Deconstructing Ergativity OXFORD STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE SYNTAX Richard Kayne, General Editor Movement and Silence Richard S. 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Kayne The Architecture of Determiners Thomas Leu Discourse-Related Features and Functional Projections Silvio Cruschina Beyond Functional Sequence: The Cartography of Syntactic Structures, Volume 10 Edited by Ur Shlonsky Functional Heads: The Cartography of Syntactic Structures, Volume 7 Edited by Laura Brugé, Anna Cardinaletti, Giuliana Giusti, Nicola Munaro, Cecilia Poletto The Cartography of Chinese Syntax: The Cartography of Syntactic Structures, Volume 11 Edited by Wei-Tien Dylan Tsai Adverbial Clauses, Main Clause Phenomena and Composition of the Left Periphery: The Cartography of Syntactic Structures, Volume 8 Liliane Haegeman Argument Licensing and Agreement Claire Halpert Variation in Datives Edited by Beatriz Fernández and Ricardo Etxepare Deconstructing Ergativity: Two Types of Ergative Languages and Their Features Maria Polinsky Rethinking Parameters Edited by Luis Eguren, Olga Fernández- Soriano, and Amaya Mendikoetxea Deconstructing Ergativity Two Types of Ergative Languages and Their Features Maria Polinsky 3 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America © Oxford University Press 2016 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Polinsky, Maria, author Title: Deconstructing ergativity : two types of ergative languages and their features / Maria Polinsky Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2016] | Series: Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2015031701| ISBN 9780190256593 (pbk : alk paper) | ISBN 9780190256586 (hardcover : alk paper) | ISBN 9780190256609 (ebook) | ISBN 9780190256616 (online content) Subjects: LCSH: Grammar, Comparative and general—Ergative constructions | Generative grammar Classification: LCC P291.5 P65 2016 | DDC 415—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015031701 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed by Webcom, Canada In memory of Lana Borodkin (1903–1980) CONTENTS Preface xiii Abbreviations xvii PART I: Two types of ergatives Introduction 1.1 Setting the stage 1.2 Syntactic ergativity 1.2.1 The phenomenon 1.2.2 The range of the phenomenon 11 1.2.3 The relevance of syntactic ergativity 13 1.3 The importance of starting small 15 1.3.1 Syntactic ergativity broadly defined 15 1.3.2 Not all A-bar movement phenomena are created equal 20 1.3.3 Some methodological odds and ends 21 Appendix: Compensatory strategies under syntactic ergativity 22 Proposal 28 2.1 Crucial empirical observations 29 2.1.1 Diachronic pathways to ergativity 29 2.1.2 Oblique subjects 35 2.2 The proposal: Two classes of ergative languages 35 2.3 From a PP specifier to syntactic ergativity 38 2.3.1 The relationship between the verbal functional head and ergative P 38 2.3.2 Ergative P and P-stranding 39 2.3.3 Ergative P and pied-piping 40 2.3.4 From a PP subject to syntactic ergativity 44 2.4 Basic clausal structures in the two types of ergative languages 45 2.4.1 PP-ergative and DP-ergative languages: transitive clauses 45 2.4.2 PP-ergative and DP-ergative languages: unergative clauses 49 2.4.3 PP specifiers everywhere? Preventing overgeneration 53 2.4.4 Compatibility between the ergative and the passive 54 2.5 Summary 55 Prepositional phrases: Establishing the diagnostics 56 3.1 PPs have distinct extraction and subextraction properties 57 3.2 Restrictions on PPs as pivots of clefts 59 3.3 PPs have resumptive proforms and may have special modifiers 60 3.4 PPs are less accessible to agreement probes than DPs are 60 3.5 PPs and binding 62 3.6 PPs and A-movement 65 3.7 PPs cannot be at the tail of a control chain 68 3.8 Summary 70 Ergative as a PP: Initial evidence 72 4.1 Ergative expressions can be PPs 72 4.2 Subextraction out of the ergative expression 73 4.3 Extraction: Ergative extraction requires resumption 79 4.4 Ergative and agreement 82 4.5 Ergative and depictives 83 4.6 Ergative and quantifier float 84 4.7 Interim summary 87 4.7.1 Silent P head 87 4.7.2 Overt P head 88 4.7.3 The nature of the operator 90 Ergative as a PP: Take two 94 5.1 Binding: Reflexives and reciprocals 94 5.2 Raising 101 5.2.1 No true raising 102 5.2.2 Ergative is not preserved under raising—at least in Tongan 104 5.3 Control 104 5.4 Summary 109 Cross-linguistic landscape: Correlates of PP-ergativity 111 6.1 Word order correlates 111 6.2 Expletive subjects 117 6.3 Non-canonical (quirky) subjects 120 6.4 Summary 123 The other ergative: A true DP 124 7.1 Extraction of the ergative with a gap 125 7.2 Subextraction from the ergative and the absolutive 127 7.3 Agreement 132 7.4 Binding 135 7.5 Control and raising 136 7.6 Word order 138 7.7 By way of summary 139 [ viii ] Contents The relationship between PP-ergativity and DP-ergativity: Phylogeny and ontogeny 141 8.1 Diachronic relationship between PP-ergativity and DP-ergativity 141 8.2 Caught in transition: Niuean 144 8.3 Caught in transition: Adyghe 151 8.4 PP-ergatives and DP-ergatives in language acquisition 154 8.5 By Way of Conclusion 158 Alternative accounts of variation across ergative languages 160 9.1 Comp-trace versus P-trace 160 9.2 Criterial freezing 163 9.3 Phase boundaries and high-/low- absolutive languages 166 9.4 Non-syntactic explanations for variation across ergative languages 173 9.5 Summary 180 PART II: Paradigm languages 10 A paradigm PP-ergative language: Tongan 185 10.1 Tongan basics 186 10.1.1 General remarks 186 10.1.2 Predicates 188 10.1.3 Case marking 189 10.1.4 Word order: Preliminary remarks 193 10.1.5 Questions 193 10.2 Subject and possessive marking: Clitics 195 10.2.1 Subject clitics 195 10.2.1.1 Basic facts about clitics 195 10.2.1.2 Accounting for Tongan clitics 198 10.2.1.3 Clitic doubling 202 10.2.2 Possessive clitics and possessive markers 203 10.3 Deriving Tongan clause structure 206 10.3.1 Word order: Deriving V1 206 10.3.2 Word order: The right periphery 207 10.3.2.1 The definitive accent 208 10.3.2.2 VOS is not due to scrambling 211 10.3.2.3 VOS as rightward topicalization 212 10.3.3 Basic clause structures 220 10.3.3.1 Intransitives: Unaccusatives 220 10.3.3.2 Intransitives: Unergatives 225 10.3.3.3 Transitive clauses 229 10.3.4 Tongan ergativity and split ergativity 232 10.4 A-bar movement 234 10.4.1 Relative clauses 234 10.4.2 Wh-questions 239 Contents [ ix ] Tchekhoff, Claude 1973b Some verbal patterns in Tongan Journal of the Polynesian Society 82, 281–292 Tchekhoff, Claude 1981 Simple sentences in Tongan (Pacific Linguistics B-81.) Canberra: Australian National University Tenny, Carol 1994 Aspectual roles and the syntax-semantics interface Dordrecht: Springer Thornton, Rosalind Jean 1990 Adventures in long-distance moving: The acquisition of complex Wh-questions Ph.D Dissertation, University of Connecticut Timberlake, Alan 1976 Subject properties in the North Russian passive In Charles N. Li (ed.) Subject and topic, 545–570 New York: Academic Press Todd, Evelyn M 1978 Roviana syntax In Stephen A. Wurm and Lois Carrington (eds.) Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings Fasc 2, Eastern Austronesian, 1035–1042 Canberra: Pacific Linguistics Todd, Evelyn M 2000 Roviana clauses In Bill Palmer and Paul Geraghty (eds.) SICOL Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Oceanic Linguistics Vol 2, Historical and descriptive studies, 137–154 Canberra: Pacific Linguistics Townsend, David J., and Thomas Bever 2001 Sentence comprehension: The integration of habits and rules Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Trask, Larry 1979 On the origins of ergativity In Winifred Lehman (ed.) Syntactic typology: Studies in the phenomenology of language, 395–404 Austin: University of Texas Press Trubinskij, Valentin 1984 Očerki russkogo dialektnogo sintaksisa Leningrad: Izd Leningradskogo un-ta Tsedryk, Egor 2006 Split verbs as a source of morpholiogical ergativity In Alana Johns, Diane Massam, and Juvenal Ndayiragije (eds.) Ergativity: Emerging issues, 337–363 Dordrecht: Springer Tsunoda, Tasaku 1981 Split case-marking patterns in verb-types and tense/aspect/ mood Linguistics 19, 389–438 Ueno, Mieko, and Susan M. Garnsey 2008 An ERP study of the processing of subject and object relative clauses in Japanese Language and Cognitive Processes 23, 646–688 Ura, Hiroyuki 1999 Case checking and dative subject constructions in Japanese and Korean Journal of East Asian Linguistics 8, 223–254 Ura, Hiroyuki 2000 Checking theory and grammatical functions in Universal Grammar Oxford: Oxford University Press Ura, Hiroyuki 2006 A parametric syntax of aspectually conditioned split-ergativity In Alana Johns, Diane Massam, and Juvenal Ndayiragije (eds.) Ergativity: Emerging issues, 111–141 Dordrecht: Springer Uriagereka, Juan 1999 Minimal restrictions on Basque movements Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 17, 403–444 Urk, Coppe van, and Norvin Richards 2015 Two components of long-distance extraction: Successive cyclicity in Dinka Linguistic Inquiry 46, 113–155 Valenzuela, Pilar 2002 Relativization in Shipibo-Konibo: A typologically-oriented study Munich: LINCOM Europa Van Valin, Robert, Jr 1986 An empty category as the subject of a tensed S in English, Linguistic Inquiry 17, 581–586 Vapnarsky, Valentina, Cédric Becquay, and Aurore Monod Becquelin 2012 Ergativity and passive in three Mayan languages In Gilles Authier and Katharine Haude (eds.) Ergativity, valency, and voice, 289–322 Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton Vaxtin, Nikolaj B 1995 Sintaksis jazyka aziatskix èskimosov Saint Petersburg: Evropejskij dom Vinet, Marie-Thérèse 1984 La syntaxe du québecois et les emprunts l’anglais Revue de l’association québecoise de linguistique 3, 221–243 Visser, Mario van de 2006 The marked status of ergativity Utrecht: LOT [ 382 ] References Völkel, Svenja 2010 Social structure, space and possession in Tongan culture and language: An ethnolinguistic study Amsterdam: John Benjamins Wagner, Michael 2009 Focus, topic, and word order: A compositional view In Jeroen van Craenenbroeck (ed.) Alternatives to cartography, 53–86 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Watanabe, Akira 1996 Case-absorption and wh-agreement Dordrecht: Kluwer Watkins, Laurel 1984 A grammar of Kiowa Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press Wechsler, Stephen 1997 Prepositional phrases from the Twilight Zone Nordic Journal of Linguistics 20,127–154 Wechsler, Stephen, and I Wayan Arka 1998 Syntactic ergativity in Balinese: An argument structure based theory Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 16, 387–441 Wexler, Kenneth, and Peter W. Culicover 1980 Formal principles of language acquisition Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Wilder, Chris 1997 Some properties of ellipsis in coordination In Artemis Alexiadou and T Alan Hall (eds.) Studies on Universal Grammar and typological variation, 59– 107 Amsterdam: John Benjamins Williams, Edwin 1980 Predication Linguistic Inquiry 11, 203–308 Williams, Edwin 1981 Argument structure and morphology Linguistic Review 1, 81–114 Williams, Edwin 1985 PRO and subject of NP Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 3, 297–315 Willson, Stephen 1996 Verb agreement and case marking in Burushaski University of North Dakota Working Papers of the Summer Institute for Linguistics 40, 1–71 Wilson, William H 1982 Proto-Polynesian possessive marking Canberra: Australian National University Wiltschko, Martina 2006a On ergative agreement and anti-agreement in Halkomelem Salish In S Bischoff, L Butler, P Norquest, and D Siddiqi (eds.) Studies in Salishan, vol 7, 241–273 (MIT Working Papers on Endangered and Less Familiar Languages.) Cambridge, MA: MITWPL Wiltschko, Martina 2006b On “ergativity” in Halkomelem Salish In Alana Johns, Diane Massam, and Juvenal Ndayiragije (eds.) Ergativity: Emerging issues, 197– 228 Dordrecht: Springer Woolford, Ellen 2000 Ergative agreement systems University of Maryland Working Papers in Linguistics 10, 157–191 Woolford, Ellen 2006 Lexical case, inherent case, and argument structure Linguistic Inquiry 37, 111–130 Woolford, Ellen 2007 Case locality: Pure domains and object shift Lingua 117, 1591–1616 Wyngaerd, Guido, vanden 2001 Measuring events Language 77, 61–90 Xalilov, Madžid 1999 Cezsko-russkij slovar’ Moscow: Academia Yip, Moira, Joan Maling, and Ray Jackendoff 1987 Case in tiers Language 63, 217–250 Yu, Alan 2003 Pluractionality in Chechen Natural Language Semantics 11, 289–321 Zakharyin, Boris 1979 On the formation of ergativity in Indo-Aryan and Dardic Osmania Papers in Linguistics 5, 50–71 Ziv, Yael 1994 Left and right dislocations: Discourse functions and anaphora Journal of Pragmatics 22, 629–645 Zwart, C. Jan-Wouter 2001 Object shift with raising verbs Linguistic Inquiry 32, 547–554 Zwarts, Joost 2005a Prepositional aspect and the algebra of paths Linguistics and Philosophy 28, 739–779 Zwarts, Joost 2005b The case of prepositions: Government and compositionality in German PPs Paper presented at the 21st Annual Meeting of the Israel Association for Theoretical Linguistics, Haifa, June 23, 2005 References [ 383 ] INDEX absolutive A-bar movement under, 7, 11, 162, 243, 261 See also extraction default, as a, 312 ergative, asymmetric relationship with, 4–9, 14–15, 78, 87 high- versus low-, 166–171, 349 internal versus external, 50, 81 licensing, 45–51, 165–166, 172, 311, 312 subextraction from, 127 See also subextraction adposition stacking, 150–151, 158–159, 191 adposition stranding, 40, 55, 57–58 adposition, null, 42–43, 62 adpositional syntax, 347 Adyghe, 151–154, 349 agent focus, 24, 78–81, 155–156, 168–169 agreement anti-, 24–25 dual-agreement pattern, 83 directionality of, 82, 336 ergative, 83, 112, 132–134, 335, 351 long-distance, 133, 323–324, prefixal, 82n9 valuation, 337–340 alignment accusative, 7, 232–233 active, 12n14, 50 ergative, 3, 114–115, 133 Amharic, 61 antipassive, “crazy”, 168–169 antipassivization, 11, 22, 24–25, 97 argument, event, 28–29 argument, external See subject argument, internal See object Austronesian, 11, 21, 35, 108, 206 Avar, 125, 175–180, 343–344 Bantu, 25, 61, 68–69 Basque, 4–5, 8, 50, 121, 133, 136–138, 157–158, 164–165 biabsolutive, 335n21 binding anaphoric, 284–286, 326–330 DP-versus PP-ergative languages, comparison, 135–136, 144, 350 operator, 282–283 PPs, out of, 62–65, 94–101 relativization, under, 237 variable, 170–171 by-phrase, 30–32, 37 case ablative, 30, 32, 34, 62, 296 absolutive See absolutive accusative, 13–15, 36, 48–49, 171, 175, 336 dependent, 15, 48, 336 ergative See ergative genitive, 33–34, 203–206, 222–223, 226–234, 308–312, 329, 347 inherent, 36, 46, 48, 93, 164, 252, 335, 347–348 instrumental, 30, 32, 34, 172, 297 structural, 47–51, 93, 164–165, 309, 342 unmarked (independent), 15, 48, 336 case assignment accusative versus ergative, 6–7, 13–15 configurational, 48, 336 genitive, 309 mediated, 39 Case Hierarchy, 15, 48, 336 Chichewa, 68 Chol, 132, 167, 174–175, 344 Chukchi, 23, 74–76, 85–87, 90–92, 97–98, 173 clauses, subjectless See subjects: expletive clefting, (pseudo-), 9, 59, 149, 156, 194–195, 214, 239–240 cliticization, versus agreement, 82, 133–134 cognition, dual-versus single-system hypothesis, 342–343 co-indexation, 97–99, 107, 149, 217–220, 259–265, 290 COMP-trace effect, 160–163 concord, 131, 311–312 conjunction reduction, 16–20 connectivity effects, 131, 217, 220 control adjunct, 106–107, 146 backward, 69, 136–137, 321–324 control chains, 69–71, 89, 318, 324, 351 control verbs, characteristics of, 69, 105, 107, 271–273, 318–319 disjoint reference requirement, 278–279 forward, 69, 318 forward-backward alternation, 152 inverse See control: backward movement theory of, 70, 104, 276, 324, object versus subject, 270–273 obligatory, (non-), 70, 104–108, 136–7, 146–7, 275–283, 318–321, 351 coordination, clausal versus VP, 19 coreference See also co-indexation absolutive-absolutive, 265 across clauses, 17–20, 105–107 depictives, licensing of, 62–64, 83–84, 290–291, 330–331 detransitivization, 97–100, diachrony, 29–32, 115, 141–143, 151 discontinuity, 128, 130–132, 301–305 discourse, 17–18, 259–260, 281–284 dislocation, left, 9–10, 258 double-object construction, 41, 57 DP-ergative development of, 143, 151, 158–159 L1 acquisition of, 154–157 properties of, 125, 135–139, 164, 174, 350–352 ellipsis, 220, 279 empty category, 162 EPP, 112–118, 138–139, 171–172, 293, 348–349 ergative DP- See DP-ergative inherent case, as an, 36, 46–47, 54, 93, 152, 164–166, 175, 231–233, 347 PP- See PP-ergative raising, (non-)preservation under, 47, 104, 137–138, 231 structural case, as a, 47, 128, 138, 334–335, 342 special properties of, 14, 166, 334–335, 347 [ 386 ] Index ergativity acquisition of, 154–158 development from passive, 14, 29–34, 142 development from possessive, 29, 32–34, 347 default, as a, 158 "mixed pivot", 16 morphological, 3, 12, 21, 32, 72, 348 phase-based account of, 160, 166–172 processing-based account of, 173–180 split-, 114, 233 ergativity, syntactic agreement under, 82, 134 alternative analyses, syntactic, 161–172 alternative analyses, non-syntactic, 173–180 categorical nature of, 78, 174 cline, 16 compensatory strategies for, 22–27, 117, 352 control under, 105 definition of, 9, 36, 90, PP specifiers, connection to, 37–43, 53, 73, 93, 142, 350 prerequisites for, 44 quirky subjects, 121–122 raising under, 112, 114, 138 testing for, 57–59 verb-initiality, correlation with, 117, 119–120, 348 experiencer See subject: experiencer expletive See subject: expletive extraction See also islands, subextraction A-bar phenomena, exemplar for, 10, 20–21, 57 Accessibility Hierarchy of Relativization, 13, 58 account of, 17 binding effects under, 237 clause boundary, across, 127 DP versus PP, 59 ergative, 11, 14, 27, 93, 125–126, 149, 153, 157, 162, 171, 180, 236–239, 349 ergative, ban on, 13, 22–24, 27, 78 gapped, 7–9, 23, 80–81, 88, 92, 117, 121, 125–126, 149, 159, 174–180 left branch, 74–75, 128, 131, 334 object, 15 operators, 41–42, 90, 350 PP, of or out of, 40, 44, 57–59, 350 reconstruction effects under, 314 restrictions on, 11–13, 15, 21, 27, 44, 50, 108 resumption under, 7, 36, 60, 79–81, 111, 149, 153, 159, 242, 252, 268 subject, 11, 78, 161–163 extraposition, 116–117, 212, 220 A-bar movement, as, 215 obligatory 209, 273, 280 relative clauses, 128–130, 235 feature percolation, 83, 94 focus, 9–10, 20, 57, 81, 90, 96, 128, 149, 192–193, 211–213, 240, 257 fragment answers, 218, 245–246 freezing, criterial, 163–166 functional categories, 25, 39–40, 65–66, 162 functional structure, bundled versus layered, 28–30, 46–51, 228–229, 339–346 Georgian, 34, 78, 125, 128–132, 138, 305, 352 grammaticalization, 142–143 Halkomelem, 24–27, 55, 76–77, 83, 305 Hindi, 14, 32, 37, 49, 55, 73, 121, 126–127, 138, 164–165 idioms, 147, 214–215, 235–236, 255–258, 266, 314–317, 322 imperative, 4, 6, 17 incorporation, pseudo noun, 5, 144, 198 incorporation, true, 5 infinitival clause, 70, 146, 244, 317–318, 326 Inuit See West Greenlandic inversion, locative, 68–69 Irish, 117–120, 198–200, 212 islands, 127, 163, 242, 249, 253–254, 276, 280, 314, 349 See also extraction, subextraction Khwarshi, 4 Kinyarwanda, 68, 69, 70 Kirundi, 68 left branch condition, 128, 351 licensing, case approaches to, 335–336, 352 domains, 233, 306–307, 333 licensing, theta, 38–40, 120 lowering, subject See extraposition Lubukusu, 61, 69 Mahajan’s generalization, 114 masdar, 303, 306–308, 318, 320–324 Māori, 5–6, 25, 117n2 Mayan, 24, 34, 80–84, 116–118, 155, 166–171, 180, 344, 349 Merge external versus internal, 17 Late, 143 morphology, surface, 3 Move, 17 movement, A- 18, 65–67, 70, 109, 151, 225, 292–293, 324, 351 See also raising movement, A-bar See also extraction as a diagnostic for syntactic ergativity, 15–18 as an umbrella term, 7–10 heterogeneity, 20 movement, tough, 41–42, 251, 254–258, 283–284 Nakh-Dagestanian, 12, 121, 125, 127, 138, 294–295, 307, 333 Niuean, 5–6, 144–151, 159, 174–175, 178–180, 287 nominalization, 24–27, 168–169, 290 nominalization, event, 221–234, 306–312 noun phrase, discontinuous, 128, 130–132, 301–305 object cognate, 49 direct, 3, 5, 19, 62, 89, 166 implicit, 50, 219 indirect, 41, 45, 93, 164 gap, 175–179, 260n34 logical, 23, 225 marking, 32, 82n9 scrambling, 211, shift, 170–172 suppression, 97–98 obviation, 277–278, 281, 283–284 operator, null versus overt, 41–42, 57, 90, 281, 350 passive, in ergative languages, 37, 53–55 passive-to-ergative reanalysis See ergative: development from passive phase, 166–172 P-head, overt versus silent, 231 Phonetic Form, 43, 144n2 pied-piping, 21, 40–44, 57–58, 66–67, 73, 89–90, 350 pluractionality, 145, 287–288 possessive See ergativity: development from possessive Index [ 387 ] PP agreement with, 61–62, 82-83 351 A-movement, failure of, 65–67, 70, 101, 149, 163, 292–293, 351 special properties of, 59–60 specifier, as, 46, 53–54 versus DP in subject position, 36, 60, 67, 70 PP-ergative default, as a, 154, 158 D-features of, 112, 114 implicational properties of, 109 predicative connectives, 134 preposition stacking See adposition stacking preposition stranding See adposition stranding preposition characteristics of, 35 null See adposition: null strong versus weak, 38–40 PRO, controlled, 104–108, 172, 275, 324–326, 351 processing, 180–181, 342–344 pro-drop, 162, 187, 201, 230 pronouns, reinforced, 96–99, 109, 149 P-stranding See adposition stranding psych-verb effects, 37 purpose-clause formation, 16, 19–20 Q'anjob'al, 80–81, 84, 155–156, 166–170, 174–175, 180 quantifier float, 84–87, 89, 350 question, echo-, 213–214 raising absolutive, 113–114 apparent, 102, 149, 248 copy-, 148–149, 351 ergative preservation under, 104, 137– 138, 231, 266, 318 quantifier, 316 subject-to-subject, 103, 152, 317 V-/VP, 112, 115, 138, 348 reflexives complex, 4n1, 326 monomorphemic, 4, 135–136, 330n19 relational grammar, 24, 56 relativization See extraction restructuring, 104–105, 144n2, 263–270, 283–284 resultatives, licensing of, 62–63, 350 resumption See extraction: resumption under [ 388 ] Index resumptive pronouns, 7–8, 58, 60, 149, 239, 254 Roviana, 26–27, 42, 118–119 Russian, 60–61, 66–67, 88–90, 219–220 Samoan, 72, 84–85, 95–96, 103, 108, 118–119, 155 scope, 137, 172–173, 213–216, 316 scope ambiguity, 316 scrambling, 126, 202, 211–212, 292 stress, nuclear, 209–210 subextraction, 57–57, 66–67, 73–79, 93, 127–128, 303–305, 351 See also extraction, islands subject expletive, 113, 117–120, 197, 269, 322 experiencer, 34–37, 54, 62, 121, 221, 299, 303–306, 347–348 intransitive, 11, 76, 88, 175, 189, 221 non-canonical See subject: quirky non-nominative, 28, 35, 69 oblique See subject: non-nominative quirky, 36, 111, 120–123, 351 transitive, 5, 22, 26, 84, 89, 169 subject lowering See extraposition subjunctives, free, 261 subscrambling See subextraction superiority effects, 4 syncretism, case, 32–34 syntax, logical versus narrow, 17, 98 Tabasaran, 132–133, 351 that-trace effect See COMP-trace effect Tlingit, 103, 107–108 Tongan A-series vs O-series genitive, 204–205, 222–225, 233 argument encoding, 233 case marking, 189–192 clausal negation, 189 clitic doubling, 238, 248, 253, 281, 283 clitics, possessive, 203, 233 definitive accent, 207–208 exceptive construction, 240 ha, status of, 192 ke-clause, status of, 248–251 ke-clause operator, nature of, 253, 257 ke-clauses, movement out of, 254–255, 259 ke-clauses, transparency of, 260 ko topicalization, 242 kotoa, 288–290 lava, 262–270 operator movement in, 282 topicalization, 9–10, 41–42, 90, 103, 212, 242, 257–258, 316 leftward versus rightward topics, 216–221, 232 transitivity, 50, 52–53, 152, 158, 165, 180, 201, 231, 328 Tsaxur, 4, 135 Tsez affective construction, 299 agreement, 333, 336 case forms, 295–297 causatives, 300–301, 304 Tsimshian, Coast, 82, 133–134, 351 Tukang Besi, 11–12 Tzotzil, 77–78, 80, 305 unaccusative, 52, 62, 67, 74–75, 118, 169, 224, 226, 298, 333, 339 unergative, 49–53, 74–75, 127, 226–229, 333–334, 338–342 universals, tetrachoric, 109, 119, 122 variable, bound, 58, 106, 313 verb, light, 49, 84, 172 verb-initiality, 112–119, 164, 292, 348–349 Warlpiri, 14, 78, 128, 136–137, 155, 305 West Greenlandic, 11, 42, 83, 92, 98, 105–108, 155 wh-fronting, multiple, 4 wh-in-situ, 91, 314 word order harmony, 117 Index [ 389 ] ... Ergativity: ? ?Two Types of Ergative Languages and Their Features Maria Polinsky Rethinking Parameters Edited by Luis Eguren, Olga Fernández- Soriano, and Amaya Mendikoetxea Deconstructing Ergativity Two Types... details of individual structures and of different types of silence In admitting that not all types of silence are the same, we recognize that some types of silence are more constrained in terms of their. .. presents two case studies illustrating the two types of ergative languages: the PP-? ?ergative Tongan and the DP-? ?ergative? ?Tsez Part I is structured as follows Chapter introduces the notion of ergativity,