ResearchBackground
In today's world, the emergence of new businesses is vital for stimulating the economy of every nation, with a notable increase in young entrepreneurs Entrepreneurship is essential for reducing unemployment and enhancing economic prosperity, as successful young companies significantly contribute to a country's GDP and overall growth Therefore, it is crucial to encourage and train students to become successful entrepreneurs Universities should implement educational policies that inspire students to pursue entrepreneurial goals An example of this is the Global Business Challenge by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA), an international competition designed to cultivate young business leaders Since its inception, the CIMA Global Business Challenge has expanded from 8 regions in 2009 to 24 in 2014, providing numerous advantages and opportunities for students to become self-employed.
InV i e t n a m , i t s e e m s t h a t u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d e d u c a t i o n a l i n t i t u t i o n s t e n d t o o r g a n i z e activitiesreg ardingentrepreneurialobjectivesforstudents.Thus,inordert oencouragetheeconomicb e n e f i t s o f a n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t e
However,Vietnamhast ransitedfromplannedeco nomiestomarketeconom ies.Thatmaybecomeal everagetohelpenterpri sesachieveh i g h p e r f o r m a n c e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r i v a t e ones.T h u s , iti s n e c e s s a r y f o r s u p p o r t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h o s e firmsi n t h e r e c e n t t r e n d Witht h e aimofu p g r a d i n g t h e f i r m s ’ capabilitiesaswellasincr easingbrandequityforea chorganization,entrepr eneurialintentionshavere centlybecomeoneofthei mportantfactors.Manyor ganizationsinV i e t n a m arecooperatingwithuniversitiestosupportstudentsinprovidingc reativeideasin businesst h r o u g h c o n t es t s s uc h a s : D y n a m i c, S I F E , C F A , I R C , S t a r t u p W h e e l e t c
F u r t h e r m o r e , Vietnamalsohasorganizationswhichsupportstudentsharboringthedreamofbeco mingentrepreneur.Forinstance,BusinessStartUpSupportCenter(BSSC)wasestablishedi n2000withwonderfulmissionandvision.Accordingly,themissionisp r o p o s e d thatBS SCwillhelpyoungpeoplecatchtheirbusiness’sdreams.Inaddition,thev i si o n isguidedth atBSSCbecomesthecrossroadstotransferalltheexperiences,knowledgeandusefulre sourcesfromindividualsandorganizationswithinandoutsidethen a t i o n , inordertocreate asustainableplatformfortheyoungentrepreneursinVietnam.
Vietnam has experienced a significant rise in its unemployment rate, with 900,000 unemployed individuals reported in the fourth quarter of 2013, including 72,000 graduates (Hồng Hạnh, 2013) This trend poses a serious concern for economic development, as the increasing number of unemployed individuals can lead to adverse effects In response, graduates may consider self-employment as a viable option to mitigate unemployment However, not all individuals possess the necessary passion or meet the conditions to become entrepreneurs Therefore, it is crucial for students and universities to understand the factors influencing entrepreneurial intentions to develop appropriate policies and guidance Despite the potential for entrepreneurship, the percentage of graduates choosing self-employment immediately after graduation remains low (Hồng Hạnh, 2013) Many young people face barriers such as low confidence and limited knowledge, hindering their awareness of available career options This highlights the need for further research into the impact of entrepreneurial characteristics and intentions among undergraduates to promote entrepreneurial activities effectively.
According to data from the National Business Registration Portal, the number of new companies established in Vietnam has been steadily increasing each year, with 69,800 new enterprises founded in 2012 and 76,900 in 2013 Overall, the growth of enterprises from 2000 to 2013 shows a positive trend In January 2014, there were 6,866 new enterprises, reflecting a 15.6% increase compared to December 2013 This fluctuation in new company formation highlights the importance of self-employment as a vital component of the national economy The rise in new enterprises is contributing to a reduction in the unemployment rate, which supports economic development Additionally, senior students should focus on becoming successful entrepreneurs, as this can further decrease unemployment in Vietnam and motivate them to pursue their life goals Therefore, entrepreneurial intention among students plays a crucial role in the economic advancement of the nation.
Then u m b e r o f n e w e n t e r p r i s e s i s i n c r e a s i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y m o n t h l y , yearbyyear;t h e r e f o r e , t h e s t u d y ofe n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p playsa v i t a l r o l e i n e c o n o m y T h a t i s a h u g e contributionf o r s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t T h e r e f o r e , s t u d y i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n i s a l s o necessary.F o r i n s t a n c e , i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , m a n y o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s h a v e f o c u s e d o n v a r i o u s kindsoffactors affectingonentrepreneurialintention.AsHarun(2012)hasstatedthat,personalitytraitsanden vironmentalfactorshaveeffectsonentrepreneurialintentions.
Ontheotherhand,researchersseektomakeseveralconceptualandempiricalcont ributions.Thisresearchlooksintothefollowingfactorswhichhaveimpactsonen t r e p r e n eu r i a l intentionofstudentsinGermany:attitudetowardthe behavior,subjectiven orm,perceivebehaviorcontrol,perceiveddesirabilityandperceivedfeasibility(Marinaeta l.,
( 2 0 0 9 ) b e l i e v e t h a t iti s i m p o r t a n t t o understands t u d e n t s ’i s s u e s a c r o s s c u l t u r e s T h e r e a r e s i x f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e i n f l u e n c e s o n self- employedi n t h i s s t u d y s u c h a s : c u l t u r e / c o u n t r y , p e r s o n a l e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l e x p o s u r e , e x p e c t e d familysupport,ent repreneurialdisposition,perceptionsofmotivesandperception ofbarriers.Theseauthorslookedatvariousfactorsofimpactingonentrepreneurialint ention.
Higher education significantly influences the entrepreneurial intentions of undergraduate students According to Wu & Wu (2008), three key implications arise for higher education institutions and public policy First, Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior (1991) can effectively predict students' entrepreneurial intentions Second, a student's educational background impacts their entrepreneurial aspirations, as attitudinal factors and perceived behavioral control vary among different educational backgrounds Third, entrepreneurship education should focus on developing entrepreneurial skills and fostering students' interest in entrepreneurship Additionally, other factors such as risk-taking tendencies, locus of control, need for achievement, occupational autonomy, challenges, job security, and the environment for starting a business also play crucial roles in shaping entrepreneurial intentions (Uddin et al., 2012).
Inaddition,previousresearchindicatedthatintentionshavetwodimensions:atfirst,i ntentionshaveabilitiestopredictindividualbehaviors(Ajzen,1991).Secondly,intentionsa f f e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o u t c o m e s P r e v i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s s h o w t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y f a c t o r s af f ect i ng e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n A c c o r d i n g t o theT h e o r y o f
Planned behavior can effectively predict students' entrepreneurial intentions, as various factors influence behavioral intention indirectly through attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991) Research by Dirzyte (2013) highlights the importance of psychological capital components—self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and psychological resilience—in fostering entrepreneurial intent These components have been shown to meet specific criteria for development and performance impact Additionally, the relationship between psychological capital and outcomes such as work well-being and work-life balance among Chinese employees has been explored in Siu's (2013) research.
Althoughtherearelotsofresearchhavebeendone,yetpsychologicalcapitalfactor si n f l u en c i n g o n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n o f s t u d e n t s h a v e n o t m u c h b e e n s t u d i e d I n this research,theauthorexaminestheimpactofPsychologicalcapitalonentrepreneurialintention amongstudents.Psychologicalcapital includesdifferentcomponents.Most p r e v i o u s st udiesalsomentionedonthisconstruct.Previousresearchhasconsistentlylinkedp s y c h o l o g i c a l capitaltoworkplaceoutcomesincludingemployeeattitudes,behaviors,andperfor mance.Forexample,Hodges(2010)investigatedaboutpsychologicalfactorimpactso n pe rformance,engagementandthecontagioneffect.
Various components influence entrepreneurial intention, with capital—both human and social—playing a crucial role This paper primarily focuses on psychological capital, a significant area of study in management The author argues that positive psychological capital is essential for entrepreneurs, characterized by self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience Self-efficacy enables individuals to tackle challenging tasks, while optimism fosters a positive outlook on future success Hope involves perseverance towards goals and adapting strategies as needed, and resilience allows entrepreneurs to bounce back from adversity Additionally, proactive coping is highlighted, which emphasizes taking constructive actions to address problems rather than merely worrying about them Therefore, universities in Vietnam must clearly understand the factors influencing students' entrepreneurial intentions to develop effective educational programs.
InVietnam,someresearchershavestudiedaboutthisfieldbutthenumberofscholarsa r e s t i l l l i m i t e d F o r example,H o à n g ThịP h ư ơ n g T h ả o& B ù i T h ịT h a n h C h i ( 2 0 1
2 ) co nd ucted r e s e a r c h a b o u t s i x f a c t o r s ( p u s h , p u l l , e n v i r o n m e n t , i n i t i a l c a p i t a l ) thata f f e c t entrepreneurial intentionofMBAfemalestudents.Thesefourfac torsplayavitalroleforM B A femalestudentstobecomeentrepreneurs Therearemany factorsaffectingonself- employedi n t e n t i o n b u t i t d e p e n d s o n i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o n t e x t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y s h o u l d b e c h a n g e d suitably.M o r e o v e r , BùiHuỳnhTuấnDuy,LêThịLin,ĐàoT hịXuânDuyên&
Nguyễn Thu Hiền (2011) also investigated personal characteristics impacting one n t r e p r en e u r i a l intentionofstudents.
In Vietnam, research has explored the relationship between psychological capital, quality of working life, and overall quality of life (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2012) This study specifically examines how psychological capital influences job performance and the quality of work life among marketers in a transitioning market Additionally, it investigates how the quality of work life affects job performance and quality of life There is a notable gap in research concerning psychological capital and quality of working life across various industries Recent studies focusing on employee job performance in the banking sector in Vietnam have identified two key factors related to psychological capital and quality of working life (Nguyễn Thi Ngoan, 2010).
Thementioneda b o v e s t u d i e s attemptt o i n v e s t i g a t e p o t e n t i a l a n t e c e d e n t s t h a t h a v e h i g h power toexplain e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n , this studyemployst he con ceptofpsychological capital.Theimpactofpsychologicalcapitalonentrepreneurialint entionhasr e c e i v e d littleattentionfromresearchscholar.
4 The relationship between resiliencywith entrepreneurialintention.Additionally, ita l s o examinesthemoderatingroleofproactivecopingintherelationshipbetween:5 a.Self – efficacyandentrepreneurialintention
Thirdyearstudentsineconomicsbusinessmajorofthreeuniversities(UniversityofE conomicsHoChiMinhCity,UniversityofEconomicsandLaw,InternationalUniversity–
The research findings aim to provide insights into students' entrepreneurial intentions, highlighting the importance of self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience By understanding these factors, universities and colleges can develop targeted strategies and activities to enhance students' entrepreneurial mindset Additionally, campaigns can be implemented to encourage students to make informed occupational choices for their future careers.
Inaddition,thisstudyissignificantfortheundergraduatesontheirfuturecareerpath.Acco rdingly,byi d e n t i f y i n g t h e i r s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s i n b e c o m i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l intention,studentswillbeabletorecognizetheirpersonalcharacteristicsandatti tudesthatw i l l inturnhelpinfiguringouttheirintentiontowardsself-employed.
Ont h e o t h e r h a n d , thisr e s e a r c h i s a l s o v i t a l f o r p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n onf u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t ofentrepreneurialprogramsforundergraduates.Byhavingag oodun derst an di ng aboutfactors thathaveinfluences onentrepreneurialintention amongstudents;the governmentc a n easilyh a v e policiest o i n s p i r e studentsf o r e n t r e p r e n e u r progra ms,whichcanalsoincreasenewbusinessventuringrates.
Thischapterreviewstheliteratureon:psychologicalcapital,entrepreneurialintentionand proactiv ecoping.Besides,thedefinitionandtheliteraturereviewoftheaboveconstructsalsosynthesized:self- efficacy,hope,optimism,andresiliency.Thischapteralsod e s c r i b e s aresearchmodelandpropose dhypotheses.
Basedontheresearchobjectives,scopesandtheresearchmethodologymentionedin chapter,thischapterintroducesresearchdesign,researchmethodologyandtheprocessesofcon ductingtheresearchtotestthehypotheses.
Thelastchapterdiscussesmainconclusionsandimplicationsbasedontheresultsofthepreviousc hapters.Lastly,thelimitationsareidentifiedtorecommendforfurtherr e s e a r c h inthefuture.
Thischapterreviewsanddiscussesaboutthetheoriesofentrepreneurship,entrepre neurialintention,self– efficacy,optimism,hope,resilienceandproactivecoping.Accordingly,theproposedth eoriesarerelatedwitheachofthefactorsintheresearch.Inaddition,ther e s e a r c h m o d e l i s a l s o p r o p o s e d S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i t s c o n s t r u c t s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p hypothesizedamongtheseconstructsarealsodiscussedthatincludespositiveimpacto f p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a p i t a l o n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n b a s e d o n p r e s e n t t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d at i on s It als op o i n t s outt he m o d e ra t i n g effect ofr e la t i o n s h i p s bet weene a c h componentofpsychologicalcapitalandentrepreneurialintention.
An entrepreneur is an individual who initiates the creation of a business or enterprise with the potential for profit Defined as the essence of transforming ideas into successful ventures, entrepreneurship derives from the French word "entrepreneur," meaning "to take between." Entrepreneurs, often self-employed, engage in identifying opportunities, mobilizing resources, and organizing institutions This scholarly field explores how opportunities lead to the creation of future goods and services, their discovery, exploitation, and the resulting consequences Entrepreneurs navigate extreme situations, driving disruptive change by creating new markets and processes, and forming new organizations Various definitions exist across disciplines; for instance, economists view entrepreneurs as those who combine resources to add value, while psychologists see them as individuals motivated by the need to achieve specific goals In the business realm, entrepreneurs can be seen as both competitors and allies, contributing to wealth creation, resource optimization, waste reduction, and job provision.
Further,n o t h i n g i s b o r n t o g r o w immediately.S o m e p e o p l e f i r m l y b e l i e v e d thate n t r ep r e n e u r s areborn
;theyarenotneededtobemade.Moreover,manypreviousstudiesp r o v e d thatentreprene urscanbemadeandarenothereditary(Barringer&Ireland,2010).Anyonew h o h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o becomes e l f - e m p l o y e d , e s p e c i a l l y f o r p e o p l e h a v i n g u n d e r g o n e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s , w i l l h a v e t h e t r a i t s o f becomingane n t r e p r e n e u r (Gelard&Sale d,2011;Ooietal.,2011).
0 0 3 ) E c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s f r o m entrepreneurshipincludethecreationofnewjobs,pro ductivityimprovementsandincreasedr e g i o n a l growthrates.Entrepreneursaremorelikely tobealerttoopportunitiesandwillingtotakerisks(Schneideretal.,2007).
Entrepreneurshipallowsforanunderstandingofthefactorsthataffectentrepreneurialacti vityand studiesonthetopichavegrown significantlyin thepastdecade(Turan&Kara,2 00 7) E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p c a n b e s e e n a s a r e s u l t o f a t e a m o f i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t h a v e a w i l l i n g n es s toexpandtheirorganization alefforts(Terjesen,2008).Thus,entrepreneurshipis p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r e n h a n c i n g a h e a l t h y e c o n o m y a n d i t i s a l s o a standardf o r measuringachievementorsu ccess.
Thet h e o r y o f p l a n n e d b e h a v i o r i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e t h e o r y o f r e a s o n e d action(Ajzena n d F i s h b e i n , 1 9 8 0 ) T h e theoryofr e a s o n e d a c t i o n , w h i c h h a s i t s r o o t s i n s o c i a l psychology,is‘‘basedontheassumptionthathumanbeingsareusuallyquiter ationalandmakesystematic use oft he informationavailable tothem
(and)thatpeople considerthe implicationsoftheiractionsbeforet h e y decidetoengageorno tengageina givenb e h a v i o r ’ ’ (AjzenandFishbein,1980;p.5).Thetheoryofplannedbe haviorhasenormouscontribution c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t h e o r y o f r e a s o n e d a c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r y of p l a n n e d b e h a v i o r maycontroloverbehaviorswhilethetheoryofplanned behaviordoesnot.
Thet h e o r y o f p l a n n e d b e h a v i o r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e keytoe x p l a i n i n g b e h a v i o r isintentions.Intentionsareshapedby(1)attitudestowardthebehavior,
(3)perceivedcontroloverthebehavior.Beliefsaretheultimatesourceofthoseattitud es,norms,a n d p e r c e p t i o n s A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e o r y , a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l number o f c o n c e p t s p r e d i c t andexplainhumanbehavior(Carpenter&Reimers,2005).
Intentiontoactisbelievedas acentraltounderstandthebehaviorsinwhichpeople engage.Whileactualbehaviormaydifferfromoriginalbehavior,theintentiontoacttowardsomethin ginacertainmannerisparticularlyplannedbehavior(Krueger,Reilly&Carsrud,2 0 0 0 ) I n d i v i d u a l e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t h a s p r o v e n t o b e a n i m p o r t a n t a n d c ontinuingconstructinentrepreneurshiptheoryandresearch(Carr&Sequeira,2007). Allnewfirmsa r e setupbyindividuals,orgroupsoutsidetheformalcontextofexistingfirms,be ginwithsomedegreeofplanned behavioronthepartofthoseindividuals(Shook,Priem,&McGee,2 0 0 3 )
Entrepreneurial intention refers to an individual's willingness to engage in entrepreneurial behavior and take actions to establish a new business (Dell, 2008) While a person may possess the potential to become an entrepreneur, they will not transition into entrepreneurship without the necessary intentions Understanding these intentions is crucial for researchers and theorists as it sheds light on various aspects related to entrepreneurship, including the sources of business ideas and the process of turning a venture into reality Previous studies have explored the economic and psychological capital that individuals possess, which can lead to self-employment (Douglas & Shepherd, 2002).
Additionally,B i r d ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t a n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n r e f e r s t o individual’sstateofmind,sothatcoulddirectlyguideactionstoestablishnewbusines s,asw e l l as c r e a t i n g new v a l u e s i n exi st in g f i r m s I nt en ti on al p r o ce s s o f t e n runsb ase donane n t r e p r e n e u r ’ s personalneeds,values,habitsandbeliefs.
Accordingtopreviousstudy,theinternalandpsychologicalaspectsofhumanbein gmightinfluence an entrepreneur s u c h aspersonaltraits, demographics, theory of p l a n n e d b e h a v i o r , self- efficacyandperceiveddesirabilityofstudentstobecomeaself- employment( A j z e n , 2002;Antoncic,2009).
Entrepreneurortopmanagementteamofanentrepreneurialventureisdemonstrate dbypositive p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a p i t a l F u r t h e r m o r e , w h i l e f i n a n c i a l , h u m a n a n d s o c i a l c a p i t a l r e s o u r c e s canvaryindegreesamongtopmanagement,allmembersmustdem onstratehighle v el ofpositivepsychologicalcapitaltoensure entrepreneurialintention(Envick, 2005).Int h a t p e r s p e c t i v e , e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s p e r s o n a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l conditionandcognitiontostartupnewbusiness(Shooket.al, 2003).
PsyCapi s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r P s y c h o l o g i c a l C a p i t a l I t i s a c r e a t i v e a n d f l e x i b l e a d a p t i v e mechanismofentrepreneurs.Severalrelatedconceptsthatdescribeth erelationshipb e t w e en PsyCapandentrepreneurscanbefoundintheliteratureonpositiveorga nizationalbehaviors u c h a s p s y c h o l o g i c a l o w n e r s h i p (Aveye t al.,2 0 0 9 ) , P s y
C a p ( L u t h a n s e t a l , 2 0 08 ) Hence,thefourcomponentsofhope,confidence,resilienc eandoptimismaretestedi n ordertoincludetheconceptofpsychologicalcapitalforanent repreneur.Thesec o m p o n e n t s canbedefinedas:
Anindividual’sp o s i t i v e pyschological st a t e o f developmenti s characterized b y:( 1 ) h a v i n g c o n f i d e n c e ( s e l f - e f f i c a c y ) tot a k e o n a n d p u t i n t h e n e c e s s a r y e f f o r t i n o r d e r t o succeedinchalle ngingtasks;(2)makingapositiveattribution(optimism)aboutsucceedingn o w andinthefuture; (3)perservingtowardsgoalsand,whennecessary,redirectingpathstogoals(hope)inordert osucceed;and(4)whenbesetbyproblemsandadversity,sustainingandbouncingbackande v e n b e y o n d (resiliency)toa t t a i n success.(Luthans,Y o u s s e f , &Avolio,2007).
Asmentionedabove,thelinkageofhope,self- efficacy,optimismandresiliencyhasst r o n g affectiononentrepreneurial intentio n PsyCapisa newconstruct forgaining widea c c e p t a n c e i n O r g a n i z a t i o n B e h a v i o r T h i s s t u d y i s a m o n g t h e f i r s t methodt o t e s t t h i s c o n s t r u c t i n f l u e n c i n g o n e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p PsyCapi s b a s e d o n PositiveOrganizationalB e h a v i o r (POB)andpositivepsychology,whichfocusonstrengthsandjustifyfrom“Whatc a n gowrongwi thpeople”to“Whatcangorightforpeople”.PsyCaprecognizesmovingfrom “whoyoua re”oractualselfto“whoyouarebecoming”orpossibleself(Avolio&
Self- efficacy(confidence)referstoapositivebelief;itcouldbeandisdefinedforthew o r k p l a c e as theemployee'sconvictionabout hisorherabilitiestomobilizethe motivation,cognitiver e s o u r c e s o r c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n n e e d e d t o s u c c e s s f u l l y e x e c u t e a s p e c i f i c t a s k w i t h i n agivencontext.Bandura(2000)claimedthateffica cybeliefsaffectself- motivationt h o u g h goalsandaspiration.Thiscomponenthasalreadybeensupporte dbyaresearchofArmstrongetal.
(2003,p.34):"Theworldisfullofpeoplewhoaretryingtopurchaseselfc o n f i d e n c e , manuf actureit,orsimplypostureit;butyoucannotfakeconfidence,youhavetoearnit,andtheyonlywayt odothatiswork".
Ina d d i t i o n , t h e c o n c e p t o f s e l f - e f f i c a c y ine n t r e p r e n e u r i a l r e s e a r c h isi n t r o d u c i n g a s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y p e r s p e c t i v e f o r e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l b e h a v i o r s B e s i d e s , m o d e l o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l intentionsofBird(1988)includesself- efficacyisexpanded.Theymadeaconceptualcaseforentrepreneurialself- efficacy.Self- efficacyinfluencesonemergente n t r e p r e n e u r s whoaretrainedandaredevelopedforventu recreationandfortheindividuallevel,e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n i s t h e s i n g l e b e s t p r e d i c t o r o f s u b s e q u e n t e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l b e h av i o u r (Kruegeretal.,2000)andforemp loymentchoiceintentions(Segaletal.,2005).
Int h e f i r s t o f t w o p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , t h e s e a u t h o r s f o u n d t h a t e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l self-ef f i c a c y waspositively relatedtotheintentiontostartbecomingaself- employ(Chenetal.,1 9 9 8 ) F u r t h e r m o r e , fromt h e r e s u l t s ofa studybyMarkmanetal.
(2002)onpatentinventorsprovedthatinventorswhostartedtheirownbusinesseshaveavitallyhi gherself-e f f i c a c y thanotherindividuals.Forthisreason,individualswithhigherself– efficacyarel i k e l y t o beentrepreneurs.Anindividualofbeinganentrepreneurhasthebeliefforperforminge n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p r o l e s a n d t a s k s successfully.H i g h s e l f - e f f i c a c y i n d i v i d u a l s e v a l u a t e t h e b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t a s samea s l o w s e l f - e f f i c a c y i n d i v i d u a l s p e r c e i v e t h e sameenvironmentasfullofobstacles.
Efficacybeliefsaffecthowindividualsperceiveandinterpretevents.Thosewithlowe f f i c a c y a re easilyc o n v i n c e d t h a t e f f o r t s t o a d d r e s s d i f f i c u l t c h a l l e n g e s a r e f u t i l e s o a r e morel i k e l y t o e x p e r i e n c e n e g a t i v e s t r e s s s y m p t o m s , w h i l e t h o s e w i t h h i g h e r l e v e l s o f efficacya r e morelikelytop e r c e i v e c h a l l e n g e s a s s u r m o u n t a b l e g i v e n sufficientco m p et en c i e s andeffort(Bandura,2008).From that,self- efficacybeliefoftheindividualisp e r c e i v e d toexecutetherequiredactivities fortheentr epreneurship,positivelyaffectsthee n t r e p r e n e u r i a l intention.
Besides,self- efficacyisknownastheexpectationofsuccessforthereasonbasedonindividual’sactivitie s.Self- efficacyisdefinedas“theemployee’sconvictionorconfidencea b o u t hisorherabilitiestomob ilizethemotivation,cognitiveresourcesorcoursesof actionn e e d e d tosuccessfullyexecuteaspecifictaskwithina givencontext”( i s cited inJames , 2 0 0 7 ) Basedonthattheory,whenindividualscompletesuccessfullyatask,theyarelikely t o haveconfidence;therefore,theycancompleteitagain.Thedevelopmentofself- efficacyi n s i d e onepeoplecancoachtoinspireanyonetoachieveasuccess.Theycanmastert heirmindandcontroltheirjobsinthefuture.
(citedinHayek,2012)foundthatfoundingentrepreneursindicatedhigherlevelsofself- efficacyofinnovationandrisk-t ak in g thanmanagersandnon- foundingentrepreneurs.AccordingtoSegal(2005),peoplew i t h asenseofentrepren eurialself-efficacymaybedrawntoself- employment’sdesirableo p p o r t u n i t i e s andbenefits,incomparisontotheavailabilityofth eseinterestsgainedthroughworkingforothers.Peoplewhohavehighlevelsofself- confidencetendtobecomea n entrepreneureasierthanothers.Self- efficacyhasbeenfoundtobesignificantlyrelatedtostatedoccupationalinterestandchoices.
Inaddition,basedonstudiesofDeNoble (1999),thesestudiesshowthatthe peop lew h o havehigherself- efficacylevelscanattainhigherlevelsofsuccessfulnessinlife.Fromt h e s e studies,itcanbein cludedthatentrepreneurialself- efficacyislikelytohaveasi g n i f i c a n t impactono ne’ s intentiontostartabusiness.T h e r e f o r e , thefirsthypothesisisp ro p o se d :
OptimismisaoneofaPsyCapconstruct.Itisdefinedaspositiveoutcomeo u t l o o k a nd thinkingaboutevents,includingemotionsandmotivationandbeingrealistic(Luthans,2 0
0 2 a ) O p t i m i s m isdescribedas a conceptthat linked to the humanperformanceprocessesa n d getsachievementspersonality.Specifically,optimistsbuild plantocoverobstaclesthatmightp r e v e n t t h e m f r o m g e t t i n g t h e i r g o a l s T h e y alsoe x p r e s s t h e c o n f i d e n c e t o h a n d l e d i f f i c u l t thingstopersisttheirtasks.
Optimistsviewedbadeventsasexternal(nottheirfault),unstable(temporarysetback),a n d spec ific(aproblemonlyincontext)attributions.Ontheotherhand,pessimistsaccessb ad ev entsinpointofviewofinternal(theirownfault),stable(willlastforalongtime),andg l o b a l ( w i l l u n d e r m i n e e v e r y t h i n g theydo ) Optimistst e n d t o remainp o s i t i v e a b o u t f u t u r e e v e n t s w h i l e t h e p e s s i m i s t s t e n d t o i n t e r n a l i z e t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r l i v e s (Seligman,1998).
Optimism is closely associated with various positive workplace outcomes, including performance, job satisfaction, work happiness, and organizational commitment It shares similarities with self-efficacy and hope, as it motivates individuals to pursue valuable personal goals while also considering external factors Entrepreneurs are typically more optimistic, which correlates with successful venture outcomes For instance, optimistic entrepreneurs attract potential investors by being open to contingent payment arrangements based on the success of their inventions Research indicates that those with higher optimism and self-efficacy are more likely to become entrepreneurs rather than pursue traditional employment Additionally, entrepreneurs often exhibit a tendency toward excessive optimism compared to non-entrepreneurs, which may drive their motivation and resilience in navigating uncertainties and setbacks This optimistic outlook not only helps them confront challenges but also opens up opportunities for recovery and progress in their ventures, ultimately linking optimism to positive entrepreneurial outcomes and success.
Additionally,“Hànhtrìnhkhởinghiệp”newspaperstatedthatoptimismwhenfaci ngd if f i cu l ti es makethembecomeeasier A n optimism attitudeissynonymouswithp ositive attitudes.Thischaracteristicplaysavitalroleforanyentrepreneur.
Someauthorssuggested,h o w e v e r , thatentrepreneurs, “driven bywishfulthinking” ( A r a b s h e i b a n i etal., 2000) a re o ver- o ptimi sti c w h e n comparedt o n o n - e n t r e p r e n e u r w a g e - e a r n e r s , w h o t e n d t o b e morep e s s i m i s t i c andrealistic(Fraser&Greene(2006).F urthermore, Puri&Robinson’s(2007)r e s ea r ch demonstratesthatentrepreneursaremo reoptimisticthanotherswithsimilard e m o g r a p h i c characteristics.
Thisresearchonentrepreneursandoptimismsuggeststhatitislikelythatentrepreneurialintent ionwillbeassociatedwithone’sbeliefthatandoptimismt h a t amonge n t r e p r e n e u r s i s n o t “ f o o l h a r d y , e x c e s s i v e o p t i m i s m ” T h e r e f o r e , t h e secondhypothesis isinvestigated:
Hope is a widely recognized term in the English language, encompassing various meanings across different contexts It has been conceptualized and operationalized in diverse ways by individuals Over the past two decades, much of the academic research on hope has been linked to Snyder, a pioneer of the Positive Psychology movement, who introduced a cognitive theory of hope Defined as a "positive motivational state" based on a sense of successful agency and pathways toward goal achievement, hope involves expectations and feelings about future goals (Snyder et al., 2002) According to Luthans and Youssef (2004), hope is a key component of human and social capital management, often referred to as positive psychological capital While it shares similarities with self-efficacy in focusing on goal-directed motivations and behaviors, hope differs in the mechanisms through which these goals are pursued.
Inentrepreneurship,hopehasbeenshowntoimpactentrepreneurs’satisfactionwithb u s i n e s s o w n e r s h i p F u r t h e r ,r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t managersw i t h h i g h e r l e v e l s o f h o p e h a v e correspondinglyhigherratesofworkunitperformanceaswellasincreasedr etentionr a t e s andmoresatisfiedemployees(Peterson&Luthans,2003).
Hope is a vital characteristic for individuals navigating both realistic and unrealistic situations Avey, Patera, and West (2006) highlight that individuals with higher levels of hope are more motivated to pursue their goals and overcome obstacles This determination, known as willpower, combined with the ability to identify pathways to achieve those goals, referred to as waypower, significantly contributes to success Conversely, a loss of hope can negatively impact a business, leading to diminished human and social capital Metcalfe (2004) suggests that entrepreneurs possess a stronger belief in their capabilities, enabling them to align closely with their business plans They face uncertainty and unpredictability with confidence, believing in their ability to create successful ventures through focused actions toward specific tasks Based on these insights, the following hypothesis is proposed.
Resilience can be defined as the capacity to rebound or bounce back from adversity, uncertainty, conflict, failure, or even positive events and increased responsibilities It encompasses three key concepts: balance, rebound, and bounce back Resilient individuals accept reality, maintain stable values, and develop skills to effectively respond to unexpected situations, often viewing them as opportunities for learning and growth In the context of entrepreneurship, resilience is a crucial resource, as the rate of failure does not preclude eventual success Failure is a significant phenomenon in entrepreneurship that impacts individuals, organizations, and society Therefore, resilience in entrepreneurship serves as a vital tool for overcoming setbacks, allowing founders to cultivate emotional, cognitive, social, and financial resilience in the face of failure.
Ina d d i t i o n , b a s e d ona s u r v e y byT i m m o n s ( 1 9 9 9 ) , r e s i l i e n c e w a s f o u n d t o b e a commontraitforallsuccessfulentrepreneurs.Hereportsthatentrepreneurscanlearn manylessonsf r o m theirmistakes.Ontheotherhand,Gomef o u n d t h a t r e s i l i e n c e s h a r e s t r a i t a m o n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d s h o w t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r leadingofthebusiness(Gome,2003).Ontheotherhan d,Hayek(2012)statedthatresilienceisdefined asan importantcharacteristic ofentrepreneurswho areknownfor theird e t e r m i n a t i o n andnon- relentlessnesswhenconfrontedwithtroublewhichcanbelikenedtotheresilienceconstruct.Thus,i ndividualswithhigherresiliencehavehigherrealisticcontrolbeli ef
Further,businessesfail,butentrepreneursdonot.“Failureisoftenthefirethattemperst h e s t e e l ofan entrepreneur’slearningandstreetsavvy”(Timmons,1999, p.47).Resiliencea n d abilitytocopewithandalsolearnfromadversityisthekeyattributeoft hesuccessfule n t r e p r e n e u r Basedontheabovediscussion,thefollowinghypothesisrel atedtoresilienceandentrepreneurintentioncanbeproposed:
Proactivecopingcanbeundertakenthepromotionofdesiredfutureoutcomesandthep r e v en t i o n ofundesiredchanges.Proactivecopingcanpromotesuccessfulagingbypeoplet o i n v e s t t h e i r f u t u r e , f o c u s i n g o n p e r s o n a l g r o w t h a n d w i l l i n g t o t a k e r i s k s U n t i l n o w , proactivecopinghasbeenstudiedasriskmanagement(Aspinwall&Taylor,1997)o rgoalm a n a g e m e n t (Schwarzeer&Knoll,2003).Thecombinationofriskmanagement andgoalmanagementbecomesvitaldimensions forentrepreneurintention.Goalm anagement includesgoalsettingandpursuitthatgold.Goa lpursuitrequires“actionself- efficacy”anoptimisticbeliefsthatoneiscapableofinitiatingandmaintainingdifficultcoursesofaction.
I n thisview,copingisdefinedas“thecognitive,behavioraleffortstomanageparticulare x t e r n a l a n d / o r i n t e r n a l d e m a n d s t h a t a r e a p - p r a i s e d ast a x i n g o r e x c e e d i n g resources o f t h e p e r s o n ” ( L a z a r u s , 1 9 9
Taubert,2002),p r o a c t i v e c o p i n g isd e - f i n e d a s e f f o r t s t o s t r i v e a c t i v e l y t o e n c o u n t e r w i t h n e w c h a l l e n g e s , c r e a t e n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d f a c i l i t a t e promotiontowardchallenging goalssothattheywillbelessnegativ e.Fromthese arguments,thelasthypothesisisestablished:
Hypothesis5a:Proactivecopingtypemoderatesthe relationshipbetweenself– ef ficacy andentrepreneurialintention.
Hypothesis5b:Proactivecoping typemoderatestherelationshipbetweenoptimi sma n d entrepreneurialintention.
Hypothesis5c:Pr oa ct iv eco pi ng typem o d e r a t e s t h e r ela ti on sh ip bet wee n h o p e a n d entrepreneurial intention.
Ina p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , o u r f o c u s i s toevaluatethed i r e c t r e l a t i o n s o f f o u r int erdependentvariables(hope,self- efficacy,optimism,resiliency)andonemoderatev a r i a b l e (proactivecoping)onthedepend entvariable–entrepreneurialintention.
H 5a : Proactive coping type moderates the relationship between hope andentrepreneurialintention.
Insummary,thischapterpresentsliteraturereviewrelatingtoconceptofpsychologicalc a p i t a l , entrepreneurialintentionandproactivecoping.Basedontheseliteratures,aresearchmodelwithfiveh ypothesesisidentifiedtoillustratetheimpactofpsychologicalcapitalone n t r e p r e n e u r i a l intention.Theresearchmethodologyandfindingswillbediscussedinnextc h a p t e r s
Thisc h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s a r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y o f t h i s s t u d y Firstly,s a m p l e d e s c r i p t i o n , followedbydatacollectionmethodandresearchprocess.Next, measurement scalesarepresentedtodevelopquestionnaires.Furthermore,in- depthinterviewisconductedinordertohelpmeasurementscalesclearerandunderstandableforresponde nts.
Afterdefiningtheresearchproblem,researchquestionsandresearchscope,theliterature reviewwascarriedouttoreviewalltheoriesrelatedtop s y c h o l o g i c a l capital ino r d e r tofigu reoutarelevantconceptualmodelforthefactorseffectingonentrepreneurialintention.Bas edonthemeasurementscalesborrowedfrompreviousstudies,adraftq u e s t i o n n a i r e wasd esignedandtranslatedinto Vietnamese.Theresearchdesignincluded twophase:apil otresearchandamainsurvey.
Thep i l o t r e s e a r c h : a qualitativestudyh a p p e n e d in whichanin- depthinterviewwascarriedoutwith12studentssoastodesignthequestionnairebasedondraftq u e s t i o n n a i r e developedfromliteraturereview.Itwasdifferentfromlanguageandculture;s o , throughthisstage,itwasdeterminedthatwhichquestionsweresuitablefortheresearch.T h e i n - d e p t h i n t e r v i e w w o u l d h e l p a u t h o r f i n a l i z e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h w e r e easyf o r r e s p o n d e n t s tou n d e r s t a n d ; f u r t h e r , i t w o u l d be v a l u a b l e i n measuringo bs e r v e d v a r i a b l e s b e f o r e launchingthemainsurvey.Basedonthefeedbackofrespondents,thesurveyq u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e s m o o t h l y madec l e a r e r a n d moreu n d e r s t a n d a b l e T h e o n e s makesr e s p o n d e n t s confusedorhadunclearmeaningwouldbedeleted.
Thep r o c e d u r e a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n c l u d e d t e s t o f r e l i a b i l i t y, E x p l o r a t o r y F a c t o r Analysis(EFA),Confirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA)andStructura lEquationModeling(SEM)test.
Literature Review Psychological capital Proactive coping Entrepreneurial intention
Testing Exploratory Factor Analysis Testing Variance Extracted
Testing Structural equation modelling Multiple group analysis
Draft measurement scale (First measurement scale for qualitative research)
Main measurement scale (Final measurement scale is interviewed officially) Qualitative research (n) Quantitative research (nP0)
Testing Cronbach alpha Testing item – total correlation
Testing Confirmatory Factor Analysis Convergent Validity Discriminant Validity
Step1 : B a s e d o n l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w , ther e s e a r c h e r d e v e l o p e d t h e r e s e a r c h modelab o ut factorseffect entrepreneuriali n t e n t i o n o f s t u de n t s A f t e r that, a draftq uestionnaire w a s establishedfromvariousmeasurementscalesinpreviousstudy.
Step2:Carry outaqualitativepilot study torefine thequestionnaire.Aserie sof q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a p i t a l i m p a c t i n g o n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l i n t e n t i o n l a u n c h e d toaccesstherelevanceandsufficiencyofvariousmeasuresinthedraftq uestionnaire.Duringt i m e ofin- depthinterview,themeasureandmeasurementscaleofthemodeldecidedandtheq ues t io nn ai re w a s o r g a n i z e d T h e sa m p l e p o p u l a t i o n f o r thei n t e r v i e w w a s s u g g e s t e d simultaneously.
Step3:Launchamainsurveyandcollectdata.Atotalof500questionnaireswerer e l e a s e d torespondentsthroughhardcopyquestionnaires.
Afterthreeweeks,therewere410f e e d b a c k s f r o m r e s p o n d e n t s However,83questionnairesw e r e n o t v a l i d b e c a u s e r e s po n d en t s d i d n o t a n s w e r o v e r 3 0 % o f m a n d a t o r y q u e s t i o n s o r theyc h o o s e t h e samea n s w e r forallquestions.Asaresult,327validanswerscouldbeused toanalyze.
Step4:T e s t t h e r el ia bi li ty ofmeasurements ca l e s byapplying Cronbach’s A l p h a Analysis.Cronbach’sAlphawasusedtoinvestigatingtheinternalconsistencyofa q u e s t i o n n a i r e ThescalewasconsideredreliablewhenCronbach’sAlphacoefficientisfrom 0.7andabove(Hairetal.,2009).
Step5:UtilizeExploratoryFactorAnalysis(EFA)totestthevalidityofscalesanymo difyt h e r e s e a r c h modela c c o r d i n g l y i f any.T h r o u g h t h i s s t e p , t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g variableswas explored Itwasstrongwhenthecorrelatio nmatrixforevidence ofco e f f i c i en t s wasgreaterthan0.4(Pallant,2011),Barlett’stestofs phericitywassignificant( p < 0 5 ) andtheKMOindexwasgreaterthan0.6(Hairetal.,2010).
Step6:SEMwasappliedinthisstudy.Measurementandstructuralmodelsg en e r at ed modelfitindicesthatwereusedtoevaluatehowwellamodelfitsthesampledatag a t h e r e d bas edontheseindices.Inthemainstudyofpresentresearch,CFAwasappliedtomeasureconceptsan dresearchmodel.
Themeasurementscalesapplyinthisstudywereadaptedfromotherresearchers(seeT a b l e 3 1 b e l o w ) S e l f - e f f i c a c y w a s measuredby04i t e m s b a s e d o n P a r k e r ( 1 9 9 8 ) , O p t i m i s m was measuredby03itemsbyCarverand
Scheier(2002),Hopewasmeasuredby0 3 itemsbasedonSnyder,Rand,andSigmon(2002), andResiliencewasmeasuredby03items( B l o c k a n d K r e m e n , 1 9 9 6 ) P r o a c t i v e c o p i n g w a s measuredby1 2 itemsb a s e d o n G r e e n g l a s s etal.
Thisstudyemployedamixedmethod,integratingboth thequantitative andqualitativemethods.A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a a i m e d t o o b t a i n morei n - d e p t h i n f o r m a t i o n i n o r d e r tomaketheresearchreliable.Withqualitativeapproach ,theVietnameseversionoft h e surveyquestionnairewaspre-testedusingin- depthinterviewswithseventhirdandfinalyearstudentsbelongingtothethreeuniversitieswhich werementioned above.The in- depthintervieww o u l d h e l p thea u t h o r f i n a l i z e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h w e r e easyf o r r e s p o n d e n t s tou n d e r s t an d ; further,itwouldbevaluableinmeasuringobservedvariables beforelaunchingt h e mainsurvey.B a s e d o n t h e f e e d b a c k o f r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e s u r v e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e s m o o t h l y madeclearerandmoreunderstandable.
Inthenextstep,self- administeredsurveywasused.Themainpurposeoftheq uest ion nair e designwa s toinv estigatethe i m p ac t offive components onentrepreneurial intention.Thecollectionof datain quantitativemethodwasbased on questionnairessurvey.B o t h methodsusedinthethesisprovideacompleteanalysisofthestatisticdescr iptivedata.
Moreover,seven-p o i n t L i k e r t - t y p e s c a l e , a n c h o r e d by1 ( s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e ) a n d 7 ( s t r o n g l y agree)wasused forallitemsinthisstudy.ThequestionnaireswerepreparedinE n g l i s h andthentransl atedintoVietnamesebyanacademicfluentinbothlanguages.Themi n i m u m s a m p l e s i z e n e e d e d f o r d a t a a n a l y s i s is1 4 5 T h u s , f o r t h e survey,5 0 0 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y byp a p e r s a n d i n d i r e c t l y v i a G o o g l e surveytor e s p o n d e n t s Datacollectionwasconductedbothweekdaysandweekend.
The questionnaires in this study were divided into two parts The first section aimed to uncover the respondents' ideas and thoughts about entrepreneurial intentions, utilizing multiple-choice questions followed by a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) The second section gathered demographic information, such as gender and major, as well as factors to classify the respondents.
ThescaleofthisresearchadoptedfromWesterncountry,sothereweresomed i f f e r e n c e s aboutculture,levelofeconomicdevelopmentandthewaytoselectrespondents.T h e r e f o r e , a p i l o t studywas conductthroughqualitative researchmethod The purpose istog a t h e r informationandadjustvariablesinthesescales.
ThepilottestconductedinHoChiMinhCity.The11questionnairewerereleaset ostudentsofthreeuniversities(UniversityofEconomicsHoChiM i n h City,UniversityofEconomi csa n d L a w a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y A f t e r c o l l e c t e d t h e f o r m an dg e t i d ea s d i r e c t l y fromrespondents,somechangeswas t ake n tofit withunderstandofrespon dents a n d maket h e V i e t n a m e s e questionnaire clea re r A s a res ul t, comments g iv e n fromfocusg r o u p wereusedforadjustmentofthemeasurementscales(Table3.2)
Comments Final measurementscales Self-efficacy
If e e l confidenti n pres entingfieldmatterwithfr iends
Allrespondentssaidthatthe yunderstoodthescalemeani ng.Nevertheless,t h e y sugg estedchangingt h e word“fie ld”t o “subject”makethissca leclearerandfamiliarwithst udents
If e e l confidenti n pres entingfieldmatterwithte achers
All respondentsrecommended theresearchertochangeand a d d the phrase“communicatingwit
Theintervieweesuggesteda d d i n g theword“instudy”t o h e l p t h e readerseasilyun derstandthissentence.
Overall,I expectmorego odthingstohappent o me thanbadthings
Withthissentence,theauthor neededtodeletedthe phase“ badthings”t o shorter
Overall,I e x p e c t moreg oodthingst o happent o me
BuiDoDat–22years Ialwaysthoughtthat The respondents Ialways thought that old(UEH) therearealotofways advocatedtoaddtheword therearealotofwaysto
TranThi HongVan– 22 tosolveproblemsnot “instudying”tomakethis solve problems not
Iquicklygetovera n d recov erfromdifficultiesi nstudyi ng
Inregardthissentence,theres pondentssuggestedadding theword“instudying”toma kethi s scalemoreunderstan d
The intervieweerecommended theresearchershouldchange t h e word“anyone”to“frien ds”tomakethisitemmoreun
Allrespondentsstatedthatt h e y understoodthescale.How ever,“organization”neede dtochangedto“firm”
Theintervieweesuggestedt h e researchshouldchangew ord“organization”to“firm”t o makei t moreclearer
Afterrevisingthedraftquestionnairebasedontheresultofp r e l i m i n a r i l y quali tativer e s e a r c h , thefinalquestionnaireofthestudywasformed.Themainsurveywascon ductedw i d e l y tocollectdatafordataanalysis.
Mosto f t h e q u e s t i o n a i r e s w e r e d e l i v e r e d t o t a r g e t r e s p o n d e n t s t h r o u g h h a r d copyversion.Datacollectedthroughquestionairesurveywasconsideredast heprimarydataoft h i s study.Other informationfrombusinesswebsites, books, ornewspaperswasusedasthesecondarydata.
“Third- yearstudents ineconomicmajoratUniversityofEconomics HoChiMinhCity,Univ ersity ofEconomicsandLawand I n t e r n a t i o n a l University –
V iet na m NationalH o ChiMinhCityinHoChiMinhCity”weretargetedgroupstofulfill theinstrumentoft h i s studybecauseeconomicmajorstudentsgainmorecompetencytobe comeself- employedt h a n o t h e r s T h e r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s w e r e t e s t e d u s i n g d a t a c o l l e c t e d f r o m studentsoftheseuniversities.Hence,asampleofthisstudywasselectedamongth etargetedp o p u l a t i o n byusingnonprobabilitysamplingmethod–conveniencesample.
Samplesizewaschosenwhichfollowed thetheoryorrule.AccordingtoHaireta l.( 2 0 0 9 )statedthattheminimumofsamplewasequal orgreaterthanfivetimesofnumberofv ar i a bl e s butnotlessthan100.I n thecase ofExploratoryFactorAnalysis(EFA),Hair etal( 1 9 9 8 )
(ascitedinNguyen&Nguyen,2011)statedthattheminimumsamplesizeequaled50element sandbetteris100andeachparameterneedsminimumfiveelements.
Froma b o v e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w s , t h i s s t u d y c o n s i s t e d o f s i x f a c t o r s andt w e n t y ninev a r i a b l e s T h u s , t h e m i n i m u m sa m p l e s i z e w a s d e t e r m i n e d byequat ion:2 9 * 5 = 1 4 5 I n conclusion,therehadminimum145observationsforthisresearch.
ExploratoryF a c t o r Analysis(EFA),Confirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA)andStructuralEqu ationModeling(SEM)test.ThisresearchemployedSPSS16.0andAMOS22.0program softwaretoimplementthedataanalysisprocedure.Accordingly,EFAwasconductedwithr e l i a b i l i t y andvaliditytests.Firstly,reliabilitytestisanimportantissueinmeasuring andr e f i n i n g scale.Reliabilityisperformedinitiallytoremoveitemswithlowitem- totalcorrelation.Inaddition,theCronbach’salphacoefficientofascaleshouldbetested.
Secondly,t w o i m p o r t a n t t e s t s o f c o n d u c t validityb e i n g c o n v e r g e n t ; d i s c r i m i n a n t v a l i d i t y wereutilizedtoi ndicatetheabilityofthemeasurement.Measurementandstructuralmodelsgeneratemodelfitindicesth atareusedtoevaluatehowwellamodelfitsthesampled a t a g a t h e r e d b a s e d ont h e s e i n d i c e s I n t h e mains t u d y o f p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , C F A w a s a p p l i e d t o measureconcepts and researchmodel.Therefore,byrunning CFA in mainstudy,r el i a b i l i t y andconstructvaliditywereassessedthroughfactorloadings,compositereliab ilitya n d a v e r a g e v a r i a n c e e x t r a c t e d R e l i a b i l i t y isperformedf i r s t t o r e m o v e i t e m s w i t h l o w i t e m - totalc o r r e l a t i o n ( l e s s t h a n 0 3 0 )
( P a l l a n t , 2 0 1 1 ) I n a d d i t i o n , t h e C r o n b a c h ’ s a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t ofascalesho uldbeabove0.70(Nunnally&Burnstein,ascitedinNguyen&Nguyen,2011)andfactorl oadingsof0.30to0.40areminimallyacceptablealthoughfactorloadings(greaterthan0.50)arege nerallynecessaryforpracticalsignificance(Hairetal.,2 0 0 9 ) L a s t l y , b o o t s t r a p meth odi s a p p l i e d i n p r e d i c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s M a i n surveyh a d samplesizewhichi ncludedtotal327validquestionnairesthatwereusedfordataanalysisw i t h regressionmeth od.
Additionally,atwo-stepmodelingapproachforSEMincludesthemeasurement modela n d t h e s t r u c t u r a l model.I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e m e a s u r e m e n t modelp r o v i d e s a s s e s s m e n t s ofc o n v e r g e n t anddiscriminantvaliditywhereasthestructuralmodel providesanassessmento f predictivevalidity.AccordingtoShah(2012),hestatedthatmeas urementandstructuralmodelscangeneratethemodelwhichfitthesampledatagatheredb asedontheseindices.F u r t h e r m o r e , themostmodelfitindicesusedwidelyaretheGood nessofFitIndex(GFI),t h e AdjustedGoodnessofFitIndex(AGFI),theRootMeanResidual( RMR),ComparativeF itI n d e x ( C F I ) , t h e NormedF i t I n d e x ( N F I ) , t h e T u c k e r -
NormedF i t I n d e x ( N N F I ) , t h e I n c r e m e n t a l F i t I n d e x ( I F I ) , means q u a r e e r r o r of a p p r o x i m a t i o n (RMSEA),thestandardizedrootmeansquareresidual(SRMR)andtheratioo f chi-squarerelativetothedegreesoffreedom(χ2/df)(Shah,2012).
Insummary,thischapterintroducestheresearchmethodologyofthestudy.Researchd e s i g n sectiondescribesthechoicesofsamplesize,measurementscaleconstructionaswella s t h e p r o c e s s t o c o l l e c t t h e d a t a T h i s s t u d y w a s d e s i g n e d i n t o t w o p h r a s e s : q u a l i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h (in– depthinterview)andquantitativeapproach(mainsurvey).Theresultsofdataanalysisanddiscussionfo rfindingswillbepresentedinChapter4.
Chapter3 p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y asw e l l ast h e wayt o c o l l e c t a n d analyzed a t a I n c h a p t e r 4 , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y w e r e p r e s e n t e d th roughthestepsofC ronbach‘salphatest,exploratoryf a c t o r analysis(EFA),confirmatoryf a c t o r analysis( C F A ) , saturatedmodeltestbyusingSEMandmulti- groupanalysis.Finally,resultsofthetestinghypotheseswerediscussedfurther.
Total3 2 7 o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h r e e mainu n i v e r s i t i e s i n c l u d i n g U n i v e r s i t y ofEconomicsHoChiMinhCity,InternationalUniversity,Unive rsityofEconomicsa n d L a w T h e r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a d i v e r s i t y o f a g e , major ,g e n d e r , e t c Asd e s c r i p t i v e datawasshowedinTable4.1,theinfluencesoffamilya renotthemainimpacto f thefinaldecisionmaking(“tobecomeabusinessman”)
(only36.7%respondentshavingp a r e n t s o r r e l a t i v e s w h o a r e b u s i n e s s m a n ) T h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n t s gotj o b s w h e n studyingatuniversities(occupy52.3%).Therefore, theyhadawarenessaboute n t r ep r en eu r i al intention.
TheresultswerereliableforCronbach’salphatested,refinedandvalidatedbyEx pl or ato ry FactorAnalysis(EFA)andConfirmatoryFactorAnalysis(CFA)beforeusingS E
Oneofthe criteriain testingreliabilityindataanalysiswastomakesure thatall scalesw e r e reliableinmeasurement.Hence,Cronbach’salphawasconductedasaninst ructororinternalconsistencyreliabilitytestwasusedforeachscaleinthisresearchmodel.F u r t h e r m o r e , Cronbach’salphahelpedauthorremoveunstandardizeditems.Accordin gtoN u n n a l l y & B u r n s t e i n ( c i t e d i n Nguyen,2 0 1 1 ) , C r o n b a c h ’ s a l p h a s h o u l d b ea b o v e o r atl e a s t equal0 6 toada pt internalreliabilityandthecorrelationofeachspecificite mwithtotaloftheotheritemsinthescalewasquitehighorhigherthan0.3.
Cronbach'sAlphaif ItemDeleted Self-efficacy(SELF):Alpha=0.830
In Table4.2,Cronbach’salphaachievedreliability.Allobserved variableswereacceptedwiththevalueofCronbach’salpharangingfrom0.695to0.886.Co rrectedItem-
TotalCorrelationcolumnalsoexposedsignificantvaluesforallitemsoffivemeasurements c a l e s ofthequestionnaire.Allvaluesweregreaterthan0.3whichguaranteedthestandard.T h e r e f o r e , thisindicatedthatallscalessatisfytherequirementsforreliability.Asaresult,th es e measurementswereusedinestablishingthe mainsurveytotesttheresearchh y p o t h e s e s For the next step, the author conducted the exploratoryfactoranalysis(EFA)toc l a r i fythevalidityofmeasurementscales.
F A analysismethod.EFAwasused totesttherelationshipsamonginternal variables.Thisr e s e a r c h followedastrictcriteriontodeletefactors whichtheirloadingswerelowerthan0.5an d thecomponentswithEigenvaluehigherthan1.0wereretain ed.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure ofSamplingAdequacy.
Bartlett'sTestofSphericity Approx.Chi-Square 2.564E3 df 136
InthefirstEFA,itincluded13itemsmeasuringforfivefactors.InTable4.3,KMO v al u e was0.890whichwasgreaterthanthestandard0.7(Leechetal.,2005).Inaddition ,Chi–squareofBartlett’s was2.564E3and significantvalue equaled0.000that wassmallerthan0.5.Therefore,thevariablesarecorrelatedthatisagoodbasicforfactoranalysis.
BydoingEFA,eigenvalueofeachfactorwasgreaterthan1.However,therewasonefact orwhichwaslowerthan1;however,itwasnottoolow(0.829).Insummary,thesearecommonc r i t e r i a f o r f a c t o r s t o b e u s e f u l f o r t h e s t u d y I n t h i s s t u d y , f o u r f a c t o r s h a d eigenvalue(6.586,1.707,1.493,1.295,.829).Thetotalextractedvarianceforfi vefactorsw a s 69.845%whichshowedthattheseextractedfactorscouldexplain69.845%variati onofthedata(refertoAppendixC).
Inth ene xt st e p , R o t a t e d F ac t o r M a t r i x d i s p l a y e d t h e it ems an d f act or lo ad in g T h e v alue wasgreaterthan0.5thatareacceptable.Table4.4belowshowedtherotatedc omponentmatrixforinterdependentvariables.
Ontheotherhand,thefactorloadingvalueofRE1equaledto0.460;eventhoughitw a s lessthanthe0.5(standardvalue),theauthordidnotremovethisvariablebecausethiso b s e r v a t i o n v a r i a b l e p l a y e d a v i t a l c o n t e n t o f t h e c o n c e p t T h e t o t a l 1 3 ite mso f f o u r independentvariableswasdefinedbyhighloadings.Therefore,theitemswereco nc ep t u a li z ed
WhenrunningCFAintheresearch,itwasneededtoknowsomecriteriatocheckhowt h e suita bilitybetweentheresearchmodelanddatacollectedfromthemarket.Hence,CFAw a s themetho dw h i c h h a s a n u m b e r o f s t r o n g p o i n t s t h a n t r a d i t i o n a l methodb e c a u s e i t analyzed c o f f e c i e n t a l p h a a n d E F A a n a l y s i s ( B a g o z z i & F o x a l l , a s c i t e d i n N g u y e n & Nguyen,2011).Inaddition,themeasurements c a l e betweeno n e constructa n d othersw i t h o u t wrongduetomeasurementerrorwastestedbyCFA.Besidesthat,thiswasalsoastr ong methodologyforassessing convergentvalidityand discriminantvalidity(Steenkamp
&vanTrijp,ascitedinNguyen&Nguyen,2011).Accordingly,theauthorcouldanalyzee ach factorinturnandthencriticalmodel.However,inthisstudy,thereweresumoffactorsw h i c h had onlythreeitemsanddegreeoffreedomequal0.Thus,itwasnotinappropriate;tippingmodel wasestimated.
Furthermore,inordertomeasurethesuitabilitybetweenmodelandmarketdata,ther e s e a r c h usedsomeindicessuchastheratioofchi- squarerelatedtothedegreesoffreedom( C M I N / df),C o m p a r a t i v e F i t I n d e x ( C F I ) , t h e T u c k e r -
L e w i s I n d e x ( T L I ) a n d r o o t means q u a r e errorofapproximation(RMSEA).Therewer emanystandardvaluesforeachindext h a t wasdependingonauthors.Themodelwascon sidered“suitability”withthedataifith ad Ch i -sq u a re (CMIN)withp- value>0.05.AccordingtotheNguyen,ascitedinThái
VănT r u n g Hiếu,2014,somecriteriawerethat:GFI,TLI,CFI≥0.9,CMIN/df≤3andRMSEA
TheresultofCFAinthisstudywasdescribedgenerallyinFigure4.1.Ithadagood modelwhichfits the data.The result belowillustratedsome informationthat representedana d e q u a t e f i t o f t h e m o d e l , n a m e l y : G F I = 0 8 6 5 , T L I = 0 9 0 2 , C F I = 0 9 1 5 , C M I N / d f 2.068andRMSEA=0.057.
Chi-squares4.073;df55;Chi-square/df=2.068;p
Furthermore,inthisscale,italsomentionedtoFactorloadings,thecriteriaofwhich w ere g r e a t e r t h a n 0 5 s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p - v a l u e < 0 0 5 ) S p e c i f i c a l l y , inT a b l e 4 5 , a l l f a c t o r loadingsweregreaterthan0.5exc eptRE3.However,factorloadingofthisitemwaslow( 0 2 8 2 ) andthiswasvitalaspectforobserv ationvariableRE.Furthermore,“Iamnotangryw i t h friendsforalongtime”affected toent repreneurialintentionsignificantly becauseitw a s oneofthepersonalcharacteristics thatbusinessmenneedtocover.Iftheywereangry withpeopleforalong time,itwasdifficultforthemtobecomeentrepreneur.Consequently,c o n v e r g e n t validityofthis measurementscalewasaccepted.
Additionally,theauthorneededtonoticethecorrelationvalueswhichwerelessthan 1.0 , theinformationof wh ich wasp r e se n t e d inTable4.6:theyweresignificantstat ically (withp– value