the Early Twentieth Century], Tạp chí Hán Nơm [Journal of SinoNơm Studies], no  (): – McHale, “Print and Power,”  For more details on the Buddhist Revival, see Hoang Duc Ngo, “Building a New House for the Buddha: Buddhist Social Engagement and Revival in Vietnam, –” (PhD dissertation, University of Washington, ); Nguyễn Đại Đồng and Nguyễn Thị Minh, Phong trào chấn hưng Phật giáo [The Movement of Buddhist Revival] (Hà Nội: Nhà xuất Tôn giáo ); Lê Tâm Đắc, Phong trào chấn hưng Phật giáo miền Bắc Việt Nam (–) [The Movement of Buddhist Revival in the North of Vietnam, –] (Hà Nội: Nhà xuất Tôn giáo, ) McHale, “Print and Power.” Ibid.,  Mai Hồng and Nguyễn Hữu Mùi, “Tìm hiểu nghề in ta qua kho sách Hán Nôm,” [Research on Our Profession of Woodblock Printing through the SinoNơm Archives], Tạp chí Hán Nơm [Journal of Sino-Nôm Studies], no  (): – We are basing this on statistics compiled by Trần Trọng Dương and Thái Trung Sử (Institute of Sino-Nôm Studies) There are many other temples that also printed books; this list only includes some preliminary statistics Trn Ngha and Franỗois Gros, eds., Di sn Hán Nôm Việt Nam: Thư mục đề yếu (tập ) [The Heritage of Sino-Nôm (Texts) of Vietnam: A Catagogue and Abstract – vol ] (Hà Nội: Nhà xuất Khoa học Xã hội, ), – Including Prajñā Explained (Bát nhã trực giải 般若直解; one volume), Outline of the Lotus Sutra (Pháp hoa đề cương 法華提綱; one volume), Daily Incantations of the Various Sutras (Chư kinh nhật tụng 諸經日誦; two volumes), Essentials of Incanting and Performing Various Rituals (Lễ tụng hành trì tập yếu chư nghi 禮誦行持輯要諸儀; one volume), General Collection of Ordination Rituals (Thụ giới nghi phạm tổng tập 受戒儀範總集; two volumes), Record of the Trần Dynasty’s Buddhist Canon (Trần triều dật tồn Phật điển lục 陳朝佚存佛典 錄; one volume), Trần Thái Tông’s Lessons in Emptiness (Trần Thái Tông ngự 86       NGUYỄN TUẤN CƯỜ NG, PH ẠM V ĂN TUẤN, AN D N GUYỄN VĂN THANH chế khóa hư 陳太宗御製課虛; one volume), and Record of the Succession of the Lamp of the Zen Garden (Thiền uyển kế đăng lục 禪苑繼燈錄; one volume) The woodblock collection of Vĩnh Nghiêm temple was designated by UNESCO as a heritage resource in the Asian-Pacific region in  Additional information about Buddhist printing in Huế (the largest woodblock center in central Vietnam): According to recent statistics of thirteen locations where Buddhist woodblocks are preserved in Huế, including ten Buddhist temples, the number of extant woodblocks in Huế is , (, engraved plates) Among those, Từ Đàm temple has  blocks (, engraved plates) There are only three blocks dating from before the Nguyễn dynasty The majority of the woodblocks are from the Nguyễn dynasty: Minh Mạng (–) seven sets, Tự Đức (–) two sets, Đồng Khánh (–) one set, Thành Thái (–) ten sets, Duy Tân (–) two sets, Khải Định (–) two sets, Bảo Đại (–) seven sets What is very interesting is that there is a set engraved at Tường Quang temple consisting of  woodblocks, made at the very late period of – This is the latest woodblock engraving currently known See Thích Khơng Nhiên, “Bước đầu khảo sát di sản mộc Phật giáo Huế” [An Initial Study of the Heritage of Buddhist Woodblocks in Huế], Liễu Quán [Journal in the Name of Buddhist Monk Liễu Quán]  (): –; and Thích Pháp Hạnh, Nguyễn Văn Thịnh, Lê Thọ Quốc, and Lê Thị Như Khuê, “Thống kê danh mục mộc Phật giáo Huế” [Statistics of the List of Buddhist Woodblocks in Huế], Liễu Quán  (): – Buddhist woodblocks in Huế share many similarities with those in the Hà Nội area, essentially being created in the nineteenth century, with a sudden explosion of works during the Bảo Đại reign (–), simultaneous with the Buddhist revival of – We will return to the issue of Buddhist texts in Huế on another occasion It is unclear what kind of stone was used to build the pond The term here literally means “bee stone” or “wasp stone” (phong thạch 蜂石) and likely refers to a kind of stone with a texture similar to a wasp nest Thanh Quy 清規: based on the Text for Worshiping Patriarchs at Khê Hồi temple, we know that Thanh Quy is Từ Nhẫn Thanh Quy Thích Minh Minh 慈 忍清規釋明明, the sixth patriarch of the temple This is a line from a letter that the Tang dynasty scholar-official Han Yu 韓愈 (–) wrote to another scholar-official, Yu Di 于頔 (d ), in the ninth century The letter is called “A Letter Written to Yu of Xiangyang” (Yu Yu Xiangyang shu 與于襄陽書) It is beyond the scope of this translation to fully explain this sentence, and it is clear that the inscription contains errors, both textual and factual However, the gist is that Từ Tế is citing two lines from a poem that the Tang dynasty poet, Lu BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM 87 Guimeng 陸龜蒙 (d ), wrote in response to a poem that his friend Pi Rixiu 皮日休 (ca –), courtesy name Ximei 襲美, wrote for a Korean monk (the “foreigner”) who was returning home Lu Guimeng imagines that the place this monk is returning to is the same as a magical land known as Cangzhou that a recluse by the name of Yuan Cangji 元藏幾 had reportedly visited somewhere around the fifth or sixth century CE He Xiguang 何錫光, comp., Lu Guimeng quan ji jiao zhu 陸龜蒙全集校注 [Complete Works of Lu Guimeng, Compared and Annotated] (Nanjing: Fenghuang, ), vol , – and vol , –  The numbers in parentheses indicate the lines on the stele ... understood as a reaction akin to the flaring of a candle before its extinguishment, a final flowering of traditional print culture in the face of the vigorous spread of modern printing in Vietnam, during... temples in northern Vietnam has changed dramatically when compared with the early modern past BUDDHIST PRINT CULTURE IN NINETEENTH CENTURY NORTHERN VIETNAM The majority of research is in clear agreement... seems as though the woodblocks are located only within Khê Hồi Temple, and that printings of them were for internal circulation only The Khê Hồi Woodblocks and Print Culture in the Nineteenth Century