Báo cáo khoa học: Energetic and metabolic transient response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to benzoic acid docx

Energetic and metabolic transient response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati*, W. A. van Winden, W. M. van Gulik and J. J. Heijnen Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Benzoic acid is important for the food industries. Along with other weak acids such as sulfite and sulfur dioxide, sorbic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and lactic acid, benzoic acid is used on a large scale as a food preservative, preventing microbial spoilage in foods and beverages. The optimum condition for this type of preservatives is a low pH. In acidic media, particularly at pH values lower than the pK a (the dissociation constant) of the weak acid, the acid is present mostly in its non-dissoci- ated form, which is able to permeate cell membranes. Because of the high intracellular pH (6.4–7.5) [1–5], the intruding non-dissociated acid will dissociate into its anion with the release of a proton. This results in intracellular acidification [6] which affects the homeo- stasis of metabolism such that substantial energy is required to overcome acidification by actively pumping out protons. This energy-consuming process leads to a decrease in biomass yield, as observed previously [7]. At sufficiently high concentrations, benzoate has been reported to inhibit glycolysis [6,8,9] leading to a cessa- tion of growth. Furthermore, it is also reported to cause oxidative stress in aerobically cultivated yeast [10]. However, some yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevi- siae and Zygosaccharomyces bailii, both of which are known to be important food spoilage yeasts, are able to adapt to the presence of these weak acids with a large energy expenditure and hence are able to increase their tolerance to these weak acids up to a certain Keywords adaptation; benzoic acid; chemostat; transient; yeast Correspondence J. J. Heijnen, Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 67, 2628 BC Delft, The Netherlands Fax: +31 15 278 2355 Tel: +31 15 278 2342 E-mail: j.j.heijnen@tudelft.nl *Present address Microbiology and Bioprocess Technology Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engi- neering, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia (Received 2 January 2008, revised 29 August 2008, accepted 4 September 2008) doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06667.x Saccharomyces cerevisiae is known to be able to adapt to the presence of the commonly used food preservative benzoic acid with a large energy expenditure. Some mechanisms for the adaptation process have been sug- gested, but its quantitative energetic and metabolic aspects have rarely been discussed. This study discusses use of the stimulus response approach to quantitatively study the energetic and metabolic aspects of the transient adaptation of S. cerevisiae to a shift in benzoic acid concentration, from 0 to 0.8 mm. The information obtained also serves as the basis for further utilization of benzoic acid as a tool for targeted perturbation of the energy system, which is important in studying the kinetics and regulation of cen- tral carbon metabolism in S. cerevisiae. Using this experimental set-up, we found significant fast-transient (< 3000 s) increases in O 2 consumption and CO 2 production rates, of $ 50%, which reflect a high energy require- ment for the adaptation process. We also found that with a longer expo- sure time to benzoic acid, S. cerevisiae decreases the cell membrane permeability for this weak acid by a factor of 10 and decreases the cell size to $ 80% of the initial value. The intracellular metabolite profile in the new steady-state indicates increases in the glycolytic and tricarboxylic acid cycle fluxes, which are in agreement with the observed increases in specific glucose and O 2 uptake rates. Abbreviations CER, CO 2 production rate; OUR, O 2 uptake rate. FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS 5527 concentration. This implies that, in order to signifi- cantly inhibit the growth of these yeasts, a high dose of weak acids would be required for food preservation, whereas a low maximum concentration is permitted. It has been reported that these yeasts adapt to the presence of weak acids by inducing an ATP-binding cassette transporter, Pdr12, to actively expel the accu- mulated ‘dissociated’ weak acids [11,12], and by adapt- ing membrane permeability to these acids [13]. This reduces the passive diffusion of non-dissociated acid, limits the influx of these weak acids and reduces their effects on cell metabolism. An overview of these adap- tation mechanisms is shown in Fig. 1. The fact that the presence of benzoic acid introduces an independent ATP drain in cell metabolism may also be of interest to those studying the regulation of cell energetics and metabolism. It offers the possibility to perturb, in a targeted way, the ATP pool, which is important in the in vivo kinetic evaluation of central carbon metabolism. However, to be able to perform this kind of experiment, quantitative information on the effect of benzoic acid on cell energetics and metab- olism is required. Although some mechanisms for the adaptation to benzoic acid have been suggested, little quantitative data on this mechanism have been presented. More- over, studies have mostly been performed in shake flask cultures [13,14], where the environment cannot be tightly controlled or monitored. Thus, changes observed in the metabolism may be caused by changes in multiple experimental parameters which complicate interpretation of the results. Also steady-state chemo- stat studies have been performed to examine the ener- getic aspects of growth in the presence of benzoic acid [7,15]. However, adaptation is best revealed by a tran- sient study. This study presents the combined use of a well- defined, tightly controlled aerobic, glucose-limited chemostat system and the application of a stimulus– response approach to quantitatively study the tran- sient adaptation of S. cerevisiae to benzoic acid. An aerobic glucose-limited steady-state chemostat culture of S. cerevisiae was suddenly exposed to a certain extracellular benzoic acid concentration (a step change perturbation from 0 to 0.8 mm benzoic acid, at pH 4.5) after which the transient response of the culture was monitored. The analysis focuses on the quantitative energetic aspects of the transient adapta- tion, to reveal metabolic regulation and the perturba- tion of the central carbon metabolism. To complete the analysis, fermentation characteristics and intra- cellular metabolite distributions in the two steady- state conditions, with and without benzoic acid, were also compared. Theory Benzoic acid transport model In solution, benzoic acid attains a pH-dependent equi- librium between the non-dissociated and dissociated forms, AB C Fig. 1. The general response of S. cerevisiae to benzoic acid. (A) Benzoic acid enters cell via passive diffusion, the released proton is expulsed by an energy-consuming H + -ATPase (Pma1), whereas the dissociated benzoic acid may still introduce some toxicity; (B) induction of ATP-binding cassette transporter Pdr12 to actively expel benzoate, the expulsion of benzoate causes a futile cycle of benzoic acid diffu- sion and subsequent active export; (C) changes in membrane characteristics to limit the influx of benzoic acid into the cell. Transient response to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. 5528 FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS HB Ð H þ þ B À K ¼ C H þ C B À C HB ð1Þ in which K is the benzoic acid dissociation constant, HB is the non-dissociated form of the acid and B ) is the dissociated form (benzoate). Thus, for a certain mea- surable total benzoate concentration (C B ¼ C B À þ C HB ), the fraction of the non-dissociated (protonated) state can be calculated as f HB ¼ 1 1 þðK=C H þ Þ ð2Þ Cell membranes are normally permeable to the non- dissociated form of relatively apolar weak acids, there- fore such molecules can passively diffuse through cell membranes. By assuming that benzoic acid is trans- ported by passive diffusion only, which holds when the benzoate exporter is not induced [1], the uptake rate of benzoic acid (q HB ; molÆkgDW )1 Æs )1 ) can be modeled as: q HB ¼ k 6V x d x  ðC HB ex À C HB in Þð3Þ in which k (mÆs )1 ) is the membrane permeability coeffi- cient for benzoic acid, C HB ex and C HB in (molÆm )3 ) are the extracellular and intracellular non-dissociated ben- zoic acid concentration, V x (m 3 ÆkgDW )1 ) is the cell volume per gram dry weight of biomass and d x (m) is the cell diameter. The term (6 · V x ⁄ d x ) actually consti- tutes the specific surface area of the cell (A X ; m 2 ÆkgDW )1 ). The values used in the calculation are d x =5· 10 )6 m [16], V x =2· 10 )3 m 3 ÆkgDW )1 and k = 0.92 · 10 )5 mÆs )1 [1]. At a steady-state and in the absence of an active exporter, the intracellular non-dissociated benzoic acid is in equilibrium with the extracellular non- dissociated benzoic acid and thus their concentra- tions are equal. Hence, following the dissociation equation (Eqn 1) the ratio of total intracellular to total extracellular benzoate concentration reflects the difference in the intracellular and extracellular pH as C B in C B ex ¼ 10 pH in ÀpK þ 1 10 pH ex ÀpKðÞ þ 1 ð4Þ It is known that benzoic acid is not metabolized by yeast cells [1,17]. Under this condition, the accumu- lation of total benzoate inside the cells (C B in ) can be calculated from the total benzoate mass balance. Con- sidering that the fraction of the total cell volume is negligible compared with the total broth volume, C x ÆV x > V, the total concentration of intracellular benzoate can be calculated as C B in ¼ C B 0 À C B ex C x V x ð5Þ in which C B 0 is the initial total benzoate concentration in the medium (C B 0 ). By combining Eqns (4,5) we can calculate the intracellular pH (pH in ) from the added ⁄ initial total benzoate in the medium, the mea- sured extracellular total benzoate concentration, the biomass concentration and the extracellular pH (pH ex ) C B 0 À C B ex C x V x C B ex ¼ 10 ðpH in ÀpK a Þ þ 1 10 ðpH ex ÀpK a Þ þ 1 ð6Þ In the presence of a benzoate exporter, such as Pdr12, intracellular benzoate is actively exported, and this process consumes energy. This leads to an increase in the extracellular total benzoate concentration, a decrease in the intracellular total benzoate concentra- tion and additional O 2 consumption. To maintain the intracellular charge balance, a proton is actively co-transported. Assuming that 1 ATP is consumed for the export of each of these species, the defined P ⁄ O ratio = 1.46 [17], and all benzoic acid which enters the cell via passive diffusion is exported, the influx of benzoic acid via passive diffusion can be related to the additional O 2 consumption (OUR – OUR 0 ) as: OUR À OUR 0 ÀÁ Â 2P=O ¼ 2q HB C x V L ð7Þ Here OUR 0 is the O 2 consumption rate (molÆs )1 )in the absence of benzoate. Equation 7 shows that the export of 1 mol of benzoate leads to an extra O 2 con- sumption of 1 ⁄ (P ⁄ O) = 0.68 mol. If the exporter were to export benzoic acid instead of the benzoate anion, which does not lead to an intracellular charge imbal- ance, the export would lead to 0.34 mol of additional O 2 consumption per mol of benzoate. Results The benzoic acid shift experiment was performed using an abrupt change in the total benzoate concentration in the fermentor from 0 to 0.8 mm at a constant pH of 4.5. The steady-state characteristics of the fermentation prior to the shift experiment are shown in Table 1. It was calculated that the carbon and degree of reduction balances agree closely, with 97.6% carbon recovery and 96.1% degree of reduction recovery. Transient responses in the culture to the shift in ben- zoic acid concentration were followed in terms of extracellular metabolite concentrations, dissolved O 2 and CO 2 concentrations, off-gas O 2 and CO 2 concen- trations, biomass concentration (C X ) and cell morphol- ogy. Thereafter, a new steady-state was reached, characterized by a significantly lower biomass concen- M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. Transient response to benzoic acid FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS 5529 tration and significantly higher specific rates of glucose and O 2 consumption (Table 1). Transient benzoic acid profile Within 20 s of the shift in the benzoic acid concentra- tion, the total extracellular benzoate concentration decreased to 250 lm, which is 30% of the added con- centration in the medium (Fig. 2A). After $ 1 h, the extracellular total benzoate concentration slowly starts to increase and reaches a stable-steady concentration of $ 650 lm, which is 80% of the added total benzo- ate in the feed medium. This steady-state is reached 24–30 h after the start of the transient response. Transient O 2 and CO 2 profiles O 2 and CO 2 concentrations (Fig. 2B,C) respond dynamically to the shift in benzoic acid concentration. Shortly after the shift, the O 2 concentrations in both the liquid and gas phases decrease rapidly. After a minimum value is reached, within 1000 s of the benzo- ate shift, the O 2 concentrations in both phases are restored, overshoot and then slowly stabilize. The new steady-state condition, however, is only achieved $ 30 h after the shift. Opposing transient profiles are observed for the CO 2 concentrations (Fig. 2C). Transient extracellular metabolite profiles Consistent with the carbon-limited condition for the chemostat culture, the residual glucose concentration remains low after the shift in the benzoic acid concen- tration. Within 1000 s of the shift, the ethanol concen- tration increases from a very low residual concentration of < 5–15 mgÆL )1 (Fig. 2D) and is shortly followed by an increase in the acetic acid con- centration to 10 mgÆL )1 (Fig. 2E). After 1000 s these concentrations return to the steady-state values measured before the shift and remain low. Transient cell morphology We also observed changes in cell morphology following the shift in benzoic acid concentration in the medium (Table 2). Cell-image analysis of broth samples taken during the transient condition at 18.7, 48.4 and 72.1 h following the shift in benzoic acid concentration indi- cates a negative trend in the cell-equivalent diameter, albeit not statistically significant due to the large stan- dard deviation. Moreover, the cells elongate. The latter can be inferred from the increase in the cell roundness index (the roundness is defined as the perimeter 2 ⁄ [4 · p · area], and the roundness of a circle = 1) and the increase in the cell aspect ratio index (the cell aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between the two axial diameters of the object, the aspect ratio of a circle = 1) (Fig. 3). Transient O 2 uptake, CO 2 production and biomass production rates The observed rapid decrease in O 2 concentration in both the gas and liquid phases and the rapid increase in CO 2 concentration in both phases following the shift in benzoic acid concentration reflect a rapid increase in both the O 2 uptake rate (OUR) and the CO 2 production rate (CER) (Fig. 4A,B). The maximum increase in the OUR calculated from the liquid-phase mass balance is 1.5-fold (from 80 to 120 mmolÆh )1 ), whereas a 1.8-fold increase (from 80 to 146 mmolÆh )1 ) is calculated from the combined liquid- and gas-phase balances. As discussed in Experimental procedures, the OUR calculated from the liquid-phase mass balance is a better description of the fast dynamic condition. Virtually the same dynamic pattern is obtained for CER, which also increases 1.8-fold compared with the steady-state value, within 600 s of the shift. Thereafter both OUR and CER slowly decrease to close to their previous steady-state values. However, from $ 3000 s after the shift, the OUR and CER are observed to slowly increase again. At the end of the observation window, $ 72 h after the start of the transient, new steady values of 117 mmolÆh )1 for both OUR and CER (i.e. a 1.5-fold increase compared with the initial steady-state values) are calculated. During the observation the respiration quotient (RQ) is always close to 1. Long-term OUR and CER profiles indicate a signifi- cant decrease in the biomass production rate (r X ) (Fig. 4C), such that at the new steady-state the Table 1. Characterization of steady-state fermentation prior to and after the shift in benzoic acid concentration. C X , biomass concentra- tion; l, specific growth rate; q O 2 , specific O 2 consumption rate; q CO 2 , specific CO 2 production rate, q S , specific glucose consump- tion rate. Benzoic acid concentration in the medium (m M) 0 0.8 Fermentation characteristics Biomass concentration (kgDWÆm )3 ) 14.09 ± 0.17 7.81 l (h )1 ) 0.05 0.05 q O 2 (mmolÆgDW )1 Æh )1 ) 1.46 ± 0.06 3.76 q CO 2 (mmolÆkgDW )1 Æh )1 ) 1.45 ± 0.04 3.72 q S glucose (mmolÆgDW )1 Æh )1 ) 0.53 ± 0.01 0.96 Transient response to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. 5530 FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS biomass production rate is calculated to be $ 65% of the initial steady-state value (110–170 mmolÆXÆh )1 ). Accordingly, the calculated biomass concentration has decreased from 14.9 to 9.6 kgDWÆ m )3 (Fig. 4D). This is confirmed by the measured biomass concentrations (Fig. 4D) which decrease by 10% from 14.1 to 12.7 kgDWÆm )3 within 5.3 h of the shift and by 55%, i.e. to 7.8 kgDWÆm )3 , at 72 h after the shift, when the experiment was finished. The calculated biomass concentrations are 4–25% higher than the measured values. However, it should be realized that the calcu- lated recoveries of carbon and the degree of reduction during the transient, using Eqns (14,15) and the experi- mental data of the biomass concentrations, OUR and CER are found to deviate respectively by 5–11 and A B C D E Fig. 2. Transient responses to the shift in benzoic acid concentration (the timing of the shift is marked by a dashed vertical line). (A) Benzoic acid profile, (B) O 2 profiles in the liquid (gray solid line) and gas phase (black dashed line), (C) CO 2 profiles in the liquid (gray solid line) and gas phase (black dashed line), (D) ethanol concentration profile, (E) acetic acid concentration profile. Table 2. Response in cell morphology following the shift in benzoic acid concentration in the medium. Age (h) Equivalent diameter a (lm) Roundness b Aspect ratio c Sample number 0 4.94 ± 1.30 1.12 ± 0.11 1.25 ± 0.18 615 18.7 4.31 ± 1.24 1.14 ± 0.11 1.32 ± 0.21 474 48.4 4.38 ± 0.96 1.15 ± 0.12 1.36 ± 0.24 1180 72.1 4.06 ± 0.91 1.15 ± 0.11 1.47 ± 0.29 911 a Equivalent diameter is the diameter of the cell if the cell is assumed to be spherical. b Roundness measures the shape of the object, it is defined as (perimeter 2 · 1000) ⁄ (4 · p · area). The roundness of a circle = 1. c Aspect ratio gives the ratio between the two axes of the object. The aspect ratio of a circle is similar to the aspect ratio of a square = 1. M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. Transient response to benzoic acid FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS 5531 5–28%. Furthermore, the observed changes in cell morphology and adaptation to benzoic acid may also change cell structure and composition. Hence the assumption of constant biomass molecular mass may not have been valid and may have introduced errors in the calculated biomass concentration. If this is the case, the discrepancy in the total carbon balance indi- cates up to 25% deviation in the cell molecular mass, which is highly unlikely. Another possible source of the discrepancy in the total carbon and degree of reduction balance is byproduct formation. However, the biomass production rates (r X ) calculated from both carbon and degree of reduction balances agree which does not point to significant byproduct formation. This leaves us the possibility of systematic measurement errors, particularly during the transient. During the entire observation period of 72 h after the shift in benzoic acid concentration, the increase in OUR and the decrease in biomass concentration in the chemostat result in a strong and steady increase in the biomass specific O 2 consumption rate (q O 2 ) (see Fig. 4E), reaching a final value which is 2.2-fold higher than the initial steady-state value. During the first hour after the shift, the biomass concentration does not change significantly and the therefore the q O 2 profile is similar to the OUR profile. The final steady-state increase in the specific O 2 and glucose consumption rates found in this experiment are comparable with the increase in specific O 2 and glucose consumption rates between the chemostat A B Fig. 3. Microscopic cell image of S. cerevisiae (A) before and (B) after (72.1 h) the addition of benzoic acid to the culture. A B C D E Fig. 4. Transient responses to the shift in benzoic acid concentra- tion (the timing of the shift is marked by a dashed vertical line). (A) O 2 consumption rate (OUR; the gray curve represents the short- term transient response OUR calculated from the liquid-phase bal- ance only), (B) CO 2 production rate (CER), (C) calculated biomass production rate (r X ), (D) calculated and measured biomass concen- trations (C X ), black circles represent the measured values; for (C) and (D) both the calculated values from the total carbon balance (black lines) and from the degree of reduction balance (gray lines) are shown. (E) Specific O 2 consumption (q O 2 , steady-state value is indicated by a gray dashed line). Transient response to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. 5532 FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS culture without benzoic acid and the chemostat culture with a residual total benzoate concentration of 2 mm [7]. Although the total benzoate concentration in the latter experiment is higher than in this study, those experiments were performed at an extracellular of pH 5.0, at which the non-dissociated benzoic acid frac- tion is lower than at pH 4.5 as in the present study. The non-dissociated benzoic acid concentration which corresponds to this condition is 0.27 mm, only 25% higher than the non-dissociated benzoic acid concen- tration of 0.21 mm in the present study with a total benzoate concentration of 0.64 mm at an extracellular pH of 4.5. In our experiments (l = 0.05 h )1 ) the measured specific O 2 consumption increases from 1.46 to 3.76 mmolÆh )1 (2.6-fold), whereas in Verduyn’s experiments (at l = 0.1 h )1 ) it increases from 2.5 to 6 mmolÆh )1 (2.4-fold). Steady-state intracellular metabolite profiles Intracellular concentrations of the intermediates of the glycolytic, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and pentose phos- phate pathway, as well as storage carbohydrate and adenine nucleotides, were measured during the two steady-state conditions, with and without benzoic acid in the feed medium (Table 3). The values presented are averages of six independent samples, each of which was measured in duplicate. The calculated standard deviations of $ 5% indicate the quality of the sample- processing method and the analysis. In the presence of benzoic acid, we observed signifi- cantly lower amounts of ATP, ADP and AMP which lead to a slightly higher energy charge level, respec- tively 0.87 ± 0.004 and 0.85 ± 0.005 with and with- out benzoic acid (Table 3). This is remarkable considering the much higher ATP fluxes due to the higher specific O 2 consumption in the presence of benzoate. For the glycolytic intermediates, we observed that the presence of benzoic acid leads to increased levels of fructose 1,6 bisphosphate (twofold) and glyc- erol 3-phosphate (fivefold), as well as decreased levels of the phospho-enol-pyruvate and 2-phosphoglycer- ate + 3-phosphoglycerate pools, respectively, to 65 and 75% of their concentration in the absence of benzoic acid (Table 3). One striking difference between the two steady-states is that the concentrations of the weak acids in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (pyruvate, citrate, a-ketogluta- rate, succinate, fumarate and malate) in the presence of benzoic acid are all significantly higher (1.4–9.9- fold) than those concentrations without the presence of benzoic acid (Table 3). Discussion To study the transient behavior following the shift in benzoic acid concentration further, the analysis focused on two different time windows: short-term responses (0–3000 s) and long-term responses (> 3000 s). To complete the overview, comparison between the two steady-state conditions, with and without benzoic acid is presented first. Steady-state comparison with and without benzoic acid – increase in catabolism Comparison between the steady-state fermentation characteristics in the presence or the absence of benzoic acid shows that in general the presence of benzoic acid results in higher specific O 2 consumption and glucose uptake rates, as well as a decrease in the biomass concentration. These observations are Table 3. Intracellular metabolite concentrations measured during the steady-state without and with 0.8 m M benzoic acid in the medi- um, values are presented in lmolÆgDW )1 , except for the energy charge and adenylate kinase mass action ratio which are dimen- sionless. The values are an average of six independent samples. Benzoic acid concentration in the medium (m M) 0 0.8 ATP 7.94 ± 0.30 6.61 ± 0.23 ADP 1.74 ± 0.03 1.35 ± 0.03 AMP 0.64 ± 0.02 0.37 ± 0.02 SAXP 10.32 ± 0.31 8.33 ± 0.24 Adenylate kinase mass action ratio a 0.59 ± 0.03 0.74 ± 0.06 Energy charge b 0.85 ± 0.00 0.87 ± 0.00 Glucose 6-phosphate 1.74 ± 0.08 1.59 ± 0.08 Fructose 6-phosphate 0.27 ± 0.01 0.25 ± 0.02 6-Phosphogluconate 0.20 ± 0.01 0.29 ± 0.02 Glucose 1-phosphate 0.29 ± 0.01 0.34 ± 0.02 Mannose 6-phosphate 0.70 ± 0.02 0.71 ± 0.05 Trehalose 6-phosphate 0.22 ± 0.01 0.19 ± 0.00 Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate 0.16 ± 0.00 0.31 ± 0.01 Phosphoenolpyruvate 0.66 ± 0.02 0.43 ± 0.03 2-Phosphoglycerate ⁄ 3-phosphoglycerate 0.81 ± 0.03 0.61 ± 0.03 Glucose 3-phosphate 0.01 ± 0.00 0.05 ± 0.00 Glyoxylate 0.01 ± 0.00 0.04 ± 0.00 Pyruvate 0.09 ± 0.01 0.24 ± 0.01 Citrate 5.26 ± 0.16 7.26 ± 0.36 a-ketoglutarate 0.06 ± 0.00 0.25 ± 0.01 Succinate 0.04 ± 0.01 0.34 ± 0.02 Fumarate 0.04 ± 0.00 0.39 ± 0.02 Malate 0.21 ± 0.01 2.02 ± 0.10 a Adenylate kinase mass action ratio = (ADP) 2 ⁄ (ATPÆAMP). b Energy charge = (ATP + 0.5 ADP) ⁄ (ATP + ADP + AMP). M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. Transient response to benzoic acid FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS 5533 supported by intracellular metabolite measurements. The observed patterns of the glycolytic intermediates, i.e. a higher level of fructose 1,6-biphosphate and lower levels of phospho-enol-pyruvate and the 2-phos- phoglycerate + 3-phosphoglycerate pool in the pres- ence of benzoic acid compared with in the absence of benzoic acid (Table 3), are also commonly observed as a response to a glucose pulse [18–20] and indicate an increase in glycolytic flux in the presence of benzoic acid. The increase in glycolytic flux is consis- tent with the calculated increase in the specific glucose uptake rate (Table 1). Interestingly, the pres- ence of benzoic acid also leads to a higher level of glycerol 3-phosphate (fivefold), which may indicate a higher cytosolic NADH ⁄ NAD ratio. The higher NADH ⁄ NAD ratio is verified by calculation of this ratio from the lumped reactions of aldolase, triose phosphate isomerase, glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphoglycerate kinase and phospho- glycerate mutase, which gives a 1.7-fold increase in the NADH ⁄ NAD ratio in the presence of benzoic acid. The higher NADH ⁄ NAD ratio is consistent with higher glycolytic flux and also the higher specific O 2 consumption rate, which is probably stimulated by the higher NADH ⁄ NAD ratio. By contrast, the observed higher concentrations of the weak acids in the tricarboxylic acid cycle in the presence of benzoic acid reflect the much higher tricarboxylic acid cycle flux. Overall, intracellular metabolite profiles show that in the presence of benzoic acid cells accelerate their catabolism to generate more energy to overcome the ATP drain for exporting benzoate and protons. It con- firms the black box energetic observations of the increased specific O 2 consumption and glucose uptake rates. Transient benzoic acid profile indicates the timing of benzoic acid transporter induction Fermentation was started without benzoic acid in the medium. In this condition, we expect that the benzoate transporter, such as Pdr12p, is absent and benzoic acid will be in equilibrium inside and outside the cell following the intracellular and extracellular pH difference, as described in Eqn (4). Accordingly, intra- cellular pH can be calculated from the transient total benzoate profile. Within the first 3000 s following the shift in the benzoic acid concentration intracellular pH is calculated to be 6.44–6.65. This is in agreement with the reference value of steady-state intracellular pH for this yeast species [1], which shows that, within this time window, the benzoate transporter is not present and only equilibration by passive diffusion occurs. In the longer term, > 1 h following the shift, we observe that the extracellular total benzoate concentra- tion increases (Fig. 5A). Accordingly, the intracellular total benzoate concentration, which is calculated from the measured extracellular total benzoate concentra- tion, decreases (Fig. 5B). This may be explained by a decrease in intracellular pH, which shifts the distribu- tion of benzoic acid towards the extracellular compart- ment. However, considering the tightly controlled pH homeostasis, it is not likely that cells permanently lower their intracellular pH. Because the decrease in intracellular total benzoate concentration coincides with an increase in the O 2 uptake rate (Fig. 4A), it is more likely that this is caused by induction of the ben- zoate exporter. If this is the case, the time required to induce the benzoate exporter observed in this study would be $ 3000 s, which is much faster than the pre- viously reported value of 28 h [5] at which the extru- sion of benzoic acid became apparent. The observed A B Fig. 5. Benzoic acid concentration profile in response to the shift in the benzoic acid concentration (the timing of the shift is marked by a dashed vertical line). (A) Mea- sured extracellular total benzoate concentra- tion, (B) calculated intracellular total benzoate concentration. Transient response to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. 5534 FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS continuous increase in extracellular total benzoate con- centration, from 3000 s to $ 24–30 h after the medium shift, may indicate the slow completion of the induc- tion of this transporter. Long-term transient response following the shift in benzoic acid concentration – adaptations in membrane properties and cell size to the presence of benzoic acid In order to study the adaptation of cells to benzoic acid, we use the transient O 2 consumption profile to reconstitute the dynamics in benzoic acid transport, as summarized in Fig. 6. By assuming that the increase in O 2 consumption is the result of additional ATP pro- duction needed to export protons and benzoate from the cells, and that all the benzoic acid entering the cell via passive diffusion is exported back into the medium, the net influx of benzoic acid is reconstructed follow- ing Eqn (7). As a comparison, the total, fermentor scale, benzoic acid influx profile via passive diffusion (=q HB ÆC X ÆV L ) is also calculated from the available extracellular and intracellular benzoic acid concentra- tion profiles following Eqn (3), using the previously determined membrane permeability value of benzoic acid for S. cerevisiae unadapted to benzoic acid, 0.92 · 10 )5 mÆs )1 [1] and by assuming that intracellular pH is constant at 6.5, which is the averaged intracellu- lar pH calculated during the short-term dynamics, as discussed previously. In Fig. 7 we show the calculation step by step. Figure 7A shows the driving force for the benzoic acid passive diffusion (C HB ex À C HB in ). Figure 7B shows the total membrane surface area (=A X ÆC X ÆV L ) available for the benzoic acid transport during the transient observation based on the measured changes in the cell concentration (Fig. 4D) and cell diameter (Table 2), and by assuming a constant biomass dry weight spe- cific volume (V x =m 3 ÆkgDW )1 ) and that cells are spherical. Figure 7C shows the expected total benzoic acid influx via passive diffusion. Figure 7D shows the additional O 2 consumption due to the addition of benzoic acid. Fig. 6. Benzoic acid and benzoate transport model, at pseudo steady-state condition the uptake rate of benzoic acid (q HB ) and the expulsion rate of benzoate (q B ) are equal. k, membrane permeabil- ity coefficient for benzoic acid; C HB rmex , extracellular non-dissociated benzoic acid concentration; C HB in , intracellular non-dissociated benzoic acid concentration; V x , cell volume per g dry weight of biomass; d x , cell diameter; OUR, O 2 consumption rate; OUR 0 ,O 2 consumption rate in the absence of benzoate; C X , biomass con- centration; V L , liquid volume in the fermentor. Fig. 7. Modeling the long-term cellular response to benzoic acid. (A) Undissociated extracellular (solid line) and intracellular (dashed line) benzoic acid concentrations profile, (B) changes in total cell surface area in the fermentor, (C) benzoic acid influx rate profile cal- culated via passive diffusion, (D) additional OUR profile, (E) appar- ent membrane permeability for benzoic acid. M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. Transient response to benzoic acid FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS 5535 Figure 7C,D shows that the total benzoate influxes calculated using the two methods do not agree. The ratio between the calculated benzoate influx via passive diffusion and the additional O 2 consumption rate is $ 11 mol O 2 per mol benzoate exported, which is much higher than the expected value of 1.46 (see Eqn 7). This discrepancy is very likely caused by changes in cell membrane properties, which are reflected by the change in membrane permeability for benzoic acid. The apparent membrane permeability constant of benzoic acid (Fig. 7E), which was calcu- lated from the measured additional O 2 consumption (Fig. 7D), transient total membrane surface area (Fig. 7B) and the driving force for the passive diffusion of benzoic acid (Fig. 7A), is much lower than the pre- viously reported value estimated from unadapted cells, and shows interesting dynamics, particularly within the first 20 h ($ 1 generation time) of the transient response. It is remarkable that such a decrease in membrane permeability is achieved only within 1 gen- eration time and points to the associated genetic regu- lation of the synthesis of membrane molecules, such that the membrane composition of the adapted cell is less permeable for benzoic acid. This calls for an anal- ysis of the transcript distribution and the analysis of membrane composition during the adaptation to benzoic acid. It is important to notice that the above calculation was performed based on the assumption of a constant biomass dry weight specific volume (V x ). As the cell size decreases the cell reduces its organic mass (cellular machinery) proportional to the cube of its diameter, and reduces its surface area, which is proportional to the square of the diameter. This may indicate that, along with the decrease in benzoic acid influx, which is proportional to the cell surface area, the cell also decreases its cellular machinery which may imply decreases in metabolic flux. This would make the decrease in cell diameter a counterintuitive response. To verify what actually happens in the transition, accurate measurement of cell volume distribution and cell mass distribution are required. Overall, these long-term responses show that cells are able to adapt to benzoic acid by decreasing their specific surface area and their membrane permeability, in agree- ment with previous observations by Warth [13]. Short-term transient response following the shift in benzoic acid concentration–boost in energy generation The observed rapid increase in OUR and CER shortly after the shift in benzoic acid concentration (Fig. 4A,B) indicates a fast flux rearrangement inside the cell. It implies that more glucose is used for energy generation and that the glycolytic flux increases tempo- rarily. This is supported by the observed transient increase in extracellular ethanol, which was followed by a transient increase in extracellular acetic acid (Fig. 2D,E). It is reported that ethanol production in S. cerevisiae is a direct consequence of the accumula- tion of pyruvate, which is the end product glycolysis [3]. It should be noted that the increase in extracellular ethanol and acetate concentration is transient and the level is relatively small. Thus, it may be safely assumed that the energy is generated from respiration. The timing of the previously discussed observations also provides other information about cell regulation. The fact that the increase in ethanol concentration is observed before the increase in acetic acid concentra- tion and OUR, suggests that cells can rapidly increase the glycolytic flux, whereas the adjustment of respira- tion is slower. As a consequence of the rapid increase in glycolytic flux, the NADH concentration is rapidly built up, which triggers an increase in the rate of reac- tions consuming NADH, e.g. alcohol dehydrogenase that synthesizes ethanol and oxidative phosphoryla- tion. The increase in ethanol concentration shows the requirement of the cell to balance the fast NADH accumulation, which could not be directly accommo- dated by the oxidative phosphorylation. The capacity of the latter process increases later, and is observed as an increase in OUR and CER as well as an increase in acetate (ethanol is converted back to acetate and produces $ 2 NADH per mol ethanol). It is interesting to note that under carbon-limited conditions S. cerevisiae is rapidly able to increase the rate of O 2 consumption by 1.5-fold. It shows that, despite the constant feed rate of glucose in the glucose- limited chemostat, the cell can rapidly increase glucose catabolism. Quantitative explanation of this phenom- enom is summarized in Fig. 8. There are two possible explanations for the origin of the transient increase in glucose catabolism: a decrease in the biomass produc- tion rate allowing an increased channeling of glucose towards catabolism, or a temporary mobilization of storage carbohydrates. It is even more interesting to see that after the initial increase, O 2 consumption is seen to rapidly decrease again, at $ 500 s after the shift experiment, almost reaching its initial steady-state value (Fig. 4A). The observed dynamic pattern of the O 2 consumption profile during this short transient of 0–3000 s, i.e. a temporary increase followed by a decrease in the O 2 consumption profile, is therefore most likely related to the mobilization of storage carbohydrate compounds Transient response to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati et al. 5536 FEBS Journal 275 (2008) 5527–5541 ª 2008 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2008 FEBS [...]... et al Transient response to benzoic acid Observed total short tr ransient increase in ol OUR of about 45 mmo O2 (equivalent to additional 0.037 C-mol of sugar metabolism) o Possible source: Fig 8 Quantification of short-term transient response following the shift in benzoic acid concentration Possible target: Utilization of storage carbohydrate (total availability 0.25 C-mol) such as trehalose and glycogen,... of H+ATPase Assuming that the level of Pdr12 that needs to be synthesized is 35% of the total amount of plasma membrane proteins, in comparison with the level of H+-ATPase which represents 20–50% of the total amount of plasma membrane proteins [23,24], and assuming that the total amount of plasma membrane proteins composes 5% of the total protein; the abundance of Pdr12 was calculated to be 1.75% of. .. intracellular pH homeostasis via activation of a proton exporter, H+-ATPase, during the fast intrusion of benzoic acid by passive diffusion It is calculated that the total influx of benzoic acid within the first 3000 s is $ 2 mmol for the total 4 L fermentor scale However, assuming a P ⁄ O ratio of 1.46, the estimated additional O2 consumption for the active export of 2 mmol of protons would be 1.4 mmol O2, which... during the transient of 45 mmol is equivalent to the catabolic consumption of 0.037 CÆmol of storage carbohydrates which is only 15% of the total storage carbohydrate available Overall, the increase in O2 consumption rate reflects the high energy requirement of the cells upon sudden exposure to benzoic acid The remaining question is why the cells need the energy A possible answer is that cells need to maintain... regulation of respiration and alcoholic fermentation Yeast 8, 501–517 8 Francois JM, van Schaftingen E & Hers HG (1986) Effect of benzoate on the metabolism of fructose-2,6bisphosphate in yeast Eur J Biochem 154, 141–145 9 Pearce AK, Booth IR & Brown AJP (2001) Genetic manipulation of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels affects the extent to which benzoic acid inhibits the growth of. .. the observed extracellular total benzoate concentration profile, which shows that the benzoate transporter is induced within the first 3000 s of the transient response In order to verify this hypothesis further, measurement of transcript and protein levels during this short transient response will be necessary In conclusion, the adaptation of aerobic S cerevisiae by benzoic acid has been investigated... respiratory capacity of the cell The critical respiratory capacity of S cerevisiae is obtained at a residual benzoate concentration of 10 mm, at pH 5.0 [7] Simultaneous with the medium switch, sodium benzoate solution of pH 4.5 was rapidly injected, via a pneumatic system, into the fermentor to give an almost instantaneous final total benzoate concentration of 0.8 mm Sampling methods Samples to determine... CÆmolÆkgDW)1) of trehalose [21] These levels correspond to $ 0.25 CÆmol of carbohydrates in a fermentor scale containing 4 L of broth with the observed biomass concentration level, which is more than enough to explain the total additional consumption of O2 during the first 3000 s of the transition Assuming that 1 CÆmol of glucose can generate 3.5 mol ATP and a P ⁄ O value of 1.46 [17], the additional fermentor... evaluation of sampling techniques for residual glucose determination in carbon-limited chemostat culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biotechnol Bioeng 83, 395–399 28 Lange HC, Eman M, van Zuijlen G, Visser D, van Dam JC, Frank J, de Mattos MJT & Heijnen JJ (2001) Transient response to benzoic acid Improved rapid sampling for in vivo kinetics of intracellular metabolites in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. .. temperature (K) and universal gas constant [barÆm)3Æmol)1ÆK)1), respectively Combining Eqns (8,9) yields: dCO2 þ /G;in xO2;g;in dt dxO2 À NG dt OUR ¼ À/L CO2 À VL À /G;out xO2;g ð12Þ time of the off-gas measurement, for which the contribution of the dilution in the fermentor headspace, the length of tubing connecting the fermentor with the off-gas analyzer and the response time of the off-gas analyzer . Energetic and metabolic transient response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to benzoic acid M. T. A. P. Kresnowati*, W. A. van Winden, W. M. van Gulik and. Genetic manipulation of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels affects the extent to which benzoic acid inhibits the growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.