The sounds of language an introduction to phonetics

The Sounds of Language LEARNING ABOUT LANGUAGE General Editors: Geoffrey Leech and Mick Short, Lancaster University Already published: Analysing Sentences (2nd edition) Noel Burton-Roberts Words and Their Meaning Howard Jackson An Introduction to Phonology Francis Katamba Grammar and Meaning Howard Jackson An Introduction to Sociolinguistics Janet Holmes Realms of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantics Th R Hofmann An Introduction to Psycholinguistics Danny D Steinberg An Introduction to Spoken Interaction Anna-Brita Stenström Watching English Change Laurie Bauer Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics Jenny Thomas An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics Friedrich Ungerer and Hans-Jörg Schmid Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose Mick Short Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction William O’Grady, Michael Dobrovolsky and Francis Katamba Analysing Sentences Noel Burton-Roberts An Introduction to Natural Language Processing Through Prolog Clive Matthews An Introduction to Child Language Development Susan Foster-Cohen The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics Henry Rogers The Sounds of Language An Introduction to Phonetics Henry Rogers First published 2000 by Pearson Education Limited Published 2013 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2000, Taylor & Francis The right of Henry Rogers to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein ISBN 13: 978-0-582-38182-7 (pbk) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rogers, Henry, 1940– The sounds of language : an introduction to phonetics / Henry Rogers p cm — (Learning about language) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0–582–38182–7 (pbk.) English language—Phonetics Phonetics I Title II Series PE1135.R64 2000 421′.5—dc21 99–089810 Typeset by 35 in 10/12.5pt Palatino DionysºÛ This Page intentionally left blank Contents Preface xi Publisher’s Acknowledgements Chapter xiii Introduction The study of phonetics Articulatory phonetics English places of articulation 11 Technical terms 11 Exercises 12 Chapter The basic sounds of English 16 Transcription 16 Accents of English 17 Consonants 19 Vowels 28 Stress 35 Comparison of RP and GA 37 Technical terms 39 Symbols 39 Exercises 40 Chapter English consonants 44 Allophones and phonemes 44 Voicing 47 Length 47 Place of articulation 48 Manner of articulation 50 Technical terms 60 Symbols 61 Exercises 61 Chapter English vowels 71 Distributional restrictions 71 The vowel phonemes of RP 72 The vowel phonemes of GA 75 RP and GA vowels 76 vii Contents Technical terms 80 Symbols 80 Exercises 80 Chapter English suprasegmentals 88 Syllables 88 Phonotactics 89 Stress 94 Pitch and intonation 96 Rhythm 101 Technical terms 102 Symbol 102 Exercises 102 Chapter English accent differences 108 Background 108 General scheme 109 Received Pronunciation (RP) revisited 111 Cockney 112 Yorkshire 113 Scotland 113 Belfast 115 Dublin 115 Australia 116 New Zealand 117 South Africa 117 West Indies 118 India 119 General American (GA) revisited 120 New England 121 New York City 121 US South 122 African American Vernacular English 123 Canada 123 Newfoundland 125 Technical terms 126 Exercises 127 Chapter Sound waves, spectra, and resonance 131 Sound waves 131 Spectrum 139 Glottal wave 142 Resonance 143 Noise 145 viii Contents Technical terms 146 Exercises 146 Chapter The acoustics of English sounds 150 Spectrograms 150 English vowels 152 English consonants 159 Technical terms 166 Exercises 166 Chapter Vowels and glides 175 Vowels 175 Glides 184 Technical terms 185 Symbols 185 Exercises 185 Chapter 10 Place of articulation 192 Primary places of articulation 192 Double articulation 203 Secondary articulations 203 Technical terms 206 Symbols 207 Exercises 207 Chapter 11 Manner of articulation 216 Degree of stricture 216 Obstruents 217 Approximants 218 Trills, taps, and flaps 219 Laterals 222 Nasals 223 Technical terms 224 Symbols 224 Exercises 226 Chapter 12 Phonation 232 Anatomy 232 Glottis 234 States of the glottis 235 Voice onset time 243 Breathy voiced stops 246 ix 336 F b f y v † đ t ˚ l ®  z r n d ò ặ ù ỗ ẻ c Velar  Ị j Ä º ‚ x © x Ë μ ˛ ¿ h Ĩ ÷ Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal Ơ k ˝ q Ï Alveolar Postalveolar Retroflex Palatal ∂ s Dental Uvular Ù Alveolar lateral Ì Velar ù Palatoalveolar È Palatal è (Post)alveolar ! s’ k’ t’ Alveolar fricative Velar Dental/alveolar Bilabial Dental/alveolar Dental ì p’ Examples: Bilabial ı ò Bilabial ’ Ejectives Clicks Voiced implosives CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC) π Open Open-mid ă ứ { o } u Back Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel û ü \ ´ œ ± É æ a Œ ˆ Á e ø i y Close-mid Close Central Front VOWELS Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible Lateral approximant Approximant Lateral fricative Fricative Tap or Flap b Trill b m p Nasal Plosive Bilabial Labiodental CONSONANTS (PULMONIC) Sounds of Language OTHER SYMBOLS Alveolo-palatal fricatives Simultaneous ß and x Alveolar lateral flap Affricates and double articulations can be represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar if necessary ầ ệ ế X Đ ê ó ä Rhoticity Non-syllabic Syllabic Mid-centralized Centralized Retracted Advanced Less rounded More rounded Aspirated Voiced Voiceless n≤ d≤≤ s¶ t ¶ th dh ứọ ứó u e e eX nĐ eê | aú £ Breathy voiced b£ a£ t∞ d∞ ∞ Dental ≥ Creaky voiced b≥ a≥ tfi dfi fi Apical Ü Linguolabial tÜ dÜ fi∞ Laminal t∞fi d∞fi ∑ Labialized t∑ d∑ ~ Nasalized e~ n Δ Palatalized tΔ dΔ Nasal release dn ó Velarized tó dó l Lateral release dl Pharyngealized tơ dơ ¬ No audible release d¬ ^ Velarized or pharyngealized " › Raised (®› = voiced alveolar fricative) e› ¢ Lowered (b ¢ = voiced bilabial approximant) e¢ ¡ Advanced Tongue Root e¡ ⁄ Retracted Tongue Root e ằfoăn\ôtò\n e e e đi.ổkt Linking (absence of a break) Syllable break Major (intonation) group Minor (foot) group Extra-short Half-long Long Secondary stress Primary stress Extra eÿ or ỏ high ộ õ High eÔ ọ Mid ố ó Low Extra eŸ low Ê Downstep ê Upstep LEVEL e‡ or ï Rising efl ü Falling ỵ High rising eè ë Low rising eò Ë Rising-falling ¿ Global rise » Global fall CONTOUR TONES AND WORD ACCENTS h ° ì Ì … Ú « » SUPRASEGMENTALS Figure E.1 The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1993, updated 1996) ú h ¶ ≤ ˜˚ í ths kp DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g „ Voiceless labial-velar fricative w Voiced labial-velar approximant ¥ Voiced labial-palatal approximant h Voiceless epiglottal fricative ˘ Voiced epiglottal fricative ¯ Epiglottal plosive Appendix E • The International Phonetic Alphabet 337 The Sounds of Language Bibliography Abercrombie, D (1991) Fifty years in phonetics Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Al-Ani, S H (1970) Arabic phonology: an acoustical and physiological investigation The Hague: Mouton Allen, W S (1947) ‘Notes on the phonetics of an Eastern Armenian speaker’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 50: 810–20 Aronoff, M and Oehrle, R T (eds) (1984) Language sound structure Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Bailey, C.-J N (1985) English phonetic transcription Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics Baken, R J (1987) Clinical measurement of speech and voice Boston, MA: College Hill Ball, M J (1989) Phonetics for speech pathology London: Taylor and Francis Bamgbos e≥ , A (1966) A grammar of Yoruba West African Language Monographs, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Beckman, M E (1982) ‘Segment duration and the “mora” in Japanese’, Phonetica, 39: 113–35 Beckman, M (1988) ‘Phonetic theory’, in F J Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1: 216–38 Berg, R E and Stork, D G (1982) The physics of sound Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall Berry, J (n.d.) 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44, 292–8 alveolar, 7, 20–1, 48, 193, 196–7 alveolar ridge, 7, 12, 193 alveoli, alveolo-palatal, 197 ambisyllabicity, 93 Amharic, 263 amplitude, 134–5 antepenultimate syllable, 267 apex, 9, 12, 193, 194, 195 apical, 9, 20, 193, 195, 196, 199 approximant, 23–4, 58–60, 218–20 Arabic, 202, 206, 215 articulation, 192, 203 articulator, 6, 192–3 articulatory phonetics, 2–10 arytenoid cartilages, 233–5 aspiration, 44, 50–1, 158–9, 243 assimilation, 48, 49 auditory phonetics, Australian English, 116–17 back of tongue, see dorsum back vowel, 29, 175–6 bagpipes, 258–9 Belfast English, 115 Bengali, 24, 210, 248, 290 Bernoulli effect, 219, 237 Bhojpuri, 248 bilabial, 6, 19–20, 193–4 346 blade, see lamina bounded, 281 Boyle’s Law, 251–3 breathing, 253 breathy voice, 56–7, 240–1, 246 broad transcription, 46–7, 330 bronchi, 4, 253 bunched /®/, 21, 59 Bura, 203 Burmese, 237 Cakchiquel, 256 calligraphy, 317–29 Canadian English, 123–6 Canterbury Tales, The, 148–9 Cantonese, 244, 290 cardinal vowel, 175–81, 336 Carrier, 291 cartilagenous glottis, 234–5 central vowel, 175–6 Chechen, 234 chest pulse, 267–8 Chilcotin, 264 Chinantec, 181, 266 Chinese, 273, 290 clear [l], 58, 164–5, 222 click, 257–9 closed syllable, 71, 88, 267 closure, timing of, 92 coarticulation, 51–2 Cockney English, 112–13 coda, 88, 90–2, 265–7 complex wave, 137–8 consonant acoustic pattern, 159–65 calligraphy, 321–5 English, 16, 19–27, 44–60, 292–8 length, 272 manner of articulation, 216–26 place of articulation, 192–207 syllabic, 59, 266–7 contextual length, 78 Index continuant, 23 contour tone, 274–5 contrast, 45 contrastive stress, 284 coronal, 26, 48–9, 195–9 creaky voice, 242 cricoid cartilage, 232–5 cycle, 135 Czech, 220 Danish, 242, 279 dark ["], 58, 222 deep breathing, 240 degenerate, 280 dental, 6, 7, 20, 195–6 dental assimilation, 48 diacritic, 44, 325–8, 337 dialect, see accent diaphragm, 254 diphthong, 31–4, 155–6, 184–5 Dogrib, 264 dorsal, 9, 26, 49, 199–202 dorsovelar, 200 dorsum, 9, 12, 193, 200 double articulation, 203 downdrift, 275 downstep, 276 drift, 275–7 drumming, 279 Dublin English, 115–16 Dutch, 244 egressive, 251 ejective, 256 emphatic stress, 284 English accents, 17–18, 108–26 acoustics, 150–63 consonants, 19–27, 44–61, 159–65, 292–8 GA accent, 18, 37–8, 109–11, 120–1 consonants, 44, 53–5, 59–60, 91, 293, 298 strong-weak forms, 96 vowels, 33–5, 75–9, 330–4 manner of articulation, 50–60, 160–2 phonotactics, 89–93 pitch and intonation, 96–101, 284 place of articulation, 11, 48–50, 159–60 RP accent, 18, 110, 111–12 consonants, 44, 54–5, 60, 292, 293, 294, 296 strong-weak forms, 96 vowels, 31–3, 35, 37–8, 72–5, 78–9, 330–4 stress, 35–37, 94–6, 157–8 transcription, 16–17, 330–4 voice onset time, 244 vowels, 28–35, 71–80, 152–6 environment, 45 epiglottis, 5, 10, 202, 233 Ewe, 194, 208, 212, 227, 271 expanded vowels, 182 extrametricality, 282–3 F0, see fundamental falling diphthong, 184 false vocal folds, 234 falsetto, 242 faucal pillars, 12, 13 flap, 221–2 foot, 280 formant, 143–5, 152–5 Fourier analysis, 137, 150 free variation, 46 French, 181, 190, 228, 279, 281 frequency, 135–7 frication, 23, 145, 217 fricative, 23–4, 56–7, 162–3, 217 front of tongue, 12, 193, 199, 200 front vowel, 29, 195–6 fundamental, 139, 239 GA, see English, GA Gã, 188–9, 212, 214 gap, 89 Gbeya, 230, 257, 291 geminate, 266 General American, see English, GA Georgian, 211, 212 German, 200, 211, 226, 227, 272, 284 glide, 24, 29–31, 175, 184–5, 189, 219 glottal, 4, 22, 27, 202 glottal stop, 4, 24, 55, 202, 236 glottal wave, 142–3 glottalic air stream, 256–7 glottalisation, RP, 55 glottis, 4, 234–43 347 Index Greek, 213 Gujarati, 248 [h], 35, 163, 239–40 Hamlet, 174 harmonic, 138–9 Hausa, 221, 275 head, 280 heavy syllable, 267 Hertz, 135 high vowel, 29, 175–6 Hindi, 241, 244 hold stage, 25 homorganic, 49, 217 Hungarian, 214 hyoid bone, 233 Hz, see Hertz Icelandic, 189 Igbo, 275 Ijo, 188 implosive, 257 inaudible release, 52 Indian English, 119 ingressive, 251 inherent length, 78 initiator, 251 intensity, 134, 135 intercostal muscles, 253–4 interdental, 195 International Phonetic Alphabet, 17, 319, 335–7 International Phonetic Association, 17, 176, 335 intonation, 96–100, 284, 285–6 Inuktitut, 231 IPA, see International Phonetic Alphabet/Association Irish English, 115–16 Italian, 272 Japanese, 237, 249, 270, 277 Julius Cæsar, 106 kinæsthetic, 22 Korean, 245 Koya, 283 labial, 20, 26, 48, 193–5 labial-velar, 22–3, 203 348 labialisation, 204–5 labiodental, 6, 20, 194 Lallans, 113 lamina, 9, 12, 193 laminal, 20, 193, 194–7 Lango, 249 laryngeal, 4, 193, 202 larynx, 4–5, 193, 232–4 lateral, 23, 58–9, 164–5, 216, 219, 222–3 lax vowels, 71, 183–4 length, 47–8, 78–9, 156, 182–3, 271–2 level of transcription, 45, 330 ligamental glottis, 234–5 light syllable, 267 line drawing, 25–7, 35 linguistics, linguo-labial, 194–5 linking /®/, 74 lip, 6, 193 liquid, 24, 219 lisp, 56 Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 333 loudness, 135 lungs, 3–4, 251, 253–6 Malayalam, 195 manner of articulation, 23–4, 50–60, 160, 216–26 Maranungku, 281 Margi, 242 Melpa, 222 mid vowel, 29, 175–6 minimal pair, 45 Mixtec, 276 mora, 270–1 mora-timed, 271, 286 morpheme, 47 morphology, 47 mouth, 6, 193 Nama, 258 narrow transcription, 46–7, 330 nasal, 10, 24, 49–50, 57–8, 163–4, 193, 217, 223–4 nasal cavity, 10 nasalised vowels, 79, 181 New England English, 121 New York City English, 121–2 New Zealand English, 117 Newfoundland English, 125–6, 256 Index Ngwe, 220 nil phonation, 236 noise, 145 North Wind and the Sun, The, 87, 107 Northern Cities Vowel Shift, 120 nucleus, 72, 75, 88, 265–7 Nupe, 274 obstruent, 24, 217 œsophagic air stream, 259 œsophagus, 6, 253, 259 onset, 57–9, 88–90, 265–7 onset stage, 25 open syllable, 72, 88, 267 oral, 10, 24, 193 oral cavity, 6–10, 12 orthography, 16 oscillation, 131 overlapping, 52 palatal, 8, 9, 22, 193, 200 palatalisation, 204–5 palate, 8, 12, 13, 193 parameter, 281 penultimate syllable, 267 pharyngeal, 13, 193, 202, 206 pharyngealisation, 206 pharynx, 5–6, 193, 206 phonation, 232–45 phoneme, 44–6 phonetic level, 44–5 phonetics, phonology, 44–6 phonotactics, 71, 89–94 Pig Latin, 227, 249–50 pitch, 96–100, 136, 239, 272–9 pitch accent, 277–8 place of articulation, 11, 19–23, 48–50, 159–61, 192–3, 192–207 plosive, 255 Polish, 197, 282 postalveolar, 7, 21, 197–9 prenasalised stops, 224 primary articulation, 192, 203 propagation of waves, 133–4 pulmonic air stream mechanism, 253–6 Quechua, 201, 256 quiet breathing, 240 [®], 24, 59–60, 74, 76, 78, 163–4 radical, see root of tongue random noise pattern, 145, 162 rate, 286–7 Received Pronunciation, see English, RP register tone, 274–5 release, 52–3, 57–58 release stage, 25 resonance, 143–4 retroflex, 7, 21, 48, 55, 199 rhotacised, see rhotic rhotic, 59–60, 181, 219 rhyme, 88, 265 rhythm, 101–4, 286–7 rising diphthong, 184 root of tongue, 9, 193, 199, 202 rounding, 29, 175–6 RP, see Received Pronunciation RP and GA differences, 37–8 rule, 45–6 sagittal section, ‘scat’ singing, 234 Scots Gaelic, 183, 200, 206, 244, 280, 281 Scottish English, 113–15 secondary articulation, 203–6 segment, 16, 17, 265 semivowel, see glide Sherbro, 195, 203, 224, 272, 274 Shona, 222 sibilant, 24, 217 sine wave, 132–7 Slave, 261 smoothing, 73 sonorant, 24, 217 sonority, 268–70 sound wave, see wave South African English, 117–18 Spanish, 221, 229 spectrogram, 140, 150–2 spectrum, 139–42 spike, 160, 217–18 spirant, see fricative step 275–7 stød, 242 stop, 23, 50–3, 160–2, 217–18 stress, 35–7, 79, 94–6, 157–8, 279–84 stress-timed, 271, 286 stricture, 216–17 strong form, 95–6 349 Index subglottal, 4, 254 suprasegmental, 16, 88–102, 265, 271–87 Swedish, 203, 256, 278–9 syllabic consonant, 59, 266–7 syllable, 71, 88–94, 265–71 syllable-timed, 271, 286 Tagalog, 202, 212 tap, 53–4, 165, 221 teeth, 6, 193, 194, 195 Temne, 195 tense vowels, 71, 183–4 Thai, 244, 291 thyroid cartilage, 232, 239 tip, see apex Tojalabal, 256 tone, 272–9 tone language, 96, 272, 278–9, 285–6 tongue, 9, 12 tonic syllable, 98 trachea, 3–4, 232, 253 transcription, 16–17, 46–7, 330–4 transition, 160 trill, 219–20 Tsou, 256 tuning fork, 131 Twi, 200, 205, 215 Ukrainian, 205 ultima, 267 unbounded, 281 upstep, 277 US South English, 122–3 utterance, 16 uvula, 8, 12, 13, 201 V’enen Taut, 195 velar, 8, 22, 49, 200 velar assimilation, 49 velaric air stream, 257 velarisation, 205–6 velic, 10, 26, 223–4 velum, 8, 12, 13, 293 350 ventricle of Morgagni, 234 vertical striations, 158 vibration, 131 Vietnamese, 263, 274 vocal folds, 4–5, 232, 234, 239 vocal organs, vocal tract, 2–3, 12–13 vocalic, 72, 75 voice onset time, 51, 243–6 voiced, 5, 158–9, 237–9 voiceless, 4, 236–7 voicing, 5, 47, 53, 158, 237–9 VOT, see voice onset time vowel, 16, 175, 272 acoustic pattern, 152–8, 180–1 cardinal, 175–81 English, 19, 28–34, 71–80, see also Chapter expanded, 182 length, 78–9, 156, 182–3, 272 nasalised, 79, 181 primary, 179–80 quadrilateral, 28, 177 rhotacised, 181 secondary, 179–80 tense-lax, 183–4 wave, 131–8, 142–3 weak form, 95–6 Welsh, 223 Weri, 280 West Indian English, 118 wh-question, 99–100, 284 whispering, 242–3 whistling, 279 word-line, 280 yes-no question, 99–100, 285 yod coalescence, 54–5 yod dropping, 54–5 Yorkshire English, 113 Yoruba, 181, 289 Young Lochinvar, 191 ... Matthews An Introduction to Child Language Development Susan Foster-Cohen The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics Henry Rogers The Sounds of Language An Introduction to Phonetics Henry... point of learning each term as it occurs The Sounds of Language The study of phonetics Branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics The branch of phonetics dealing with the production of sounds. .. ridge The front of the tongue has a misleading name It is not at the front of the tongue, but behind the tip and the blade Fortunately, we not need to refer to it that often The front of the tongue