RATIONALE
In the traditional approach to learning English, grammar has often been prioritized over vocabulary, with words seen merely as tools to illustrate grammatical rules However, the richness of a language truly lies in its vocabulary, as the essence of communication is conveyed through words A robust vocabulary enhances clarity and precision in expressing ideas, making nouns particularly vital in effective communication Nouns can be categorized into various classes based on semantic and syntactic criteria, one of which is collective nouns, highlighting the diverse roles that vocabulary plays in language mastery.
Collective nouns play a significant role in the English language, serving as specific terms to describe groups of objects, including humans, animals, and concepts For non-native speakers, mastering these unique nouns can be challenging, yet their proper use enhances one's connection to the language While phrases like "a bunch of lions" are simpler, they lack the elegance of "a pride of lions." To effectively interpret and utilize collective nouns, learners must understand their cohesive and semantic features Below are examples of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese.
We walk past a herd of cows so thin that I could count their ribs
Con người đã tạo ra "cơn bão" của khoa học kỹ thuật hiện đại, dẫn đến thảm họa cho thảo nguyên và đàn bò, biến chúng thành một bi kịch không có hồi kết.
Hofstadter presents an analogy of a swarm of ants exploring the forest floor, where scouts venture out in various directions, gathering information and sharing their discoveries with the colony.
Khi mùa đông đến, đàn kiến sống ấm áp và no đủ, trong khi châu chấu lại phải chịu đói rét và cảm thấy lạnh lẽo.
The study of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese reveals unique linguistic features, yet there is a lack of in-depth research focusing on their cohesive and semantic characteristics Despite numerous studies on collective nouns, their importance has often been overlooked, particularly in educational contexts where students struggle to distinguish and use them correctly Therefore, I propose a study titled "An Investigation into Linguistic Features of Collective Nouns in English and Vietnamese Short Stories" to address this gap and enhance understanding of these essential grammatical elements.
English learners and I myself would be clearer about the use of collective nouns to express our ideas correctly and effectively.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Aims
This study examines the lexical cohesion and semantic characteristics of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting the similarities and differences between the two languages.
Objectives
The objectives of the study are:
- to analyze the lexical cohesive and semantic features of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese
- to find out some similarities and differences of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese in the fields of cohesive and semantic features
- to offer some suggestions to the teaching and learning of English to Vietnamese teachers and learners, respectively.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1 How are collective nouns in English and Vietnamese short stories used as lexical cohesive devices?
2 What are semantic features of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese short stories?
3 What are the similarities and differences of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese short stories in terms of lexical cohesive and semantic features?
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This research examines the lexical cohesion and semantic characteristics of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese To ensure the validity of our samples, we analyze examples from short stories in each language.
This article explores the semantic features of collective nouns within the structure of the collocation "a/an collective noun + of - phrase" in English and Vietnamese short stories The aim is to enhance the understanding of lexical cohesion and the semantic characteristics of collective nouns in both languages.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Collective nouns play a crucial role in the English language, as they are specific terms used to describe groups of objects, including humans, animals, and concepts For non-native speakers, mastering these unique nouns can be challenging, yet their use enhances language proficiency and connection This thesis aims to explore the significance of collective nouns within linguistic theory and practical language application, highlighting their importance in effective communication.
- providing Vietnamese learners of English with useful knowledge of the linguistic features of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese;
- helping to promote the importance of collective nouns in teaching and learning English
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
The study is designed in five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1, Introduction, presents the rationale for choosing the area for studying, the general purpose of the study, the justification, the scope, and the organization of the study
Chapter 2, titled Literature Review and Theoretical Background, provides a comprehensive overview of prior studies and research conducted on the subject It also presents relevant theoretical frameworks that pertain to the issues being investigated.
Chapter 3, Research Methodology, is concerned with the methods and procedures of the study including research design, data collection, and analysis
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussions, analyzes the lexical cohesion and semantic characteristics of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting their similarities and differences based on the research findings.
Chapter 5 presents a concise summary of the key findings from the study, highlighting their implications for learning and teaching Additionally, it addresses the limitations encountered during the research and offers recommendations for future studies in this area.
Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
LITERATURE REVIEW
Research on collective nouns reveals that writers such as Rodney and Pullum, as well as Downing, have highlighted their unique syntactic and semantic characteristics According to Rodney and Pullum (2005), collective nouns cannot stand alone in English; they require an indefinite article (a/an) and are typically followed by a prepositional phrase that includes "of" and a plural noun or noun phrase These nouns can be modified by adjectives, as seen in "a chaotic throng of people." Unlike standard countable nouns, collective nouns cannot be used in plural forms, even though they imply plurality They can take either singular or plural verbs and may also function independently when referencing their antecedents.
In the meanwhile, Downing (2015) expresses a fresh perspective on collective nouns According to him, the indefinite article "a" precedes, and the preposition follows a collective noun grammatically Angela substituted the term
Numerous studies have explored the use of collective nouns in English, highlighting their complexities across American, British, and Australian English Magnus (2001) identified that various factors, such as geographical and stylistic differences, along with syntactic, semantic, and lexical constraints, play a crucial role in determining whether collective nouns take singular or plural verbs His findings suggest a declining semantic influence on verb agreement with collective nouns in British English, indicating that while a few verbs require singular agreement, the overall choice is predominantly influenced by the noun's tendency towards singular or plural usage.
De Vires (2018) explored the use of singular and plural verbs with collective nouns in his work "Collective Nouns." He argued that collective nouns embody characteristics of both singularity and plurality across all grammatical levels, including lexical-conceptual, morphosyntactic, and semantic This duality offers insights into the factors that affect how numbers are expressed and interpreted.
In a study conducted by Petra (2014), the usage of English by Swedes in relation to collective nouns was analyzed The findings revealed that singular concord is more commonly observed with collective nouns in Sweden.
In summary, previous studies have primarily focused on the concord or agreement aspect of collective nouns To my knowledge, there has been no research investigating the linguistic features of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese Therefore, my master's thesis will examine the cohesive and semantic features of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese short stories This study aims to fill the existing gap and assist Vietnamese learners of English in gaining a deeper understanding of collective noun usage.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Definition of Collective Noun
A collective noun refers to a group of objects, people, animals, or ideas viewed as a single entity or concept While it represents multiple elements, it is treated as one cohesive idea, often referred to as a "group noun."
(Source: https://literarydevices.net/collective-noun/)
Grammatical Features of Collective Nouns
Collective nouns in English cannot stand alone in discourse; they require the indefinite article "a/an" and a prepositional phrase with "of" followed by a plural noun or noun phrase for clarity In this structure, collective nouns serve as head nouns and can be modified by adjectives, such as in "a disorderly crowd of people." Unlike other countable nouns, collective nouns do not have plural forms, even though they imply plurality They can take either singular or plural verbs Additionally, collective nouns can be used in isolation when they refer back to a previously mentioned antecedent.
In Vietnamese, collective nouns are typically preceded by the cardinal number "một," as in "một đội quân thủy." Sometimes, this number is elliptical before the collective noun Additionally, Vietnamese collective nouns can be followed by either singular or plural nouns, demonstrated by examples like "một bầy chim" and "một bầy những con chim."
Table 2.1 Grammatical Features of Collective Nouns in English and Vietnamese
Collective nouns in English Collective nouns in
Grammatical features a/an + collective noun + of – phrase a/an + adjective + collective noun + of – phrase
“một” + noun/ noun phrase collective noun + noun/ noun phrase
“collective noun + singular or plural nouns
Collective nouns refer to groups of individuals or entities, such as "a disorderly crowd of people" or "a flock of birds." Angela Dowing, in her work "English Grammar," presents a fresh perspective on these terms, suggesting that they should be referred to as "counters." According to her, collective nouns are structured with the indefinite article "a" and are followed by the preposition "of."
Table 2.2 Structure of collective nouns according to Angela Dowing
A Counter Of Noun/noun phrase
Definition of Short Stories
Short story, brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with only a few characters
A short story focuses on a single effect, typically conveyed through one or a few significant scenes This form promotes an economical use of setting and a concise narrative, often omitting complex plots Characters are revealed through action and dramatic encounters, but they are rarely fully developed Despite its limited scope, the effectiveness of a short story is frequently assessed by its ability to engage readers.
“complete” or satisfying treatment of its characters and subject
(Source: https://www.britannica.com/art/short-story)
Cohesive features
Cohesion refers to the semantic relationships that connect elements within a text, as defined by Halliday and Hasan (1976) A cohesive text features interconnected components that hold significance for the reader This connection is established when the understanding of one element relies on another, indicating that one item presupposes the existence or meaning of the other (Halliday & Hasan, 1994).
For instance in the following text: “Amy went to the party She sat with Sara.” The interpretation of the item “she” depends on the lexical item “Amy”
Therefore, the text is considered cohesive because we cannot understand the meaning of “she” unless “Amy” exists in the text
Basic to the discussion of the concept of cohesion are the notions of cohesive
In text analysis, "ties" refer to pairs of semantically interrelated elements that demonstrate cohesion, as defined by Halliday and Hasan (1994) A tie represents a single instance of cohesion, allowing for a systematic examination of a text's cohesive properties and its overall texture These ties combine to create larger units known as "chains," which consist of interdependent elements Hasan describes cohesive chains as collections of items that are connected through semantic relationships of co-classification and/or co-extension, highlighting the intricate connections within a text.
Cohesion in text is defined by relational ties, which are instances of cohesive relations The characteristics of specific texts can be identified by the types and quantities of these ties Often, cohesive relations create chains within the text, where elements reference each other in a continuous loop, enhancing the overall coherence of the narrative.
Cohesion is divided into grammatical and lexical cohesion Lexical cohesion is divided into reiteration and collocation
Chart 2.1 Types of cohesion (Adapted from Halliday, M.A.K and Hassan, Q 1994: 278-286) 2.2.4.3 Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion is realized in two major forms: reiteration (repetition, synonym, near-synonym, superordinate, general word) and collocation
Reiteration refers to the repetition of a word or the use of synonyms within a context that maintains the same reference It can be expressed in three forms: repetition, superordinate terms, and hyponyms, as well as through general words and synonyms or near synonyms Each of these forms plays a crucial role in enhancing clarity and coherence in communication.
There's a boy climbing that tree
Synonym or near synonym Superodinate General item
Super- ordinate and co hyponym ordered and unordered series part to whole and part to part collocation
- The boy's going to fall if he doesn't take care (Repetition)
- The lad's going to fall if he doesn't take care (Synonym)
- The child's going to fall if he doesn't take care (Superordinate)
- The idiot's going to fall if he doesn't take care (General word)
Reiteration is a linguistic phenomenon where one lexical item refers back to another, sharing a common general referent This can occur through repetition, synonyms, near-synonyms, superordinates, or general words.
Repetition, the reiteration of a lexical item, serves as the most straightforward form of lexical cohesion, allowing a paragraph to achieve integral and coherent meaning A notable example by Halliday illustrates this concept effectively.
Algy met a bear The bear was bulgy
The lexical item which contributes to cohesion here is, of course, the word 'bear' (not Algy and bulgy!) b Synonym
Lexical cohesion can also be achieved through the use of synonymous lexical items For instance, Halliday highlights the relationship between words such as "sound" and "noise," as well as "cavalry" and "horses," demonstrating how synonymous terms contribute to the coherence of a text.
He was startled by a noise from behind him It was the noise of trotting horses The sound of the cavalry grew rapidly nearer c Superordinate
Superordinate terms (often also called “hypernyms” “anaphoric nouns” or
“discourse-organizing words”) are nouns that can be used to stand for an entire
A superordinate term serves as an umbrella concept that encompasses a broader category of related items For instance, the word "vehicle" functions as a superordinate term that includes various types such as "lorry," "automobile," "bicycle," and "tram." This hierarchical structure helps in organizing and understanding different classifications within a specific domain.
Superordinate terms enhance cohesion in writing by offering a clearer way to connect ideas, surpassing the limitations of pronouns like "it," "they," "this," "these," and "those." They allow writers to effectively link their thoughts to previous text or introduce forthcoming information, thereby improving the overall clarity and flow of the content.
(Source: http://sana.aalto.fi/awe/grammar/superordinate.htm) d General words
Reiteration is a key aspect of lexical cohesion, encompassing a range of practices from the repetition of specific lexical items to the use of general words that refer back to them This phenomenon includes various forms of lexical connection, such as synonyms, near-synonyms, and superordinate terms, illustrating the flexibility and depth of language in maintaining coherence within text.
General words play a significant role in lexical cohesion, often straddling the line between lexical items and substitutes While they function similarly to lexical items, their cohesive use allows us to categorize them within lexical cohesion The distinction between substitutes and general words is blurred, reflecting the intricate relationship between grammar and vocabulary Ultimately, vocabulary represents the flexible and nuanced aspect of a language's grammar, highlighting the importance of collocation in achieving coherence.
Collocation, as defined by Halliday and Hasan, refers to the cohesion formed through the regular co-occurrence of lexical items This concept encompasses the tendency of certain words to appear in similar contexts or their lexico-semantic relationships For instance, while "boys" and "girls" exhibit cohesion through their opposing meanings, terms like "laugh" and "joke," as well as "boat" and "row," demonstrate cohesion through their typical associations, despite lacking a systematic relationship.
Collocation refers to the relationship formed by the co-occurrence of two lexical items in similar contexts, often describing related events or situations Based on this understanding, collocations can be categorized into three types: ordered set, activity-related collocation, and elaborative collocation.
An ordered set is the most straightforward type of collocation, closely resembling systematic reiteration This category encompasses lexical items such as colors, numbers, months, and days of the week While ordered sets can be easily identified in texts, they are unfortunately not very common.
The composer nevertheless informs us that "the action takes place yesterday, today and tomorrow", which alone justifies director David Freeman's updating
In their analysis, Halliday and Hasan identify a more complex type of collocation that is nonsystematic and relies on associations between items, making it challenging to define or classify As Tanskanen (2006:61) notes, this ambiguity prevents the establishment of definitive rules to determine related items Building on this, Martin (1992) redefined collocations by categorizing them into two distinct types: nuclear relations, which extend and enhance meaning, and activity sequence relations.
Semantic Features
In linguistics, word meanings are defined through semantic features, which are distinct properties that differ from one another Consequently, a word's meaning is represented as a collection of these features, which may include just one element (Coleman, Kay 1981:26).
Semantic features refer to the shared information and meanings associated with words that speakers of a language collectively understand These features help define the meanings of "content words" and certain "function words," allowing for a clearer understanding of language.
Semantic properties, also known as meaning properties, refer to the elements of linguistic units—such as morphemes, words, or sentences—that contribute to their overall meaning These properties encompass fundamental concepts known as semantic features, which are considered primitive elements that cannot be further defined.
(Source: http://arisprimetime.blogspot.com/2014/08/semantic-features.html)
Semantic features are linguistic units that help define the individual meanings of words They describe the semantic components of a term, such as the features associated with "man," which include being human, male, and adult Similarly, "female" serves as a common component for words like "girl," "woman," and "actress." Thus, semantic properties are essential for defining the semantic field of a word or group of words.
The assassin was stopped before he got to Mr Adam
The term "assassin" is commonly understood to refer to a human who attempts to murder a significant figure, rather than an animal or an inconspicuous individual, such as a small shop owner This understanding encompasses the semantic properties of the word, indicating that an assassin is inherently a murderer targeting important people Such shared knowledge highlights the collective agreement among speakers regarding the meaning of the term.
The meanings of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, known as 'content words,' can be partially defined by their properties Additionally, some 'function words' like "with" and "over" also contribute to this understanding.
In the exploration of meaning, both denotation and connotation play crucial roles Denotation refers to the literal definition of a word, while connotation encompasses the additional meanings and emotional associations that extend beyond the primary definition, as highlighted by Richards et al (1999:78, 101) Understanding these distinctions is essential for a comprehensive grasp of language and its implications.
Words and phrases convey the emotions and attitudes people hold towards their meanings For instance, while a child is technically defined as a young human being, various characteristics such as affectionate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating, and grubby are often associated with them by different individuals.
The denotation of a word or phrase refers to its explicit or direct meaning, encompassing the common associations it evokes among speakers of a language This understanding contrasts with the personal interpretations that may arise from an individual's unique experiences.
The terms "home" and "house" share similar primary meanings, with "home" defined as a shelter for individuals or families, and "house" as a physical building for living However, they evoke different emotional associations; "home" is often associated with belonging and comfort, while "house" is perceived merely as a structure.
Collocation
Collocation, as defined by Colin McIntosh (2012), refers to the natural combination of words in a language that leads to fluent speech and writing For instance, in English, we commonly use phrases like "strong wind" and "heavy rain," while "heavy wind" or "strong rain" sound unnatural Additionally, collocations can include structures like "quantifier + noun," exemplified by phrases such as "a beam/ray of light."
“preposition + noun”, such as “by the light of the moon” or the collocation “the light of the moon” is also mentioned
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2014), the term "a group of (noun)" serves as a general collective noun in English, indicating that it can replace various collective nouns This highlights the semantic characteristics inherent in collective nouns.
SUMMARY
Chapter 2 provides a theoretical foundation for the study by defining and classifying collective nouns It explores the cohesive relations and semantic features associated with these nouns, enabling the author to examine the linguistic characteristics of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese short stories This analysis highlights both the similarities and differences between the two languages.
Chapter Three METHODS AND PROCEDURES
This chapter outlines the study's methods and procedures, detailing the interconnected approaches employed to investigate data and derive results It describes the data collection and analysis processes that culminated in the final findings Additionally, it provides a thorough account of how challenges encountered during the study were addressed, along with an examination of the study's validity and reliability.
RESEARCH METHODS
In order to reach the goal of the investigation, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were dealt with to answer the research questions
This study employs a qualitative approach to analyze the lexical cohesion and semantic characteristics of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese short stories, highlighting their similarities and differences Additionally, a quantitative method is utilized to measure the frequency of these collective nouns' occurrences.
This article employs a descriptive method to thoroughly examine the cohesive and semantic characteristics of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese Additionally, an analytic method is utilized to elucidate and validate specific features of these nouns Finally, a comparative and contrastive approach is essential for highlighting the similarities and differences in cohesive and semantic attributes between collective nouns in the two languages.
In summary, various methods serve as guidelines for conducting research, but the choice of dominant methods—descriptive and analytic—depends on the specific goals of the thesis, as these are the most commonly utilized approaches in academic work.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
In order for the study to be carried out, the following researching techniques have been applied:
- Works of renowned Vietnamese and foreign specialists in the field of lexical cohesive and semantic features were consulted to lay a rudimentary theoretical grounding for the study
- Many materials related to collective nouns in English and Vietnamese are collected from short stories of well-known authors in English and Vietnamese
- The lexical cohesive and semantic features of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese were shown
- A comparison was made to find out the similarities and differences between collective nouns in the two languages in terms of the lexical cohesive and semantic features
- Some implications in teaching and learning English and some suggestions for further research were given.
DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS
Data Collection
This study analyzes 100 English and 100 Vietnamese samples from short stories, focusing on the use of collective nouns In English, collective nouns are typically preceded by the indefinite article "a/an" and followed by a prepositional phrase that includes "of" plus a plural noun or noun phrase In contrast, the Vietnamese samples feature collective nouns preceded by the cardinal number "một" and followed by nouns or noun phrases The samples were carefully selected from renowned short stories in both languages, and the researcher meticulously reviewed various texts to ensure that all collective nouns were identified and included in the analysis.
This thesis explores various English collective nouns sourced from numerous short stories It involves selecting sentences or paragraphs that feature these collective nouns and categorizing them based on their lexical cohesion and semantic characteristics.
Data in Vietnamese literature is gathered from the short stories of notable writers like Nguyen Huy Thiep, Thach Lam, Nguyen Khai, Nam Cao, and Nguyen Nhat Anh During the reading process, sentences and paragraphs featuring collective nouns are carefully selected and categorized for analysis.
Description of Samples
To effectively select appropriate data for this study, samples consist of sentences or paragraphs featuring collective nouns followed by the structure "a group, a team, a herd, a cow + of + plural nouns." The sampling process is conducted randomly to ensure each instance has an equal chance of being included in the corpus Below are examples of collective nouns found in English and Vietnamese short stories.
I watched the traffic going up the Grand
Concourse A bunch of kids was waiting at the bus stop at the corner
Mùa chim làm tổ, lũ trẻ thường lấy trộm những mẩu vải màu của cha mẹ và các chị đặt lên tổ cho bầy chim tha về làm tổ
Data Analysis
The study examines and classifies samples of collective nouns from English and Vietnamese short stories, focusing on their lexical cohesion and semantic features By synthesizing the data, the writer compares the usage of collective nouns in both languages, highlighting the similarities and differences in their lexical cohesion and semantic characteristics A detailed analysis reveals the unique aspects of collective nouns in English and Vietnamese narratives.
Vietnamese Tables were used for clearer presentation and comparison Finally, based on the data analysis result, a conclusion is drawn.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
To establish the reliability and validity of this study, the data sources, theoretical framework, and findings are thoroughly examined The research utilizes credible data from renowned short stories, specifically selected from the anthology "American Short Stories: 1920 to the Present," which showcases a diverse range of literary voices and chronicles the evolution of the American short story over the past century Esteemed literary figures, such as Edgar Allan Poe, are acknowledged for their pivotal role in shaping the short story genre Similarly, the Vietnamese data is sourced from well-respected authors like Thach Lam, Nam Cao, Nguyen Quang Thieu, To Hoai, and Nguyen Nhat Anh, ensuring the authenticity of the examples used The reliance on established literary works from both American and Vietnamese authors underscores the study's commitment to high-quality, reliable data.
The study is grounded in the authentic theoretical framework of Halliday and Hasan's cohesive features, as detailed in their reputable book "Cohesion in English," which offers comprehensive insights, clear explanations, and specific examples of cohesion and its various cohesive devices Additionally, the semantic aspects of the thesis are informed by Alan Cruse's "A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics," which provides essential definitions and concepts that form a foundational basis for the research By utilizing these resources, the researcher effectively grasps and applies the theories, leading to reliable findings in the study.
The findings of this study provide a valuable foundation for future research, allowing for comparisons and contrasts with related studies Additionally, the results enhance learners' understanding of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting the practical significance of the research With all procedures conducted in a systematic manner, this thesis ensures a high level of validity.
For the mentioned reasons, the study can be considered reliable and valuable.
SUMMARY
In conclusion, Chapter 3 outlines the research procedures and methods employed for data collection and analysis, while Chapter 4 presents the study's findings and insights.
Chapter Four FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter aims to address the research questions by exploring the cohesive and semantic features of collective nouns in both English and Vietnamese It highlights the similarities and differences between the two languages regarding these features, providing a comprehensive analysis of how collective nouns function in each language.
LEXICAL COHESIVE FEATURES OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS IN
Lexical Reiteration
Coherence in text is achieved through the repetition of key words and phrases, known as lexical reiteration According to Tran Ngoc Them (1985), lexical reiteration involves cohesive items that refer to the same entity or event Halliday and Hasan (1976) further explain that reiteration includes the repetition of a lexical item or its synonyms within a context where both occurrences share the same reference Typically, reiterated lexical items are paired with reference items like "the" or demonstratives, creating cohesion through reference However, reiteration itself is inherently cohesive, as it maintains textual unity even without direct referential links A coherent text ensures that all sentences relate to the same subjects or events, making lexical repetition essential for clarity Reiteration encompasses the repetition of lexical items, the use of general terms for preceding items, and the incorporation of synonyms, near-synonyms, or super-ordinate terms Analyzing the elements of reiteration reveals the cohesive functions of collective nouns in text.
Repetition is a crucial technique for ensuring text cohesion, as it links sentences and paragraphs through the consistent use of specific keywords This method not only connects ideas but also highlights the central theme of the writing For instance, I recently discovered a package of letters belonging to my father in a footlocker stored at the back of our house in Lake Charles, Louisiana Among many packages, I found hundreds of letters, including copies of those he sent while trying to get us out of Vietnam.
In the provided examples, the phrase "a package of letters" is reiterated as "this package of letters," which enhances the clarity and precision of the text However, excessive lexical repetition can lead to reader discomfort To maintain engagement, writers should skillfully blend lexical repetition with other linguistic techniques In this case, the writer substitutes the article "a" with the demonstrative pronoun "this," demonstrating an effective approach to avoid redundancy while maintaining coherence.
As in English, in Vietnamese short stories, repetition plays an important role in forming coherence, precision, clarity, and unambiguity
(4.2) Cô nghe thấy cả tiếng bầy kiến gọi nhau trên những song cửa sổ trong cuộc hành trình không ngủ của bầy kiến
(4.3) Khoảng ba giờ chiều thì bầy chim trở về Chúng xuất hiện phía xa như một đám mây Đám mây mỗi lúc một lớn
Cohesion in writing is effectively achieved through the repetition of specific words and phrases, such as "bầy kiến" and "đám mây." This strategic use of lexical items not only enhances readability but also directs the reader's attention to the main content, ensuring a clearer understanding of the text.
In both English and Vietnamese short stories, the use of synonymy with collective nouns enhances textual coherence by preventing the repetitive use of specific words or phrases According to Tran Ngoc Them (31.1:137), synonymy serves as a cohesive device, employing various words or phrases that convey similar meanings.
Let us examine the following examples in English
In a lively scene, a boy and girl enjoyed a game of tennis in a driveway, while across the street, a group of children in colorful sun suits played on the lawn in front of a white stone building Their nurse, clad in white with dark glasses, sat quietly engrossed in a book The cheerful sounds of the children’s laughter floated through the air, and as I observed, a flock of pigeons descended into the driveway, only to take off again when another child approached, pulling along a toy.
Synonymy serves to prevent repetition in writing, as illustrated by the interchangeable use of "a group of little fellows" and "the children." By employing synonyms, authors can enhance their work's variety without sacrificing coherence, precision, or clarity, ultimately keeping the narrative engaging for readers.
Also, it is easy to find out synonyms of collective nouns that are popularly used in Vietnamese short stories Let have a look at the following examples
(4.5) Đàn chim bứt những chùm hoa vải phủ kín lên con chim chúa Đêm ấy bầy chim ở lại bãi vải Và sáng hôm sau thì chúng bay đi
Trong những khoảnh khắc yên tĩnh, lũ trẻ cảm nhận như mình đang trôi trên cỏ, và sau này, chúng gọi đó là lúc những chú chim thần bay về khu vườn Một lần, khi đang ngồi dưới gốc phù dung thưởng thức me chua đất với muối, chúng bỗng nghe thấy tiếng động lạ.
It is clear that the collective nouns “đàn chim” and “bầy chim”, “bọn trẻ” and “ lũ trẻ” are similar in meaning
4.1.1.3 Super-ordinate and General Words
Superordinate terms refer to the relationship between classes and subclasses, where certain words are connected through varying degrees of generality A superordinate word encompasses a broader category that includes more specific terms For instance, in the English language, examples can illustrate this hierarchical relationship among words.
The steamer Vyestnik, carrying a crowd of passengers, is unable to proceed as it approaches the stanitsa, resulting in both steamers coming to a standstill With a military band onboard, the Vyestnik has been the center of a festive atmosphere, entertaining the captain and sailors with music throughout the previous day, which has contributed to delays in repairs The lively performance has particularly delighted the female passengers, including schoolgirls, who are enjoying the presence of officers and naval personnel.
Identifying the immediate super-ordinate of collective nouns in English short stories can be challenging However, we intuitively recognize that a "crowd of passengers" encompasses terms such as "the captain," "sailors," "a band," "officers," "naval men," and "schoolgirls." This relationship highlights that "a crowd of passengers" serves as the immediate super-ordinate for these specific roles and groups.
In Vietnamese short stories, the author also uses the immediate super- ordinate technique as shown in the following examples
Vào đêm thứ ba, cô gái lại tìm cách lên bờ để ngắt những chùm hoa cải mang về, nhưng hành động của cô đã bị một chàng trai khoảng ba mươi tuổi, mặc quân phục cũ, phát hiện Trong những ngày trước đó, mẹ của chàng trai thường xuống bến sớm và nhận thấy những luống hoa cải mà bà để giống bị ngắt nham nhở Bà đã ca thán với con trai, khiến chàng trai quyết định rình bắt kẻ phá hoại Khi Chinh đang quỳ trước đám hoa cải, vuốt ve và thì thầm trò chuyện, bỗng nghe tiếng quát khẽ nhưng gắt của chàng trai.
The collective noun "đám hoa cải" serves as a superordinate term for "luống hoa cải," which in turn acts as a superordinate for the subordinate member "chùm hoa cải."
Utilizing the immediate super-ordinate technique enhances text coherence by assuming that readers possess a shared understanding of the subjects discussed, including people, things, and animals Additionally, the strategic use of short superordinates not only minimizes repetition but also optimizes the text's space efficiency.
Collocation
Collocation plays a crucial role in achieving lexical cohesion, as highlighted in the study's background It refers to a sequence of lexical items that maintains a continuity of meaning This section will explore several key aspects of collocation, including (i) superordinates and co-hyponyms within the same superordinate terms, (ii) unordered lexical sets, (iii) relationships such as part-to-whole and part-to-part, and (iv) various types of collocation, including complementary, similar patterns, and near-synonyms.
4.1.2.1 Superordinates and Co-hyponym of the Same Superordinate Terms a Superordinate
The term "superordinate" refers to a broader category that encompasses more specific classes This concept aligns with the way general words have been previously discussed, highlighting the cohesive nature of language Additionally, co-hyponyms share the same superordinate terms, illustrating the relationships among different categories.
According to Halliday and Hasan, there may be co-hyponym of the same superordinate terms, both members of the same more general class, such as chair
In English short stories, collective nouns often share co-hyponyms under the same superordinate terms, a phenomenon that is not present in Vietnamese For instance, both "table" and "chair" are hyponyms of "furniture," while "drive" is a co-hyponym of "go." This unique aspect of English collocation highlights the differences in how languages categorize and relate concepts.
Although I don't read music, I find myself drawn to it, often spending hours poring over opera scores, fascinated by the arrangement of notes, dashes, semi-circles, triangles, and other musical symbols, despite not understanding their meaning or gaining any insight from them.
In fact, “ the dashes”, “the semi-circles”, “the triangles” are both hyponyms of the collective noun “a group of notes”
Halliday and Hasan describe unordered lexical sets as pairs of words that are related but not in a specific order, such as colors like red and green, or elements of a building, such as basement and roof Additionally, various types of unordered series can be observed in both English and Vietnamese languages.
I navigated through muddy terrain before finding a soft, newly trodden path that led me to the dark gates of a monastery These gates appeared like a cavern shrouded in smoke, surrounded by a chaotic crowd of people, unbridled horses, carts, and chaises The atmosphere was filled with laughter and noise, as crimson light and flickering shadows danced over the scene.
(E05) (4.11) A crowd of students white with snow, talking and laughing gaily, passed by
A tall, thin man leaned in close to Vassiliev, slurring his words as he declared, "He's one of our own Got it, old man? Aha! Don't worry, my friend Keep moving forward and never give up, uncle."
The collective noun "a crowd of people" effectively pairs with the verbs "rattling," "snorting," and "laughing," while "a crowd of students" aligns well with the verbs "talking" and "laughing." This demonstrates the cohesive relationship between collective nouns and their corresponding actions.
This type of cohesion is also shown clearly in Vietnamese short stories as the following extraction
Bầy chim chọn bãi nghỉ trước khi bay về vùng đất ngập nước cách làng Ngần khoảng 50 cây số, nơi chúng sinh sống từ mùa xuân đến đầu đông để kiếm ăn và sinh nở Khi di cư về phương nam, chúng bay theo một lộ trình khác và khi trở về, chúng lại chọn một con đường khác để nghỉ ngơi vào giữa chiều.
Khi con ngựa cúi xuống ăn cỏ, Huy chú ý đến bờm dày, trắng và sạch sẽ của nó, nơi có những chỗ được tết lại giống như đuôi sam của các bé gái.
The collective nouns "bầy chim" (flock of birds) and "đám lông bờm" (group of feathers) demonstrate cohesion with the unordered series "kiếm ăn" (foraging), "sinh nở" (breeding), "bay về" (flying home) and "dày" (thick), "trắng" (white), "sạch sẽ" (clean), as analyzed by Halliday and Hasan.
4.1.2.3 Part to Whole and Part to Part Collocation a Part to whole
Part-to-whole collocations often reveal recognizable semantic relationships among set members, such as "car" and "brake" or "box" and "lid." Similarly, part-to-part relationships can be observed in pairs like "mouth" and "chin" or "verse" and "chorus." These connections highlight the intrinsic associations within language, illustrating how components relate to one another.
Eric and his sister were enjoying a game of football with neighborhood kids until an older boy attempted to dictate Eric's play style and movements Frustrated with the direction of the game, Eric decided to leave, taking the football home with him.
In the given example, the phrase "the older boys" serves as a referential component to the collective noun "a bunch of kids," illustrating the concept of part-to-whole collocation This linguistic phenomenon is also prevalent in the Vietnamese language, as evidenced by our collected samples.
(4.15) Đám trai làng hầu như chẳng để ý đến cô Nếu có chàng nào nói chuyện với cô thì cũng chỉ là những câu đùa cho vui mà thôi
(V08) (4.16) Ngần đã kể cho Thư nghe về bầy chim ấy, cả câu chuyện về con chim chúa và cái lông chim màu đỏ
According to Halliday and Hasan (1994: 285), the term "chàng" functions as a part-to-whole collocation linked to the collective noun "đám trai làng." Similarly, "con chim chúa" and "cái lông chim" are referentially associated with the collective noun "bầy chim," illustrating the part-to-whole relationship in these linguistic constructs.
Like part to whole collocation that is popularly and commonly used in both languages, part to part collocation can be collected in our samples
SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS IN ENGLISH AND
Semantic Features of Collective Nouns in English Short Stories
4.2.1.1 Collective Nouns Used for People
Collective nouns denoting people can be classified into two main types: a group of people working together and a group of people in general
(Source: https://www.vocabulary.cl/Lists/collective-nouns.htm) a Collective Nouns denoting a group of people working together
To emphasize a group of people who work together for a common goal, we have many different collective nouns as shown in the following examples
Yesterday, I attended a service at the Russian church, where I noticed the unique use of palm branches instead of willows The choir, composed of ladies rather than boy choristers, added an operatic quality to the singing Additionally, attendees contributed foreign currency in the collection plate, and the verger and beadle communicated in French, highlighting the church's international atmosphere.
A choir is a group of people who sing together They rehearse together and sing at concerts or for religious services, especially in a church
Collective noun denoting a group of people working together can also include “a company ” A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain For example:
Colonel Tung's initial effort to eliminate the fish ended in failure, surprising everyone, including the Buddhists Following his orders, a company of soldiers led by a young lieutenant named Han set out from the village early one summer morning, heading towards the bridge.
A Company is also used to describe a group of actors that usually perform together in different plays This can be found in the following utterances
The current production of 'Once Upon a Mattress' features a diverse cast of actors with varying physical and mental disabilities, creating a unique and thought-provoking experience for the audience While some performers may initially appear strikingly different, others blend seamlessly into the ensemble, challenging perceptions and fostering inclusivity in theater.
The term "a group" is frequently used to refer to a collection of individuals, particularly those collaborating in a specific environment.
(4.25) Charlie watched a group of strident queens installing themselves in a corner
(E12) (4.26) They were Americans, a group of doctors and their spouses from Philadelphia They were a nice, but demanding bunch Today, they'd leave for Rome
(E13) Concerning all the working members on a ship or plane, the collective noun
“ a crew” can be used as shown in the following example:
(4.27) Statham stars as former Naval captain Jonas Taylor trying to save his ex-wife and a crew of sailors trapped in a submersible ship He tangles with a giant, rampaging shark
The collective noun “ a cast” can play the role in describing the actors who work together in a certain movie or play as reported in the quotation below
At the heart of this narrative lies a cigar store, a hub for an eclectic mix of intriguing characters The absence of a traditional storyline or script allows for a captivating series of situations that serve as a vibrant showcase for the talented cast.
(E15) However, a troupe is also used to identify a group of actors, singers, or dancers who work together and often travel around together, performing in different places For example:
One summer evening, Princess Tara returned home late after a day of hawking, aware that a troupe of performers from the lowlands had arrived to entertain the king, having been sent by King Belen to King Rinzen.
A team is a collective noun used to show a group of individuals playing on the same side generally with the same objectives
Many players often gain a better reputation in the eyes of fans after they retire, leading to the perception that past teams were superior In fact, I believe that a current team of active players could potentially outperform those legendary players from the past.
Collective nouns for students, such as "a class of students," are commonly used by teachers during conversations and school-related activities While these phrases do not specify the exact number of students present, they evoke the image of a full classroom Typically, when referring to a "class of students," the context involves discussions about students within a school environment.
Mr Ibarra guided me through a series of makeshift classrooms, where I encountered a group of students who appeared to be at least two years younger than me During our lunch break, I stepped outside to the desolate grass area behind the school.
(E18) b Collective Nouns denoting a group of people in general
A group of people refers to individuals gathered in one location at a specific time, or considered collectively as a unit Various collective nouns can describe such groups, including terms for criminals, young men engaging in delinquent behavior, friends, or workers and prisoners collaborating These collective nouns are frequently found in literature, as demonstrated in the example: "Across the street, a group of little fellows in bright sunsuits was playing on a long stretch of lawn before a white stone building."
On a chilly spring afternoon, I took a detour through the playground at the end of our alley while walking home from school There, I noticed a group of elderly men gathered together; two were seated at a folding table engrossed in a game of chess, while others enjoyed smoking pipes, munching on peanuts, and observing the game.
(E20) Collective nouns denoting a group of people can also include “ a crowd”
That phrase is used to show a large group of people that come together somewhere The following extractions are typical examples:
(4.34) Old Man Warner was saying, “Come on, come on, everyone.” Steve Adams was in the front of the crowd of villagers, with Mrs Graves beside him
(E21) (4.35) A small weekend crowd of Chinese people and tourists would gather as I played and defeated my opponents one by one
One of the popular collective nouns that appear in our data is “a bunch”
A group of individuals, often referred to as a "bunch of people," shares common traits or engages in a collective activity For instance, while observing the traffic on the Grand Concourse, I noticed a bunch of kids waiting at the bus stop on the corner.
As we stroll by a large, aged red school, we observe white children joyfully playing in the yard Nearby, we notice a café bustling with patrons enjoying their meals.
(E24) (4.38) It didn’t make sense to me When they talked about reds, all I could imagine was a bunch of little devils in red suits, carrying pitchforks
(E25) Sometimes, a collective noun “a tribe” can also refer to the group of people that all have common ancestry, or a common ancestor, a common culture, and live in their own enclosed society
(4.39) “Me and some buddies went to a Pacific island where there was a tribe of people with little tails,” he said
Pterosaurs possess feathers that are primarily natal down, which they shed upon reaching maturity While these feathers may seem insignificant, they serve a purpose in their early development Ultimately, the experience of losing these feathers is preferable to the potential threat posed by a hostile tribe of natives, a reality that you, Kate, were well aware of long before their discovery of us.
The term "a mob" is often used disapprovingly to describe the majority of people in a country or area, particularly when they exhibit violent or unruly behavior.
Semantic Features of Collective Nouns in Vietnamese Short Stories
4.2.2.1 Collective Nouns used for people a Collective nouns denoting a group of people working together
The most common collective nouns for a group of people working together are “nhóm”, “đội” and “ đoàn” as shown in the below examples
(4.91) Năm mười tám tuổi, Trương Chi đi lính Anh chỉ huy một đội quân thủy, và góp nhiều chiến tích đánh bại giặc ngoại xâm
Sáng hôm sau, lễ tuyên thệ được tổ chức long trọng tại Sài Gòn với sự tham gia đông đảo, lên tới hơn sáu ngàn người, trong đó có mười đại diện chính phủ, ngoại trừ ông Lưu Văn Lang không có mặt Sự kiện còn có sự hiện diện của sáu ngàn lính kín bảo vệ tự do cho khu vực Sài Gòn - Chợ Lớn, cùng với một đoàn ca nhạc, một kép ba đào, một đội lính Pháp với xe tăng và súng liên thanh, cùng nhiều quan chức người Pháp.
Khoát và anh Hoàn cùng một nhóm kỹ sư Việt Nam đã đến công trường để nghiên cứu cải tạo máy Họ tiến hành khoan để lấy mẫu đất, đá, cát và sét từ các tầng địa chất sâu dưới đáy sông.
(V15) b Collective nouns denoting a group of people in general
In Vietnamese, various terms are used to refer to groups of people, such as “đám người,” “đám đàn bà,” and “đám trai làng,” which indicate a gathering for a common purpose For instance, in a social context, "đám trai làng" often shows little interest in a girl, with any interactions being limited to light-hearted jokes rather than meaningful conversation.
(V16) (4.95) Người làng tôi cũng hay bàn tán về sự trẻ và đẹp mãi của cô nhất là đám đàn bà
Cả bọn đạp xe ùa ra từ quán như một bầy chuột cống, xúm lại khiêng cô về Cô kêu gào nhưng tiếng cô bị nuốt chửng bởi mưa gió Trong lúc hoảng loạn, cô cắn mạnh vào một cánh tay gần đó, khiến một thằng rú lên Cô quẫy mạnh để thoát khỏi những cánh tay như vòi bạch tuộc đang quấn lấy mình và chạy điên cuồng về phía chân đê, trong khi cả đám thanh niên sững lại, chỉ có một đứa lao theo.
(V18) (4.97) Tôi trà trộn trong đám người đi chợ quan sát chị Gương mặt chị mệt mỏi nhưng miệng chị luôn cười
In some certain cases, when referring to a group of people who are younger and have lower social status, many Vietnamese writers often use the collective noun
“lũ”, as shown in the below example
Chị đi tìm nguồn cội của mình trong sự kêu gọi của những đứa con gái, hòa cùng tiếng mẹ Gia đình tôi không đủ điều kiện để nuôi dưỡng chị, và cảm giác như chị đã ám ảnh cuộc sống của chúng tôi.
(V20) (4.99) Ông chỉ trò chuyện với con trâu cụt sừng nhà ông Ông đã cùng nó làm quần quật tháng ngày để nuôi lũ con sớm mồ côi mẹ
(V21) (4.100) Một lát sau Dịu nghe thấy tiếng anh vang lên ở phía lũ trai gái cùng đội sản xuất
Vào mùa chim làm tổ, trẻ em thường lấy trộm những mảnh vải màu sắc của cha mẹ và chị em để trang trí tổ chim Nhiều buổi chiều, chúng nằm trên cỏ, trò chuyện thầm thì và ngủ quên đến tận chiều muộn.
(V23) (4.102) Gã uống rượu đánh bạc và bị lũ con bạc đâm chết
In Vietnamese, terms such as “lũ con gái,” “lũ con,” “lũ trai gái,” “lũ trẻ,” and “lũ con bạc” are informal expressions used to refer to individuals, indicating a lack of respect from the speaker towards those being mentioned.
In certain contexts, the collective noun "bọn" can denote a group of individuals who share the same age or engage in similar activities.
Thằng Hướng, lớn tuổi hơn chúng tôi và to con, đã bỏ học từ năm lớp tám Nó thường xuyên lêu lổng và đặc biệt rất thích gây chuyện đánh nhau.
(V25) (4.104) Bọn tay chân mang đồ thờ ở đình làng vùi vào chuồng lợn nhà Mặc rồi báo cho Tuần đến khám
The collective noun “bầy” is usually seen when a group of animals is mentioned; however, in some circumstances, it is also used for people Please refer to the following example
Phúc, một người đàn ông trải qua nhiều khó khăn trong cuộc sống, đã kết hôn, sinh con, rồi góa vợ và tái hôn, lại có thêm con cái và tiếp tục góa vợ lần thứ hai Khi câu chuyện cảm động này bắt đầu, Phúc đã 71 tuổi, hơn chị tôi một tuổi.
In Vietnamese, collective nouns such as "bọn," "lũ," "đám," and "bầy" are commonly used to refer to groups of people in a friendly or informal manner These terms reflect the cultural nuances of addressing groups and are prevalent in everyday conversation among Vietnamese speakers.
Collective nouns denoting people can also include “một nhóm người” or
“đoàn người” In the Vietnamese language, these collective nouns can be seen as formal ways to refer to a group of people who appear together
Ngần đứng ở phía cuối đoàn người trên đê, che kín mặt bằng khăn len Cô luôn cảm thấy tự ti về sắc đẹp của mình, vì vậy thường tránh né đám đông.
Người viết từ chối yêu cầu của tòa soạn báo tỉnh về việc viết bài, vì anh đang tập trung hoàn thiện một cuốn tiểu thuyết miêu tả những hoạt động bí mật của nhóm thanh niên cứu quốc trước ngày khởi nghĩa.
In Vietnamese, collective nouns for people are diverse and vary based on the context of the conversation, the social status of individuals, and the speaker's attitude This flexibility in language reflects the nuances of social interactions and relationships within Vietnamese culture.
The samples of Vietnamese collective nouns denoting people are summarized in the following table
Table 4.4 A summary of Vietnamese Collective Nouns used for People
Collective Nouns Head Nouns Collective Nouns denoting a group of people working together
Một đội quân thủy lính Pháp
Collective Nouns denoting a group of people in general Đám đàn bà trai làng thanh niên người đi chợ
Lũ con gái Con trai gái trẻ con bạc
Bọn học trò tay chân
4.2.2.2 Collective Nouns Used for Animals
“Bầy” and “đàn” are two common collective nouns that are used for most animals in the Vietnamese language in general and in Vietnamese short stories in particular
Vào những ngày mưa tháng Giêng ấm áp, bầy chim từ phương Bắc trở về để tránh rét Bãi vải rộng lớn, kéo dài gần một cây số bên triền sông quê Ngần, trở thành nơi dừng chân lý tưởng cho chúng.
(4.109) Đàn chim bứt những chum hoa phải phủ kín lên con chim chúa Đêm ấy bầy chim ở lại bãi vải Và sáng hôm sau thì chúng bay đi
In fact, all bird species can apply the collective nouns “bầy” or “đàn” since they are not quite different in meaning