Theories in second language acquisition an introduction

Theories in Second Language Acquisition The second edition of the best-selling Theories in Second Language Acquisition builds on the strengths of the first edition by surveying the major theories currently used in second language acquisition (SLA) research, serving as an ideal introductory text for undergraduate and graduate students in SLA and language teaching Each chapter focuses on a single theory, written by a leading scholar in the field in an easy-to-follow style—a basic foundational description of the theory, relevant data or research models used with this theory, common misunderstandings, and a sample study from the field to show the theory in practice This text is designed to provide a consistent and coherent presentation for those new to the field who seek basic understanding of theories that underlie contemporary SLA research but will also be useful to researchers as a “quick guide” to theoretical work outside their respective domains Bill VanPatten is professor of Spanish and second language studies at Michigan State University Jessica Williams is professor of linguisics at the University of Illinois at Chicago Second Language Acquisition Research Series: Theoretical and Methodological Issues Susan M Gass and Alison Mackey, Editors Monographs on Theoretical Issues: Schachter/Gass Second Language Classroom Research: Issues and Opportunities (1996) Birdsong Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypotheses (1999) Ohta Second Language Acquisition Processes in the Classroom: Learning Japanese (2001) Major Foreign Accent: Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Second Language Phonology (2001) VanPatten Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary (2003) VanPatten/Williams/Rott/Overstreet Form-Meaning Connections in Second Language Acquisition (2004) Bardovi-Harlig/Hartford Interlanguage Pragmatics: Exploring Institutional Talk (2005) Dörnyei The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition (2005) Long Problems in SLA (2007) VanPatten/Williams Theories in Second Language Acquisition (2007) Ortega/Byrnes The Longitudinal Study of Advanced L2 Capacities (2008) Liceras/Zobl/Goodluck The Role of Formal Features in Second Language Acquisition (2008) Philp/Adams/Iwashita Peer Interaction and Second Language Learning (2013) VanPatten/Williams Theories in Second Language Acquisition, Second Edition (2014) Monographs on Research Methodology: Tarone/Gass/Cohen Research Methodology in Second Language Acquisition (1994) Yule Referential Communication Tasks (1997) Gass/Mackey Stimulated Recall Methodology in Second Language Research (2000) Markee Conversation Analysis (2000) Gass/Mackey Data Elicitation for Second and Foreign Language Research (2007) Duff Case Study Research in Applied Linguistics (2007) McDonough/Trofimovich Using Priming Methods in Second Language Research (2008) Larson-Hall A Guide to Doing Statistics in Second Language Research Using SPSS (2009) Dörnyei/Taguchi Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing, 2nd Edition (2009) Bowles The Think-Aloud Controversy in Second Language Research (2010) Jiang Conducting Reaction Time Research for Second Language Studies (2011) Barkhuizen/Benson/Chik Narrative Inquiry in Language Teaching and Learning Research (2013) Jegerski/VanPatten Research Methods in Second Language Psycholinguistics (2013) Of Related Interest: Gass Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner (1997) Gass/Sorace/Selinker Second Language Learning Data Analysis, Second Edition (1998) Mackey/Gass Second Language Research: Methodology and Design (2005) Gass/Selinker Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course, Third Edition (2008) Theories in Second Language Acquisition An Introduction Second Edition Edited by Bill VanPatten and Jessica Williams MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AND UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO This edition first published 2015 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Taylor & Francis The right of Bill VanPatten and Jessica Williams to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and as the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe [First edition published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc 2007] Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Theories in second language acquisition : an introduction / Bill VanPatten and Jessica Williams, Michigan State University and University of Illinois at Chicago — Second Edition pages cm — (Second Language Acquisition Research Series) Includes bibliographical references and index Second language acquisition I VanPatten, Bill, editor II Williams, Jessica, 1957– editor P118.2.T45 2015 418.0071—dc23 2014018009 ISBN: 978-0-415-82420-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-82421-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-62894-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents Preface Acknowledgments 1 Introduction: The Nature of Theories Bill VanPatten and Jessica Williams 2 Early Theories in SLA Bill VanPatten and Jessica Williams 3 Linguistic Theory, Universal Grammar, and Second Language Acquisition Lydia White 4 One Functional Approach to SLA: The Concept-Oriented Approach Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig 5 Usage-Based Approaches to SLA Nick C Ellis and Stefanie Wulff 6 Skill Acquisition Theory Robert DeKeyser 7 Input Processing in Adult SLA Bill VanPatten 8 The Declarative/Procedural Model: A Neurobiologically Motivated Theory of First and Second Language Michael T Ullman 9 Processability Theory Manfred Pienemann and Anke Lenzing 10 Input, Interaction, and Output in Second Language Acquisition Susan M Gass and Alison Mackey 11 Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Development James P Lantolf, Steven L Thorne, and Matthew E Poehner 12 Complexity Theory Diane Larsen-Freeman 13 Second Language Learning Explained? SLA across 10 Contemporary Theories Lourdes Ortega Contributors Glossary Index Index Page numbers in italics indicate figures Page numbers followed by “n” (such as 131n6) indicate endnotes abstraction, associative bases of 79–81 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 25 “The Acquisition of Grammatical Morphemes by Adult Learners” (Larsen-Freeman) 28–9 acquisition orders 10 adaptive systems 228, 229–30, 277 Affective Filter Hypothesis 27 affordances 231, 277 alignment, unmarked 168–9, 285 Aljaafreh, A 212 analogy 19 Andersen, R W 56–7 Anterior Negativities (ANs) 147, 151 artificial grammars/languages 150–2 assessment, dynamic 215–17, 279 associative learning 75, 77–8, 79–81, 82–3 attention 82–3, 190–2, 277, 281 automaticity 96, 185, 277 automatization 95–7, 98, 277 Bardovi-Harlig, K 61–5 basal ganglia 137, II (color plate) behavioral conditioning 18–19 behavioral evidence 144–5 behaviorism and structural linguistics: about 17–18; evidence for 21; explicit/implicit debate 22–3; observable phenomena 21–2; theory and its constructs 18–21 bilingualism and bilingual competencies 269–70 Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) 28 blocking 83 Broca’s area 136–7, 277 Chinese language 37–8, 39, 43–5 Clahsen, H 45–6, 150 clarification requests 186, 187–8 classical conditioning 18 co-adaptation 229–30, 278 cognition 79, 246, 247, 248–51, 266–8, 284 Complexity Theory (CT): evidence for 232–3; exemplary study 233–5; explicit/implicit debate 239; first language, role of 255, 256; future challenges 268–9; instruction, role of 263, 266; interlanguage, nature of 251, 254; knowledge and cognition 247, 250–1; linguistic environment contributions 257, 259–60; misunderstandings, common 233; observable phenomena 235–9; theory and its constructs 227–32; transdisciplinary nature of 227–8 comprehensible input 26–7, 278 comprehension, effortful 115, 279 comprehension checks 186, 188 computer simulations of complex systems 232–3 concept-oriented approach: evidence for 59–60; exemplary study 61–5; explicit/implicit debate 67–8; first language, role of 255, 256; instruction, role of 262, 263; interlanguage, nature of 251, 252, 253; knowledge and cognition 247, 250; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258, 260; misunderstandings, common 60–1; observable phenomena 65–7; origins of 58–9; theory and its constructs 54–8 conditioning 18–19 confirmation checks 186, 187 connectionism 80–1 constituent structure 165, 167 constructions 75, 76–7, 85–6, 278 constructs 6–7, 278; see also specific constructs content words/content lexical items 115–16, 278 Contextual Constraint Principle 121 contingency 80, 278 Contrastive Analysis 20–1, 22, 24 Cook, Vivian 269 corpora 83–4, 172, 278 correlational studies 144–5 Creative Construction Hypothesis 24 Critical Period Hypothesis 5, 7 criticisms and appeal of 31 CT see Complexity Theory cultural artifacts 210, 278 declarative knowledge 95, 103, 278 declarative memory 137–8, 139, 140–1, 142, 153; see also Declarative/Procedural model Declarative/Procedural model (DP model): about 135; declarative memory 137–8, 139, 140–1, 142, 153; evidence for 144–8; exemplary study 150–2; explicit/implicit debate 142, 143–4, 152–4; first language, role of 255, 256; instruction, role of 263, 264; interlanguage, nature of 251, 252; knowledge and cognition 247, 249; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258; misunderstandings, common 148–50; observable phenomena 152; predictions for language 139–44; procedural memory 138–9, 141–2, 153; theory and its constructs 136–44 De Jong, N 100, 103–4 DeKeyser, R M 100 developmental problem 161, 279 developmental sequences 10 developmental trajectory 160, 279 Dimroth, C 66–7 dissociation, double 145, 279 distributed versus massed practice 99–100, 279 double dissociation 145, 279 DP model see Declarative/Procedural model dynamic assessment 215–17, 279 effortful comprehension 115, 279 elaborations 183 electrophysiological evidence 146–7, 150–2 Ellis, N C 85–6, 89 Ellis, R 12–13, 198 emergence 64–5, 227–8, 229, 279 emergentism 252, 254, 279 endstate 42, 47, 88, 255, 279 Erlam, R 198 error, predictive 231 Eskildsen, S 233–5, 236 Event Probability Principle 120 Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) 146–7, 150–2, II (color plate) evidence, negative 183–4 exemplar-based learning 76, 79–81 exemplars 79, 279 experience, theorizing 268–9 explicit feedback 186 explicit/implicit debate: about 11–13; behaviorism and structural linguistics 22–3; Complexity Theory 239; concept-oriented approach 67–8; Declarative/Procedural model 142, 143–4, 152–4; future challenges 267–8; input processing 129; interaction approach 198; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 48–9; Monitor Theory 30; Processability Theory 177; Skill Acquisition Theory 105–6; Sociocultural Theory 219–21; usage-based approaches 88–9 explicit knowledge 12–13, 220; see also explicit/implicit debate explicit learning 12, 153–4, 279; see also explicit/implicit debate exposure to input see Observation 1 (exposure to input) eye-tracking 123 feature unification 162, 165–6, 279–80 feedback 186–90, 231 Felser, C 45–6 first language, role of 254–6, 255; see also Observation 8 (limits on effects of first language) First-Noun Principle 119, 121, 123, 126, 127 foreign accents in adult learners 7 form-meaning connections 113, 280; see also input processing form-to-function approach 54 4-3-2 procedure 103–4 frequency 18, 257, 259–61; see also Observation 7 (limits on effects of frequency) Full Transfer Full Access Hypothesis (FTFA) 42–3 functionalist approaches 54–5, 58–9; see also concept-oriented approach functional load 56, 280 functional neuroimaging evidence 147–8 functional structure 167 function-to-form approach see concept-oriented approach function-to-form mapping see form-meaning connections future challenges 266–70 Gass, S 195–7 gender agreement 131n6 genetic method 213, 280 germ theory of disease 2, 6 grammars, artificial 150–2 grammaticality judgments 40–1, 280 higher mental processes 207, 208, 280 hippocampus 137, 280, II (color plate) Hulstijn, J 12 hypotheses 5, 280; see also specific hypotheses hypothesis space 164, 280 idiosyncratic knowledge in language 140 imitation 19 implicit feedback 186–90 implicit knowledge 12–13, 220; see also explicit/implicit debate implicit learning 12, 153–4, 280; see also explicit/implicit debate incidental effects see Observation 2 (incidental effects) input: comprehensible 26–7, 278; interaction approach 181–3; linguistic environment contributions 256, 257, 258–9; modified 182–3; roughly tuned 27; see also interaction approach; Observation (exposure to input); Observation 3 (limits of effects of input) input, interaction, output model see interaction approach Input Hypothesis 26–7, 180, 280; see also interaction approach input processing (IP): about 113; evidence for 122–3; exemplary study 126–7; explicit/implicit debate 129; first language, role of 255, 256; instruction, role of 263, 264–5; interlanguage, nature of 251, 253; knowledge and cognition 247, 250; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258, 260, 261; misunderstandings, common 123–6; observable phenomena 127–9; theory and its constructs 114–22 instruction: future challenges 267; observable phenomena 262, 263, 264–6; processing 125–6, 284; see also Observation 9 (limitations of instruction) interaction approach: attention 190–2; evidence for 192–4; exemplary study 195–7; explicit/implicit debate 198; feedback 186–90; first language, role of 255, 256; future challenges 267; input 181–3; instruction, role of 263, 265; interaction 183–4, 186; interlanguage, nature of 251, 253; knowledge and cognition 247, 250; language-related episodes 190; learning 186; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258–9, 260–1, 261–2; misunderstandings, common 194–5; observable phenomena 197–8; output 184–5; scope of 194–5; theory and its constructs 180–92 interface/noninterface theories of SLA 25, 281 interference 83 interlanguage 36–8, 251, 251–4 internalization 211–12, 281 interpsychological function 211, 281 intrapsychological function 211, 281 intuitional data 40–1 IP see input processing island constraints 35–6, 39, 50n1, 281 Italian language 120, 173–4, 195–7 iteration 229–30, 281 Japanese language 174–6 Juffs, A 43–5 Kawaguchi, S 174–6 Klein, W 58, 66–7 knowledge: declarative 95, 103, 278; explicit 12–13, 220; future challenges 266–8; implicit 12–13, 220; observable phenomena 246, 247, 248–51; procedural 95, 103, 283; “transformation” of 149; see also explicit/implicit debate Krashen, Stephen 24, 25, 26–7, 29, 30, 31, 214–15; see also Monitor Theory L1 Transfer Principle 120 language, as construct 7 language-related episodes (LREs) 190 languages: artificial 150–2 Lantolf, J P 212 Larsen-Freeman, D 28–9 learnability problem see logical problem learned attention 82–3, 281 learning: associative 75, 77–8, 79–81, 82–3; in behaviorism 19; difficulties in determining 193–4; exemplarbased 76, 79–81; explicit 12, 153–4, 279; implicit 12, 153–4, 280; interaction and 186; interaction approach 186; Monitor Theory 25; U-shaped 87, 285; see also explicit/implicit debate Lenzing, A 170–1 lesion method 145–6 Levelt, W J M 161–2 Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG) 161, 162, 166–8; see also Processability Theory lexical mapping 167–8, 281 Lexical Preference Principle 116 Lexical Semantics Principle 121 limitations of instruction see Observation 9 (limitations of instruction) linearization problem 167–8, 281–2 linguistic competence 34–6, 282 linguistic environment 256, 257, 258–62, 267 linguistic theory and Universal Grammar: evidence for 39–41; exemplary study 43–6; explicit/implicit debate 48–9; first language, role of 254–5, 255; instruction, role of 262, 263; interlanguage 36–8, 251, 251–2; knowledge and cognition 246, 247, 248; linguistic competence 34–6; linguistic environment contributions 256, 257, 258, 261; methodology 43; misunderstandings, common 41–3; observable phenomena 46–8; scope of theory 41–2; theory and its constructs 34–9; transfer 42–3; Universal Grammar, defined 285; Universal Grammar principles and parameters 38–9 load, functional 56, 280 Loewen, S 198 logical problem 34–5, 161, 282 Long, M H 186, 187 lower mental processes 208, 282 LREs (language-related episodes) 190 McDonough, K 195–7 Mackey, A 195–7 mapping, lexical 167–8, 281 Marxism 208 massed practice 99–100, 279 meaning, negotiation for 186, 187–8, 189, 282 Meaning before Nonmeaning Principle 118 meaning-oriented approach see concept-oriented approach medial temporal lobe (MTL) 137, II (color plate) mediation 208–11, 213, 216–17, 223n4, 282 memory: declarative 137–8, 139, 140–1, 142, 153; procedural 138–9, 141–2, 153, 283; working 2–3, 5, 6, 191, 286 mental processes: higher 207, 208, 280; lower 208, 282 metalanguage 67, 282 Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis 47 models 4–5, 282; see also specific models modified input 182–3 modified output 184–5 Monitor Hypothesis 26 Monitor Theory: about 24; Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 25; Affective Filter Hypothesis 27; criticisms and appeal of 31; evidence for 27; exemplary study 27–9; explicit/implicit debate 30; Input Hypothesis 26–7; Monitor Hypothesis 26; Natural Order Hypothesis 26, 28; observable phenomena 29–30; theory and its constructs 24–5 Morgan-Short, K 150–2 morphological stage 56, 65, 282 MTL (medial temporal lobe) 137, II (color plate) multifunctionality 57, 282 Multiple Constraints Hypothesis 171–2, 282 N400 ERP components 147, 151 Natural Order Hypothesis 26, 28 negation in English 10, 233–5, 236 negative evidence 183–4 negative transfer 20 negotiation for meaning 186, 187–8, 189, 282 neurological evidence 145–6 Newell, A 98 nonlinearity 228, 282 noticing 124–5, 282 noticing the gap 186 “null subject” languages 131n8 object-regulation 209–10 observable phenomena: about 9–11; behaviorism and structural linguistics 21–2; Complexity Theory (CT) 235–9; concept-oriented approach 65–7; by construct 256, 257, 258–62; Declarative/Procedural model 152; first language, role of 254–6, 255; input processing (IP) 127–9; instruction, role of 262, 263, 264–6; interaction approach 197–8; interlanguage, nature of 251, 251–4; knowledge and cognition 246, 247, 248–51; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 46–8; Monitor Theory 29–30; Processability Theory 176–7; Skill Acquisition Theory 104–5; Sociocultural Theory 217–19; usage-based approaches 86–8 Observation 1 (exposure to input): about 9; behaviorism and structural linguistics 21–2; Complexity Theory 235; Declarative/Procedural model 152; input processing 127; interaction approach 197; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 46; Monitor Theory 29; Sociocultural Theory 218; usage-based approaches 86 Observation 2 (incidental effects): about 9; behaviorism and structural linguistics 22; Declarative/Procedural model 152; input processing 127; interaction approach 197; Monitor Theory 29; Sociocultural Theory 218; usage-based approaches 86–7 Observation 3 (limits of effects of input): about 9; Complexity Theory 235–6; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 46; usage-based approaches 87 Observation 4 (predictable stages of output): about 10; Complexity Theory 236; concept-oriented approach 65; input processing 127–8; Monitor Theory 29–30; Processability Theory 176; Skill Acquisition Theory 104–5; Sociocultural Theory 218–19; usage-based approaches 87 Observation 5 (outcome variability of SLA): about 10; behaviorism and structural linguistics 22; Complexity Theory 236–7; Declarative/Procedural model 152; interaction approach 197; Monitor Theory 30; Processability Theory 176; Skill Acquisition Theory 104; Sociocultural Theory 219 Observation (variability of SLA across linguistic subsystems): about 10; Complexity Theory 237–8; Declarative/Procedural model 152; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 46–7; Skill Acquisition Theory 104; Sociocultural Theory 219; usage-based approaches 87 Observation 7 (limits on effects of frequency): about 10–11; Complexity Theory 238–9; input processing 128; interaction approach 197–8; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 47; Processability Theory 176; Skill Acquisition Theory 104; usage-based approaches 88 Observation (limits on effects of first language): about 11; input processing 128; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 47–8; Monitor Theory 30; Processability Theory 176; Sociocultural Theory 219; usage-based approaches 88 Observation 9 (limitations of instruction): about 11; concept-oriented approach 66–7; Declarative/Procedural model 152; input processing 128–9; linguistic theory and Universal Grammar 48; Monitor Theory 30; Processability Theory 176–7; Skill Acquisition Theory 104; usage-based approaches 88 Observation 10 (limits on effects of output): about 11; input processing 129; interaction approach 198; Monitor Theory 30; Processability Theory 177; Skill Acquisition Theory 104; Sociocultural Theory 219 O’Donnell, M B 85–6 Ohta, A 213 one-to-one principle 56–7, 267, 282 one-way tasks 192–3 open systems 228, 283 operant conditioning 18–19 operationalization 31 other-regulation 209–10 output 7, 184–5, 257, 261–2; see also interaction approach; Observation (predictable stages of output); Observation 10 (limits on effects of output) Output Hypothesis 180, 184–5, 283; see also interaction approach overlearning 96 P600 ERP components 147, 151 Paradis, M 149–50, 219–20 parsing 118–19, 283 Perfetti, C A 100, 103–4 phrase structure 165, 167 Pienemann, M 161, 163 pluperfect 64–5 Poehner, M E 216–17 positive transfer 20 poverty of the stimulus see logical problem power law 96–7, 283 practice 95–6, 99–100, 279, 283, 284 predictive error 231 Preference for Nonredundancy Lexical Preference Principle 117, 131n5 Primacy of Content Words Principle 115–16 private speech 210–11, 283 proceduralization 95, 98, 103, 283 procedural knowledge 95, 103, 283 procedural memory 138–9, 141–2, 153, 283; see also Declarative/Procedural model process 115 processability hierarchy 161–4, 283 Processability Theory (PT): evidence for 172–3; exemplary study 174–6; explicit/implicit debate 177; first language, role of 255, 256; hypothesis space 164; initial L2 grammatical system 170–2; instruction, role of 262, 263; interlanguage, nature of 251, 252–3; knowledge and cognition 247, 250; Lexical-Functional Grammar 166–8; Lexical Mapping Theory 167–8; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258, 260, 261; misunderstandings, common 173–4; observable phenomena 176–7; processability hierarchy 161–4; theory and its constructs 159–72; TOPIC Hypothesis 169–70; transfer of grammatical information and feature unification 165–6; unmarked alignment 168–9 processing 83, 284 processing instruction 125–6, 284 production data 39–40 projection 118 pronouns, subject 131n8 prototypes 79–80, 284 psychology theories 2–3, 5, 6 PT see Processability Theory punishment 19 rational analysis of cognition 79, 284 rational language processing 76, 78–9 reaccess 209–10, 284 reaction time experiments 172–3 recall, stimulated 193, 285 recasts 186, 188–90, 267 regulation 209–10, 284 reinforcement 19 reports, reverse-order 61–5, 66, 284 response, in behaviorism 18 retrodiction 232, 233, 284 reverse-order reports 61–5, 66, 284 (Revised) Lexical Preference Principle 116 Robinson, P 100, 191 Rodgers, D M 100 Römer, U 85–6 Rosenbloom, P 98 roughly tuned input 27 Sanz, C 150–2 scaffolding 56, 214, 284 Schmidt, R 191 Schwartz, B D 49 science theories 1–2, 5, 9 scientific concepts see explicit knowledge SCT see Sociocultural Theory second language, as construct 6–7 second language acquisition (SLA): interface/noninterface theories of 25, 281; nature of field 245; as term 6–7; see also specific topics self-organizing 228, 284 self-regulation 209–10 semantics, lexical 121 sentence interpretation tasks 122–3 Sentence Location Principle 122 Shallow Structure Hypothesis (SSH) 45–6, 125 simplifications 182–3 singular, third-person 131n4 Skill Acquisition Theory: about 94; evidence for 98–101; exemplary study 103–4; explicit/implicit debate 105–6; first language, role of 255, 256; instruction, role of 263, 264; interlanguage, nature of 251, 252; knowledge and cognition 247, 248, 249; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258–9, 260, 261; misunderstandings, common 101–3; observable phenomena 104–5; theory and its constructs 94–8 SLA see second language acquisition Sociocultural Theory (SCT): about 207–8; evidence for 213–14; exemplary study 215–17; explicit/implicit debate 219–21; first language, role of 255, 256; future challenges 268–9; instruction, role of 263, 265–6; interlanguage, nature of 251, 253–4; internalization 211–12; knowledge and cognition 247, 250; linguistic environment contributions 257, 258–9, 261; mediation 208–10, 213, 216–17, 223n4; mediation by symbolic tools 210–11; misunderstandings, common 214–15; observable phenomena 217–19; theory and its constructs 208–13; Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 212–13 soft assembly 230 spacing of practice 99, 284 Spanish language: input processing 117–18, 118–19, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126–7, 131n8; Sociocultural Theory 216–17 spatial resolution 148, 284 speech, private 210–11, 283 spontaneous concepts see implicit knowledge SSH (Shallow Structure Hypothesis) 45–6, 125 statistical preemption 231, 284 Steinhauer, K 150–2 stimulated recall 193, 285 stimulus 18 structural linguistics see behaviorism and structural linguistics Subagency Principle see island constraints subject pronouns 131n8 Swain, M 184, 213 symbolic tools, mediation by 210–11 syntactic theory 3–4, 6 Systemic-Theoretical Instruction 220–1, 265–6, 285 tasks 122–3, 192–3 temporal resolution 146, 285 theories: about 1–4; defined 1, 285; duties of 1–4; hypotheses versus 5; models versus 4–5; in psychology 2–3, 5, 6; in sciences 1–2, 5, 9; as term 6; usefulness of 7–9; see also specific theories third-person singular 131n4 Tight, D G 126–7 TOPIC Hypothesis 169–70 traces 3–4, 6 transfer 20, 42–3, 81–3, 165–6, 285 truth-value judgments 41, 285 two-way tasks 193 Ullman, M T 150–2, 219–20 Universal Grammar see linguistic theory and Universal Grammar unmarked alignment 168–9, 285 usage-based approaches: associative aspects of transfer 82–3; associative bases of abstraction 79–81; associative learning theory 75, 77–8; constructions 75, 76–7; emergent relations and patterns 76, 81–3; evidence for 83–4; exemplar-based learning 76, 79–81; exemplary study 85–6; explicit/implicit debate 88–9; first language, role of 255, 255–6; instruction, role of 262, 263, 264; interlanguage, nature of 251, 252; knowledge and cognition 247, 248–9; linguistic environment contributions 257, 259, 261; misunderstandings, common 84–5; observable phenomena 86–8; rational language processing 76, 78–9; theory and its constructs 75–83; two languages and language transfer 81–2 U-shaped learning 87, 285 VanPatten, B 1–16, 17–33, 113–34 verb-argument constructions (VACs) 85–6 Vygotsky, L S 208, 210, 211, 212, 215, 220; see also Sociocultural Theory wh-in situ 37–8, 39, 50n4 White, L 43–5 wh- movement: about 35–6, 38–9, 42, 43–5; defined 285; lack of 37–8, 39, 50n4 Williams, J 1–16, 17–33 working memory 2–3, 5, 6, 191, 286 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 212–13, 214–15, 215–17, 286 ... 8 The Declarative/Procedural Model: A Neurobiologically Motivated Theory of First and Second Language Michael T Ullman 9 Processability Theory Manfred Pienemann and Anke Lenzing 10 Input, Interaction, and Output in Second Language Acquisition Susan M Gass and Alison Mackey... Features in Second Language Acquisition (2008) Philp/Adams/Iwashita Peer Interaction and Second Language Learning (2013) VanPatten/Williams Theories in Second Language Acquisition, Second Edition (2014) Monographs on Research Methodology:... Gass/Sorace/Selinker Second Language Learning Data Analysis, Second Edition (1998) Mackey/Gass Second Language Research: Methodology and Design (2005) Gass/Selinker Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory