Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures volume ii Family, Law and Politics General Editor: Suad Joseph (University of California, Davis) Associate Editors and their regional responsibilities: Afsaneh Najmabadi (Harvard University) Turkey, Iran, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia and the Muslim Republics of the ex-Soviet Union Julie Peteet (University of Louisville) Seteney Shami (Social Science Research Council) Arab Gulf States, the Arab Eastern Mediterranean, North Africa, Mauritania, Israel, Andalusian Spain and Europe under the Ottoman Empire Jacqueline Siapno (University of Melbourne) China, Mongolia, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Burma, Thailand, Australia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the Asian Pacific Jane I Smith (Hartford Seminary) Western Europe, the Americas, and Sub-Saharan Africa Editorial Assistant to Jane I Smith: Alice Horner (Independent scholar) Sub-Saharan Africa Copy editing: Margaret Owen Indexing: Paul Schrijver Advisory Board: Lila Abu-Lughod, Columbia University Leila Ahmed, Harvard University Nadje al-Ali, University of Exeter Soraya Altorki, American University in Cairo Rabiatu Ammah, University of Ghana Yesim Arat, Bogaziỗi University Barbara Aswad, Wayne State University Beth Baron, City College New York John Bowen, Washington University Suzanne Brenner, University of California, San Diego Jocelyn Cesari, CNRS and Harvard University Julia Clancy-Smith, University of Arizona Virginia Danielson, Harvard University Layla Diba, The Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts, Design, and Culture Elizabeth Fernea, University of Texas, Austin Yvonne Haddad, Georgetown University Sondra Hale, University of California, Los Angeles Virginia Matheson Hooker, Australian National University Deniz Kandiyoti, University of London Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, Indonesian Women’s Association for Justice Nikki Keddie, University of California, Los Angeles Kim Knott, University of Leeds Saba Mahmood, University of California, Berkeley Katayun Mazdapur, Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, Tehran Aminah McCloud, DePaul University Anne Meneley, Trent University Barbara Metcalf, University of Michigan Farzaneh Milani, University of Virginia Shahrzad Mojab, University of Toronto Kathleen Moore, Universtiy of Calfornia, Santa Barbara Ebrahim Moosa, Duke University Cynthia Nelson, American University in Cairo Karin van Nieuwkerk, ISIM Nijmegen University Sulayman Nyang, Howard University Norani Othman, University of Kebangsaan, Malaysia Carla Petievitch, Montclair State University Anthony Reid, National University of Singapore Barbara Stowasser, Georgetown University Sylvia Tiwon, University of California, Berkeley Nayereh Tohidi, California State University Northridge Frances Trix, Wayne State University Judith Tucker, Georgetown University Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures volume ii Family, Law and Politics General Editor Suad Joseph Associate Editors Afsaneh Najmabadi Julie Peteet Seteney Shami Jacqueline Siapno Jane I Smith brill leiden – boston 2005 © Copyright 2005 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill Academic Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP ISBN All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers MA 01923, USA Fees are subject to change Cover design: beeldvorm, Pijnacker ISBN 90 04 12818 (Vol I I ) 90 04 13247 (Set) This book is printed on acid-free paper printed in the netherlands For author’s template, see: http://www.brill.nl http://www.sjoseph.ucdavis.edu/ewic Contents List of Contributors List of Illustrations Acknowledgments Preface (Suad Joseph) xv xxi xxiii xxvii Adoption and Fostering Overview (Ingrid Mattson) Central Asia and the Caucasus (Marfua Tokhtakhodjaeva & Almaz Kadirova) North Africa ( Jamila Bargach) Turkey (Ferhunde Özbay) Apostasy Overview (Nancy Gallagher) Armenian Women Overview (Houri Berberian) 10 Bahà±ì Women Overview (Susan Stiles Maneck) 15 Citizenship The Caucasus and Central Asia (Marie-Carin von Gumppenberg) Egypt, Sudan and Arab States (Valentine M Moghadam) The Gulf and Yemen (Rima Sabban) Southeast Asia (Vivienne Wee & Asma Beatrix) Western Europe ( Jocelyne Cesari) Civil Society Overview (Elizabeth F Thompson) Afghanistan (Elaheh Rostami Povey) The Balkans ( Jasna Bak“iƒ Muftiƒ) Iran (Farideh Farhi) Israel (Hanna Herzog) Sub-Saharan Africa (Robert A Dowd) Civil Society and Democracy Ideologies Central Asia and the Caucasus (Anara Tabyshalieva) South Asia (Rounaq Jahan) Turkey (Yeỗim Arat) Colonialism and Imperialism British Colonial Domains of South Asia (Siobhan Lambert-Hurley) East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia and Oceania (Susanna G Rizzo) Egypt (Mervat F Hatem) French North Africa (Patricia M E Lorcin) Middle East, British (Nancy L Stockdale) Russian Colonial Domains of the Caucasus and Central Asia (Mitra Raheb) Sub-Saharan Africa (Lorelle Denise Semley) Constitutions The Caucasus and Central Asian States (Dono Abdurazakova) Indonesia (Susì Dwì Harìjantì ) The Islamic Republic of Iran and Afghanistan (Asghar Schirazi) South Asia (Laura Dudley Jenkins) Sub-Saharan Africa ( José C M van Santen) 19 21 24 25 29 34 40 42 43 44 47 50 52 55 59 61 66 69 70 72 74 78 79 81 82 84 vi contents Democracy Ideologies Arab States (Lindsey Fauss) Asia-Pacific Region (Mohammad Mohabbat Khan) Iran and Afghanistan (Azadeh Kian-Thiébaut) Israel (Elizabeth Anne Faier) Divorce and Custody: Contemporary Practices Arab States (Willy Jansen) Australia ( Jamila Hussain) Canada (Earle Waugh) The Caucasus and Central Asia (Marfua Tokhtakhodjaeva & Almaz Kadirova) Iran and Afghanistan (Homa Hoodfar) South Asia (Nasreen Fazalbhoy) Western Europe (Haifaa Jawad) Domestic Violence Arab States (Leila Hessini) Canada (Shaheen Hussain Azmi) The Caucasus (Feride Zurikashvili) Central Asia (Marfua Tokhatakhodjaeva & Almaz Kadirova) Iran and Afghanistan (Vida Nassehi-Behnam) Israel (Madelaine Adelman) The Ottoman Empire (Elyse Semerdjian) South Asia (Habiba Zaman) Sub-Saharan Africa (Scott London) Turkey (Cânân Arin) Domesticity The Caucasus (Farideh Heyat) East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia (Mina Roces) Iran and Afghanistan ( Jasamin Rostam-Kolayi) Sub-Saharan Africa: Hausa Societies (Elsbeth Robson) Turkey (ầule Toktaỗ) Family Relations The Caucasus (Farideh Heyat) Central Asia (Colette Harris) South Asia (Nita Kumar) Sub-Saharan Africa: Fulbe Societies (B Lacey Andrews) Turkey (Sevil Sümer) The United States (Barbara C Aswad ) Western Europe (Chantal Saint-Blancat) Families: Metaphors of Nation Overview (Kathryn Robinson) Family: Modern Islamic Discourses Canada (Alisa Perkins) Central Asia (Colette Harris) Iran and Afghanistan (Valentine M Moghadam) Turkey and the Caucasus (E Olcay Imamo©lu) The United States (Earle Waugh) Fatwa Overview (Elora Shehabuddin) Freedom of Expression Australia (Alia Imtoual) Iran (Masoud Kazemzadeh) South Asia (Ratna Kapur) Sub-Saharan Africa (Ousseina Alidou) Turkey (Amberin Zaman) 87 89 94 95 98 100 102 103 105 106 108 111 112 115 116 117 119 121 123 125 128 130 131 134 135 137 140 141 142 144 146 147 151 154 161 163 164 165 167 171 175 177 179 181 183 contents The United States (Mohamed Nimer) Western Europe (Valérie Amiraux) Friendship Arab States (Celia E Rothenberg) The Caucasus and Central Asia (Andrea Giacomuzzi) Iran and Afghanistan (Mary Elaine Hegland) South Asia (Rehana Ghadially) Sub-Saharan Africa: West Africa (Frank A Salamone) Gender Socialization Central Asia (Sofia Kasymova) Iran and Afghanistan (Erika Loeffler Friedl) The Ottoman Empire (Madeline C Zilfi) South Asia (Zarina Bhatty) Sub-Saharan Africa: Swahili Societies (Kjersti Larsen) Turkey and the Caucasus (Farideh Heyat) Gossip Arab States (Ann Gardner) Iran, Afghanistan, and South Asia (Mary Elaine Hegland ) Honor Iran and Afghanistan (Shahrzad Mojab) South Asia (Erin Patrice Moore) Turkey and the Caucasus (Ayỗe Parla) Honor: Crimes of Overview (Lama Abu-Odeh) Sub-Saharan Africa: Northern Nigeria (Allan Christelow) Honor: Feminist Approaches to Overview (Lama Abu-Odeh) Hospitality Central Asia (Nodira Khaitbaevna Azimova) The Gulf and Yemen (Anne Meneley) Iran, Afghanistan, and South Asia (Mary Elaine Hegland ) North Africa (Paula Holmes-Eber) Turkey and the Caucasus (Irina Babich) Household Division of Labor Central Asia (Dono Abdurazakova) Iran and Afghanistan (Erika Loeffler Friedl) South Asia (Sajeda Amin) Southeast Asia (Theresa W Devasahayam) Sub-Saharan Africa (Beth Anne Buggenhagen) Turkey and the Caucasus (Nilüfer A ÷svan) Household Forms and Composition The Caucasus (Farideh Heyat) Central Asia (Colette Harris) Iran and Afghanistan (Erika Loeffler Friedl) The Ottoman Empire (Tomoki Okawara) South Asia (Indrani Chatterjee) Sub-Saharan Africa (Scott M Youngstedt) Turkey (Ferhunde Özbay) The United States (Mary Elaine Hegland ) Human Rights Overview (Lynn Welchman) Arab Gulf and Yemen (Huda A Seif ) Canada (Nadira Mustapha) vii 184 186 189 191 192 194 195 198 199 201 202 204 206 210 211 215 216 218 221 222 225 228 229 231 233 235 237 238 239 242 245 247 250 251 252 254 255 258 260 262 265 269 270 viii contents Iran (Niaz Kasravi) Mashriq Arab States (Isis Nusair) North Africa (Lilia Labidi) Sudan (Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban) Sub-Saharan Africa (Christina Jones-Pauly) Turkey (Murat Çemrek) Identity Politics Central Asia (Colette Harris) Iran and Afghanistan (Fakhri Haghani) South Asia (Amrita Chhachhi) Turkey (Katherine Pratt Ewing) The United States (Katherine Bullock) Western Europe (Nadia Fadil) Infanticide and Abandonment of Female Children Overview (Nancy Gallagher) Inheritance: Contemporary Practice Arab States (Annelies Moors) Iran and Afghanistan (Erika Loeffler Friedl) South Asia (Tazeen Mahnaz Murshid) International Conventions Overview (Adrien Katherine Wing) International Organizations Overview (Manzurul Mannan) Jewish Women Overview (Rachel Simon) Jihad Arab States (Lori A Allen) East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia (Muhamad Ali) Iran and Afghanistan (Azadeh Kian-Thiébaut) South Asia (Michel Boivin) Sub-Saharan Africa: West Africa ( Jean Boyd ) Kinship, Descent Systems Sahelian West Africa and North Central Africa (Chad/Sudan) (Mirjam de Bruijn) East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific (Mina Elfira) Kinship, Descent Systems and State Afghanistan (Senzil Nawid) The Caucasus (Ingrid Pfluger-Schindlbeck) South Asia (Aparna Rao) Kinship, Idiomatic Iran (Erika Loeffler Friedl) Kinship and State Arab States (Diane E King) Ottoman (Kim Shively) Southeast Asia, East Asia, Australia, and the Pacific (Maila Stivens) Kinship: Milk Overview (Avner Giladi) Kurdish Women Overview (Shahrzad Mojab) Law: Access to the Legal System Afghanistan (Nasrine Gross) Arab States (Anna Würth) 272 273 275 277 279 281 283 284 286 289 291 293 296 299 302 303 306 311 315 319 321 325 326 327 330 331 335 336 338 345 347 349 351 355 358 367 367 contents The Balkans ( Jasna Bak“iƒ Muftiƒ) The Caucasus (Irina Babich) Central Asia (Dono Abdurazakova) Iran (Mehrangiz Kar) The Ottoman Empire (Margaret L Meriwether) South Asia (Shahida Lateef ) Southeast Asia (Noraida Endut) Sub-Saharan Africa (Leslye Amede Obiora) Turkey (Pinar Ilkkaracan) Western Europe (Qudsia Mirza) Law: Articulation of Islamic and non-Islamic Systems Arab States (Christina Jones-Pauly) The Caucasus and Turkey (Irina Babich) Iran (Irene Schneider) Southeast Asia (Mark Cammack) Sub-Saharan Africa (Erin E Stiles) Law: Criminal Overview (Lynn Welchman) Afghanistan (Nasrine Gross) Arab States (Sherifa Zuhur) Bangladesh (Rubya Mehdi) Iran (Mehrangiz Kar) Pakistan (Rubya Mehdi) Turkey (Cânân Arin) Law: Cultural Defense Overview (Kathleen M Moore) Law: Customary Afghanistan (Palwasha L Kakar) The Caucasus (Irina Babich) Central Asia (Bill Bowring) The Gulf and Yemen (Najwa Adra) Indonesia (Ranto Lukito) Mashriq Beduins (William Lancaster and Felicity Lancaster) Sub-Saharan Africa (Erin E Stiles) Turkey (Pinar Ilkkaracan) Law: Enforcement East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific (Nadirsyah Hosen) Iran and Afghanistan ( Jale Ahmadi) South Asia (Nausheen Ahmad) Sub-Saharan Africa (Mechthild Nagel) Law: The Four Sunnì Schools of Family Law Overview (Liyakat Takim) Law: Other Schools of Family Law Overview (Liyakat Takim) Law: Family Law, 7th–Late 18th centuries Overview (Ingrid Mattson) Law: Modern Family Law, 1800–Present Afghanistan (Helena Malikyar) Arab States (Lama Abu-Odeh) Egypt (Laura Bier) Gulf, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen (Susanne Dahlgren) Iran (Mehrangiz Kar) South Asia (Shahida Lateef ) Turkey (Dicle Kogacioglu) The United States (Muneer Fareed ) ix 370 372 373 374 375 377 378 381 383 384 387 390 392 393 396 399 402 402 405 406 407 409 411 414 415 416 418 419 422 424 426 429 432 433 436 440 446 450 458 459 463 465 467 469 472 473 subject index arranged marriage 113, 118, 146, 151, 156, 168, 309, 335, 351–353, 365, 393, 412, 513, 536, 596, 797, 798 child marriage 65, 84, 94, 125, 163, 255, 362, 458, 568, 592, 644–645, 658, 660 consanguineous 261 forced marriage 12, 32, 111, 113, 118, 140, 142, 163, 282, 316, 383, 386, 394, 401, 427, 458, 536, 582, 587, 636, 697, 699, 718 legal doctrines 442, 447 levirate marriage 142, 145, 302, 315, 341, 459 love marriages 60, 353 polygamous marriage 1, 66, 107, 118, 261, 315, 383, 406, 417, 426, 443, 638, 718 prohibition temporary marriage (see mut≠a) marriage choice 263, 536, 686, 796 marriage contract 22–23, 98, 106, 108–109, 121–122, 124, 143, 168, 238, 261, 269, 276, 316, 340, 376, 378, 427, 442, 447, 454–456, 461, 466, 660, 698, 701 martyrdom 10, 15, 232, 320, 325, 532, 608, 647, 656 al-ma≠rùf 454 masar 505 mashtots 10 masjid 618 maßla™a 440, 442, 446–447 mas±ùl 652 ma≠ßùm 446 masyarakat madani 673 matà≠ (see also alimony) 455 matriliny 28 mawsim 485 mawt wa-i≠sàr 475 mayorat system 420 mayun 531 mazàr 20, 50, 767 mediatorskiy 415 medreses 713 mehmonkhona 228 mehndi 535–536 mehr 201 memory 478–486 mendetyr 415 menij 195 Messianism 620–624 mevlid 767 mevlud 762 mikva 316 mila 396, 424, 426 milad 531–532 military, women’s participation 487–493 miliyya courts 463 milk 355–357 milk siblings 343 “the living milk” 330 “sire’s milk” 355 millat 284 millenarian movements 620–624 milli aile 261 minority movements 571–581 mìrì 299–300 missionaries 12–13, 37, 60, 65–66, 70–72, 134–135, 245, 323, 693, 802 miswàk 451 mitakshara system 304 mitzvot 317 modesty discourses 494–507 mohollas 194 833 monogamy, Bahà±ì 16 Mosaic law 000 mosaic societies 573 moshavim 780 mother of the martyr 509 motherhood 508–517 motherland 156–157 mubàra±a 466, 470 mufti 8, 171–173, 280, 501–502, 583, 769 mu™àkama shar≠iyya (see also Sharì≠a courts) 375 mu™allas 532 al-mu™sànàt 452 mujaddid 620 mujaddid-i 620 Mujaddid-i alf-i thànì 620 al-mujàdila 451 mujàhidàt 520, 557 mujàhidìn 320, 325 mujtahid 15, 325 mukabele 713 mulk 299–300 multiculturalism 29–33, 170, 273, 485, 619, 746 “red boot” multiculturalism 30 multiple discrimination 696 mumaiyyiz 395 munàsabàt 529 munshidùn 768 muqaddama 764–765 muqadma 536 murìd 327, 774 murder 402–403 murshida 768 murtadd (see also apostate) 7, 174 mustaftì 171, 172 mut≠a 338, 392, 447, 449, 466, 723 mwari 205 nafaqa 1, 22–23, 117, 121, 242, 451–452 nafs 326–327, 615, 767 najàbat 215 naming ceremony 196, 204 nàmùs 140, 206, 215, 218, 284, 335, 481 nanawati 414 nasab 1, 339, 475 nàshiza 117, 122, 404 naßß 446 nation 518–522 national flags 526 national organizations 788–791 national symbols 523–527 nationalism 154–160 banal nationalism 526 nawàzil 356 neene 144 neene-gotoobe 144 negaffa 535 neopatriarchy 348 networks 528–537 New Age 770 new reproductive technologies (NRTs) 404 nikà™ (see also marriage, marriage contract) 124, 143, 163, 252, 257, 340, 378, 385, 390–391, 458, 466, 475 nikâh itdiduruna cebr ile 699 nikà™nàma 756 nikanama 124 niqb 172 nisiyya 583 niỗtman 363 niswiyya 583 834 nuclearization of households nukh 339 nuns 10 nursing 355–357 nusyuz 380–381 nyai 65 nyakanga 205 subject index 255 orang lua 332 örf 693 Orientalism 62, 66–68, 260, 290, 294, 303, 321, 534, 656, 694, 722 orphans 1–6, 140, 261, 277, 297, 299, 315, 320, 322, 341, 454, 589, 635 orphanages 3, 5, 10, 65, 219, 298, 322, 404, 582, 707 Osmanlı milleti 692, 694 otin (plural otines) 19, 191, 479–480, 705–706, 769 otin-oy 769 Ottoman imperial codes 698 Ottomanism 664 pàdikhshà zanìh 800 pàdikhshàshàyìh 800–801 pahala 242 pàkdàmanì 215 pan-Arabism 793 panchayat 84, 108, 560 parandzha 19, 587 paranji 498 pardanishin 303 patrilocality 148, 339, 747 patronage and clientage 538–542 paxto 216, 217 peacekeeping 543–550 peace movements 625–631 pemasyarakatan system 431 pengurus 710 pension 23, 117, 395, 492, 608 people of tradition 441 peran ganda 244 personal law 55, 59, 83–84, 106, 124, 143, 287, 288, 303–304, 342–343, 351, 379, 385, 433–434, 469, 470–471, 577, 628, 726, 728–730, 741–744, 755–757 personal status law 8, 122, 269, 368, 389, 397–398, 419, 426, 463–465, 653, 657, 663, 725 pir dalil 768 pisar 345, 346 piyàlo 327 poetry 76, 159, 212, 216, 259, 318, 327, 359, 363, 415, 418, 478, 495, 508, 576–577, 716, 761, 767–769, 777 political motherhood 608 political participation 21, 26–28, 43, 47–48, 51, 54, 71, 87–89, 91, 94–95, 270, 279, 284, 300, 320, 392, 544, 551–558, 560, 563, 578, 585–586, 607, 645–646, 656, 677–679, 682–683, 687, 695, 783, 792 political parties 551–565 political prisoners 566–567 political regimes 568–570 political representation 90–91, 112, 273, 287, 295, 336, 553, 557, 562, 751 political rights 19–33 poll tax 801 posrednicheskiy 415 postage stamps 523–525 postcolonial dissent 672–675 pregnancy 2, 81, 98, 100, 127, 145, 223, 296–297, 306, 355, 395, 399, 423, 429, 432, 437, 443, 451, 453–455, 466, 513–514, 566, 668, 702, 747, 796, 801 prenuptial contract 442, 468, 473–474 Primitivism 62 property rights 299–305, 421 prostitution 20, 63–64, 76, 100, 118, 141–142, 199, 219, 246, 298, 404, 408, 432, 434, 698, 701, 735–738, 746, 792, 802 protest movements 632–646 public morality 9, 278, 287, 404, 496, 498, 700 public office 677–684 public/private dichotomy 685 punishments 429–439 purdah 52, 60, 143, 194–196, 203, 217, 256, 284, 312, 326, 495, 503–504, 534–535, 568, 592, 622, 644–646, 686, 752, 755–756 pùrùchìstà 803 pusaka rendah 332 pusaka tinggi 332 pusako 332 qabìla 284, 335 qadhf 395, 451, 701 qailin 335 Qà±im 15 qalandarì way 327 qànùn 463, 752 qaràba 448 qàt 230, 612 qat±-e kleegary 367 qatl bi-sabab 408 qatl-i-amd 408 qawm 335–336 qawmiyya 793 qawwàm 64 qazi (qà∂ì) 434 qırx 338 qißàß 27, 118, 342, 402–403, 406, 408, 475 qishr 230 qiyàs 6, 440–441, 446, 475–476 qoum 339 quota system 19–20, 23, 51, 54, 80, 83, 87–88, 274, 557, 558, 562, 564, 574, 586, 588, 678–680, 682, 683 Qur±ànic heirs 299 ra≠àyà 359, 571 rabats 768 race 689–697 ra∂à≠a 2, 339, 343 ra™ma 529 raj≠a 475 rajm kardan 215 Ramadan 73, 182, 292, 484–485, 492, 505, 529, 716–717, 733, 773 Ramadan Bayram 733 rape 12, 19–20, 38, 42, 83, 112, 116, 123, 126–128, 156, 173, 215, 221, 226, 273, 282, 287–288, 341–343, 361–362, 364, 369, 373, 378, 391, 395, 399–400, 403–404, 405–406, 408–409, 412, 416, 434–436, 471, 476, 496–497, 499, 539, 545, 566–567, 585, 593, 627, 637, 656, 660, 674, 691, 698–704, 729, 735–740 custodial rape 435 domestic rape 701 forced rape 403 gang rape 123, 343, 437, 488, 700, 703–704 marital rape 22, 111, 118, 126–127, 273, 369, 400, 403–404 subject index mass rape 593 political rape 38 public rape 288 ràqid 451 ra±y 440, 446 razfat al-≠iyàla 418 reasoning 440 religious association 705–719 religious pluralism 187, 397 religious racism 175–177 remarriage 11, 32, 59, 99–101, 105–107, 110, 142, 145, 202–203, 238, 252, 255, 264, 330, 341–342, 395, 443, 447–448, 451, 454–456, 466, 468–471, 474–475, 514, 579, 592, 621, 645, 756, 800 repudiation (see also †alàq) 22, 31–32, 98–99, 103, 109, 276, 387, 392, 394–395, 443, 448–449, 453, 466, 472, 474–475, 640–641 revenge cycle 414 revolutionary movements 647–665 ribà† 36, 328 ri∂à≠at al-kabìr 356 ridda (see also apostasy) 7, 475 riwàyàt 446 Roman law 32 rupush 500 rusari 500 Russification 166, 374 de-Russification 52 ryosai kenbo 745 ßabr 101 ßadàq 96, 442, 454 ßadaqa 242 sajjadà nashìn 327 sako 332 salàmi 340 sàlàr 800 ßalàt 709 salish 124, 173–174, 180, 378, 435 samande 332 sangsàr kardan 215 sariqa 475 sati 59, 288, 593 savab sayoo 195 sayyid 539 seclusion (see also purdah) 34–35, 37–38, 40, 47, 51, 71, 75, 130–139, 143, 163, 190–193, 201–203, 218, 246, 256, 259, 284, 312, 326, 335, 362, 395, 415, 417, 495, 498, 501–502, 504, 507, 531, 533–534, 536–587, 591–592, 601, 644, 677, 686, 710, 713, 717, 745, 752 sectarianism 720–724 secularism 725–735 selamlık 235 self-immolation 142, 199, 238, 363, 364 sema 713, 768 separatist movements 281, 352–353, 362, 431, 541, 545–547, 614, 628 sevap sex-selective feticide 298 sexual abuse 111, 116, 119, 123, 199, 282, 343, 403, 411, 432–433, 436, 691 children 735–740 sexual harrassment 371, 399, 702, 782 sexual trafficking 404 sexual violence 111, 120, 126–128, 282, 288, 343, 399, 436, 637, 702, 704, 735, 738, 739 shabnàmas 788 shàdì 257 835 Shàfi≠ì school 26, 223, 256, 369, 394, 426, 440–445, 450, 452, 454, 459, 463, 465, 467, 475, 701, 777 shahàda 325, 475 shahàda ≠alà shahàda 475 shahìd 285, 326 shahìda 521 shalwar kameez 184, 287, 504, 531 shamaj 12 sharaf 215 sharam 194 Sharì≠a 4, 7–9, 19–21, 26–27, 32, 41, 50, 55, 64, 73, 81–82, 87, 101, 108–110, 117, 121–122, 124, 127, 158, 161–164, 178, 180, 182, 198, 215–216, 254, 257, 266–270, 273, 276, 278–279, 284, 302–303, 307, 335–336, 367–368, 370–372, 374–378, 380–382, 384–386, 388–391, 392, 396–397, 400, 402–404, 408, 414–418, 422, 431–433, 436–437, 440–476, 497, 499, 501, 526, 562, 584–585, 594, 598, 605–607, 614, 641–642, 645, 658, 661, 691, 700–701, 706, 720, 722, 725, 735, 739, 746, 763, 770–772, 782 Sharì≠a courts 10, 27, 53, 85, 107, 120–122, 161–162, 278, 341, 368, 370–371, 375–376, 378–381, 388, 390–391, 395, 397, 433, 436, 438, 455, 458, 460–461, 463, 594–595, 601, 698–699, 735 sharm 143, 215, 217 shawràs 669 sheha 424 shelter for battered women 112, 114, 120, 274, 282, 362, 380, 403, 590, 597, 607, 656, 665, 715, 768 shighàr 455 shiqàq 463 shirbaha 335 shubha 403, 701 shuhr gumìzishnìh 802 shùra 87, 414 ßìgha (see also mut≠a) 392 sijillàt 369 sikke 713 ßilàt al-ra™im 529 silf 418 single mothers 16, 20, 252, 641 sitaat 76 slave trade 245–246 sleeping fetus (ràqid) 98, 397, 451 social control 210 sodomy 11 somo 205 Sovietization 141, 237, 374, 680 spirit possession 75–76, 136, 182, 328, 711, 764–765 state religion 81, 85, 287, 393–394, 559 stepmother 4, 508, 514 stereotypes 291, 752–760 sectorial stereotypes 759 stigma (stigmatization) 2, 5, 42, 96, 100–101, 105, 107–108, 111, 127, 141–142, 146, 150, 259, 341, 385, 418, 426, 429, 696, 735, 756, 799 stol krovi 390 stoning to death 85, 215, 222–224, 278, 287, 328, 342, 387, 397, 399, 406–407, 429, 434, 436, 562, 594, 701 stove burning 123–124 stridhan 304 stùr zanìh 800 ßub™iyya 530 succession 299–305 836 subject index süd 337 süd qohumluq 337 suffrage 28, 36, 37, 45, 60, 68, 81–82, 154, 172, 216, 278, 361–362, 364, 515, 551–553, 563, 566, 569–570, 647, 662–663, 681, 728, 781, 788 Sufi orders 34–35, 74–75, 289, 327, 497, 506, 537, 612, 711, 713, 761–774 Sufism 26, 36, 144, 324, 326–328, 338, 478, 480, 506, 536, 511, 612, 614, 620–621, 711, 713, 717, 722–723, 761–774, 782 sufra 480, 484, 707 suicide 116, 118, 123–124, 142, 150, 180, 191, 216, 238, 282, 320, 361, 363–364, 406, 412, 566–567 ßul™ 408 sul†àna 26 ßumùd 643–644 sümük qohumluq 337 suntuure 144 surau 242 suudu 144 swadeshi 61 syariah (see also Sharì≠a) 332 syed 539 †à≠a 122, 404, 463 tabannà tàbi≠ùn 440 tablìgh 709 ta≠dìl 475 tafrì≠ al-waqt 709 tafrìq 466 tafri†a 230 tafsìr 122, 716 ta™rìm ta™rìr registers 254, 260 tajaddud 284 tajwìd 716 takfìr †alàq (see also divorce) 15, 99, 101–103, 107–110, 124, 143, 341, 387, 394–395, 397, 442–443, 447–449, 455, 463, 466, 470, 473–475, 640–641 †alàq al-bid ≠a 442–443, 466 †alàq al-sunna 442, 466 †alàq al-tafwì∂ 380, 474 †alàq-e badai 341 †alàq-e bain 341 †alàq-i tafwì∂ 343 †alàq-ul bida≠ 341 talfìq 442, 460, 461 ta≠lìq 380 tamkin 117 tapos 478 taraqqì va tamaddun 727 tarhana 247 tarhon lagi 415 tarhoni lagtae 415 †arìqa (plural †uruq) (see also Sufi order) 75, 506, 526, 769, 771 tawàbìn 566 taw™ìd 621, 762, 733 ta≠zìr 121–122, 403, 408, 429 tekke 713, 761–762 tere 415 territoriality 347, 747 tespih 762 tevhid 762 thawb 184 thayyib 452 th±eryiueshchyh±et 390 thiéboudienne 526 third space 294 treteiskiy 415 tribal law 8, 122, 223, 269–270, 402, 414, 433, 435, 444, 448 tribalism 26, 40, 435, 571 trusteeship 1–6, 104 tuji fyng 390 turban 185 türban 282 türbes 761 Turkification 88, 360, 361, 482, 580 Turkishness 289, 694 Turkism 146, 664 tushol 512 umm 508 umm al-mu±minìn 155 umm al-shàhid 509 umm al-walad 454 umma 775–778 umùma 508 unanimous opinion 473 unlawful accusation of zinà (see qadhf) unlawful sexual intercourse (see zinà) unveiling 19, 36, 44, 207, 317, 362, 481, 523, 524, 582, 587, 589, 600, 632–633, 634, 642, 677, 705, 720, 727–728, 779, 788–789, 801 unyago 204–206 uork habze 415 ≠urf (see also customary law) 221, 375, 376, 392, 402–403, 418, 422–423, 432, 451, 463, 465–466 ≠usùlì 15 vani 343 n.2 varna-jàtì 339 vartan-bhànji 340 vatan 157, 284, 481 velis 713 viduity 32 virahinì 327 virgin-saints 717 virginity 12, 125, 145, 148–149, 173, 198, 203–204, 206, 226–227, 262, 282, 315, 387, 402, 409, 453 non-virginity 12, 211 virginity testing 219, 225, 282, 383, 433, 496, 660, 723 wàjib 230 wakàla 475 wakìl 8, 376 walàya 1, 100, 104, 475, 641 walì 104, 387, 394, 408, 452 walì mujbìr 394 walwar 335 waqf 2, 34, 59, 303–304, 376–377, 470, 705, 756 warombo 205 wa†an 156 wa†aniyya 156 wazee 424 weiganji 322 Westoxification 285 whipping (see lashing) widow immolation (see also sati) 59, 288 wilàyat-e nafs 341 wilàyat-e nikà™ 341 wilàyat-i faqìh 432 “wild blood” 794 wis-dukht 800 witnesses, women as 408, 475–477 subject index Woman Question 44, 59, 94, 360, 362, 482, 518, 580, 587–588, 592, 595–596, 664–665, 671, 705, 731, 779, 273 women’s courts 396 women’s studies programs 783–787 women’s unions 788–791 workers’ movements 666–671 xiangi liangmu 745 yamỡn 475 yanaỗma yarmulke 185 yasa 693 yibum 315–316 youth cultures and movements yurt 163, 228, 251 zakàt 578, 705 zameen 367 zàmil poetry 418 792–799 zan 215, 367 zàn-i dàì 345 Zar 367, 632–633 zàr 75–76, 768 zawàj al-àb 508 zawàj mut≠a (see mut≠a) zàwiya 485, 764 zenana 194 ∆enska medresa 762 zhenotdel 587, 634, 679 zhenotdely 19 zhensoviets 140 Ωihàr 1, 451, 470, 475 zinà 215, 221, 223, 395, 399–401, 403–404, 406–408, 434, 475–476, 698–704, 739 forced zinà 399, 699–700 zinà bi-al-jabr 400, 700, 703 zina cebr ile 699 zinà-yi mu™ßina 407 ziyàra 480 ziyàratnàma 803 837 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Adeni family court judge in her court with her assistant, early 1990s After Yemini unification, women were no longer allowed to head a family court or to train as judges (Photo: Susanne Dahlgren.) Figure Narinjistan, Shiraz Q¸j¸r period building Figure Official State Emblem of Iran, early 1970s Figure A factory worker in the Leather Shoe Factory, Aden During the early years of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, literacy was a requirement to enter factory work The photo is from 1989 (Photo: Susanne Dahlgren.) Figure Participants of a literacy class run by a local club of the General Union of Yemeni Women during the late years of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (Photo: Susanne Dahlgren.) Figure Kha y¸l a l-¬ ill (Cairo: n.d.), vol 2, no 62, Sunday, 23 August 1925, p 16 (Photo Credit: Near East Collections of the Princeton University Library.) ... volume ii, ewic With Volume II, EWIC launches the first of four volumes dedicated to substantive topics of relevance to women and Islamic cultures globally These four volumes, Volumes II? ??V (Volume. . .Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures volume ii Family, Law and Politics General Editor: Suad Joseph (University of California, Davis) Associate Editors and their regional... Trix, Wayne State University Judith Tucker, Georgetown University Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures volume ii Family, Law and Politics General Editor Suad Joseph Associate Editors Afsaneh