Offshore Wind Farms_ Technologies, Design and Operation

Offshore Wind Farms Related titles Wind Energy Systems: Optimising Design and Construction for Safe and Reliable Operation (ISBN: 978-1-84569-580-4) Advances in Wind Turbine Blade Design and Materials (ISBN: 978-0-85709-426-1) Stand-Alone and Hybrid Wind Energy Systems: Technology, Energy Storage and Applications (ISBN: 978-1-84569-527-9) Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 92 Offshore Wind Farms Technologies, Design and Operation Edited by Chong Ng and Li Ran AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • CAMBRIDGE • HEIDELBERG LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, UK 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, UK Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any 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In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-08-100779-2 (print) ISBN: 978-0-08-100780-8 (online) For information on all Woodhead Publishing publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/ Publisher: Joe Hayton Acquisition Editor: Cari Owen Editorial Project Manager: Alex White Production Project Manager: Omer Mukthar Designer: Vicky Pearson Esser Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals Contents List of contributors Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Acknowledgments Part One Introduction to offshore wind energy and offshore wind farm siting xi xiii xix Introduction to offshore wind energy C Ng, L Ran 1.1 Wind energy 1.2 Offshore wind farm 1.3 Energy cost 1.4 Wind turbines 1.5 Disputable issues References Economics of building and operating offshore wind farms P.E Morthorst, L Kitzing 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Investment costs 2.3 Operating costs 2.4 Key economic drivers for offshore wind energy 2.5 Levelised cost of energy 2.6 Future cost of offshore wind 2.7 Conclusions References Wind resources for offshore wind farms: characteristics and assessment B.H Bailey 3.1 Key issues in assessing wind resources 3.2 The nature of the offshore wind environment 3.3 Essential data parameters 3.4 Observational approaches 3 8 10 16 17 22 25 26 26 29 29 30 34 38 vi Contents 3.5 Modeling approaches 3.6 Future trends Abbreviations Sources of further information References 44 52 53 54 55 Remote sensing technologies for measuring offshore wind M.S Courtney, C.B Hasager 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Conventional methods 4.3 Surface-based remote sensing 4.4 Space-borne RS 4.5 Case study e a near-coastal wind farm project 4.6 Future trends Sources of further information Abbreviations and Acronyms References 59 Part Two Wind turbine components and design Developments in materials for offshore wind turbine blades R Nijssen, G.D de Winkel 5.1 Key requirements for blade materials 5.2 Role of testing materials and structures in the blade design process 5.3 Case study on material selection and blade design 5.4 Future trends Abbreviations and nomenclature References 59 61 62 77 78 80 81 81 82 83 85 85 90 92 98 103 103 Design of offshore wind turbine blades P Greaves 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Aerodynamics 6.3 Materials 6.4 Structural design 6.5 Manufacture Nomenclature References 105 Wind turbine gearbox design with drivetrain dynamic analysis S McFadden, B Basu 7.1 Introduction 7.2 WTGS gearbox design e concept stage 7.3 WTGS gearbox design e development stage 137 105 106 113 121 131 132 135 137 139 146 Contents vii 7.4 WTGS gearbox design e production stage 7.5 Drivetrain dynamic analysis 7.6 Conclusions References 149 151 157 157 Design of generators for offshore wind turbines A McDonald, J Carroll 8.1 Introduction: key issues in generator design 8.2 Electrical generators: types and principles of operation 8.3 Practical design and manufacture of electrical generators 8.4 Selection of generators for offshore wind turbines 8.5 Future trends in offshore wind turbine generators Sources of further information References 159 Modelling of power electronic components for evaluation of efficiency, power density and power-to-mass ratio of offshore wind power converters R.A Barrera-C ardenas, M Molinas 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Semiconductors and switch valves 9.3 Filter inductors 9.4 Filter capacitors 9.5 Evaluation approach and design methodology 9.6 Evaluation example of a 1-MW 2L-VSC Nomenclature Symbols References 10 Design of offshore wind turbine towers R.R Damiani 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Function and types of towers 10.3 Standards of reference 10.4 Design spiral process and loads’ analysis 10.5 Shell and flange sizing 10.6 Secondary steel, other structure details, and coatings 10.7 Optimization considerations 10.8 Final remarks Glossary List of symbols List of greek symbols Acknowledgments References 159 165 178 181 187 190 191 193 193 194 207 215 220 239 253 256 260 263 263 265 274 281 300 316 328 339 341 344 349 351 351 viii Contents 11 Design of floating offshore wind turbines M Collu, M Borg 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Design of floating offshore wind turbines: main preliminary steps 11.3 Key issues in design of floating offshore wind turbines 11.4 Summary: case study 11.5 Future trends Nomenclature Sources of further information References Part Three Integration of wind farms into power grids 359 359 363 370 375 379 381 381 382 387 12 Offshore wind farm arrays O Anaya-Lara 12.1 Fundamentals of offshore wind farm arrays 12.2 Design considerations 12.3 Main electrical components 12.4 Topologies 12.5 Converter interface arrangements and collector design 12.6 Wake farm arrangement e wake effects 12.7 Control objectives 12.8 Collector design procedure Abbreviations Acknowledgements References 389 13 Cabling to connect offshore wind turbines to onshore facilities Narakorn Srinil 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Offshore wind farm cables 13.3 Offshore cable installation, protection and challenges 13.4 Dynamic cables for floating wind turbines and substations 13.5 Some mechanical aspects of subsea cables 13.6 Outlook for offshore wind farm cables Abbreviations Acknowledgements References 419 14 Integration of power from offshore wind turbines into onshore grids O.D Adeuyi, J Liang 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Wind farm collection systems 441 389 390 390 397 399 410 411 412 415 416 416 419 420 426 431 434 437 438 439 439 441 441 Contents 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 ix Offshore wind power transmission systems Voltage source converters Development of future submarine power transmission schemes Conclusions References 15 Energy storage for offshore wind farms D.A Katsaprakakis 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The storage technologies 15.3 Indicative case studies: S-PSSs in Rhodes and Astypalaia 15.4 Conclusions Abbreviations References 16 Hydropower flexibility and transmission expansion to support integration of offshore wind N.A Cutululis, H Farahmand, S Jaehnert, N Detlefsen, I.P Byriel, P Sørensen 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Technologies 16.3 Summary e case study 16.4 Scenarios 16.5 Results 16.6 Conclusions References Part Four Installation and operation of offshore wind farms 17 Assembly, transportation, installation and commissioning of offshore wind farms M Asgarpour 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Delivery of components 17.3 Onshore assembly 17.4 Offshore transport 17.5 Offshore installation 17.6 Tests and commissioning 17.7 Conclusions and future trends References 444 446 453 455 455 459 459 463 471 489 490 491 495 495 496 500 502 509 521 521 525 527 527 527 528 530 531 536 538 541 Index Line-commutated converter (LCC), 446, 498 Line-of-sight wind speeds, 63e64 Linear Goodman’s correction, 306e307 Live loads, 285 Load factor (LF), 279 Load resistance factored design approach (LRFD approach), 275, 301 safety factors, 302e304 Load spectrum, 156e157 Loading, 122 Loading sources for OWT tower, 285e297 1PenP forcing, resonance avoidance, and modal requirements, 287e293 Campbell diagram, 289f direct action from wind, 294e295 gravitational, inertial, and impact loads, 296e297 hydrodynamic and ice loads in case of MP tower, 295e296 power spectral density response, 292f RNA loads, 286e287 tower reference system, 286f Local blade geometry parameter, 111 Local oscillator, 64 Lock-in condition, 436 London array’ wind farm, 372 Long-term cyclic lateral loading, models for, 597 Lorentzian function, 64 Low-frequency AC transmission, 453 Low-level jets formation, 32 Low-voltage direct current (LVDC), 443e444, 444f LRFD approach See Load resistance factored design approach (LRFD approach) LVDC See Low-voltage direct current (LVDC) M MABL See Marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) Machine side converter (MSC), 496 Magnetic field conductor moving through, 160f force on current-carrying conductor, 166f Magnetomotive force (MMF), 167e168 621 MAIB See Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB), 574 Marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL), 31e32 Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA), 574 Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC), 584 Market model, 500 Mass impregnated cables (MI cables), 446 Mass-conserving models, 48e49 Material and structural damping, 98 Maximum hot-spot temperature, 219 Maximum inclination angle, 363e364, 369 requirements, 368 Maximum power tracking (MPT), 411 MBR See Minimum bending radius (MBR) MCA See Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) MCP method See Measure-correlate-predict method (MCP method) MDAO See Multidisciplinary design, analysis and optimisation (MDAO) Measure-correlate-predict method (MCP method), 42e43 Medium voltage (MV), 442 DC collection system, 443 switchgears, 393 Medium-voltage alternating-current transmission (MVAC transmission), 444 Medium-voltage direct current (MVDC), 443, 443f MERRA See Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) Mesh load-sharing factor, 148, 149t Mesoscale NWP models, 46 Metacentric height, 367e368 Meteorological data parameters, 36, 36t Meteorological phenomena, 44 Meteorological variables, 35e36 Metocean, 29, 30f MI cables See Mass impregnated cables (MI cables) Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), 323 622 Micromechanical modelling, 100e101, 115 Microscale models, 48e49 Minimum bending radius (MBR), 429e430, 435 Minimum draught, 364 Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co Ltd., 362 Mixed Spectral Finite Difference model (MSFD model), 48e49 MLA See Mooring line action (MLA) MMC See Modular multilevel converter (MMC) MMF See Magnetomotive force (MMF) Mobilisation, 530 Modeling approaches, 44e51 See also Observational approaches annual average US wind speed, 47f coupled atmosphereeocean models, 51 microscale models, 48e49 NWP models, 46e48 time and size scales of atmospheric motion, 45f turbine-induced wakes modeling, 49e51 Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA), 48 Modular design concept, 143 Modular multilevel converter (MMC), 449e450 Modulation strategies, 221e223 Modulation techniques comparison, 247 influence of modulation method, 250fe251f inverter operation mode, 249f rectifier operation mode, 248f Moment coefficient, 111 Momentum theory, 106e108 Monopile configuration, 272 Monopile embedment length and foundation stability, 601e602 axial pile stability, 602 lateral pile stability, 602e603 Monopile foundation system, OWT, 593e595 Monopiles (MPs), 288, 532e533, 589e590 Monopileesoil behaviour investigation physical testing of monopile installations, 596 Index soil behaviour and testing, 595e596 strain accumulation models, 597e599 Mooring line action (MLA), 367 Mooring stabilised, 360 Motors, 165 MPs See Monopiles (MPs) MPT See Maximum power tracking (MPT) MRCC See Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) MSC See Machine side converter (MSC) MSFD model See Mixed Spectral Finite Difference model (MSFD model) MTDC system See Multiterminal HVDC system (MTDC system) MTMDs See Multiple tuned mass dampers (MTMDs) Multi-axial testing, 98e100 Multidisciplinary design, analysis and optimisation (MDAO), 380 Multilevel VSCs, 449e450 Multiple tuned mass dampers (MTMDs), 319, 320f Multipurpose platform integration, 379e380 Multiterminal HVDC system (MTDC system), 454 MV See Medium voltage (MV) MVAC transmission See Medium-voltage alternating-current transmission (MVAC transmission) MVDC See Medium-voltage direct current (MVDC) 1-MW 2L-VSC, 239e240 See also Two-level voltage source converter (2L-VSC) design example, 241f, 243fe245f modulation techniques comparison, 247 influence of modulation method, 250fe251f inverter operation mode, 249f rectifier operation mode: comparison, 248f optimal selection of switching frequency, 252e253 objective function, 252f results for design of 2L-VSR, 254fe255f results of optimal selection, 253t Index pareto-front with SPWM, 240e247, 246f system parameters and design constraints, 240t N Nacelle corrosion zone (NZ), 326 Nacelle lidars, 75e77 NASA See National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 48 National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 48 National Center for Environmental Predictions (NCEP), 48 National Renewable Energy Allocation Plans (NREAPs), National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 50e51 NaviereStokes equations, 44e45 NC See No Constraint (NC) NCAR See National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) NCEP See National Center for Environmental Predictions (NCEP) NdFeB See Neodymium (NdFeB) Near-coastal wind farm project, 61, 78e80 construction phase, 78 ocean surface wind map, 79f verification measurements, 78e80 wake measurements, 80 wind resource estimation, 78 Neodymium (NdFeB), 179 Net transfer capacities (NTCs), 501 No Constraint (NC), 518 Non-blameworthy culture, 585 Nordic hydro system, 498t existing flexibility, 497e498 future flexibility of hydro system, 498 Normal flow, 117 NORSEWIND project See NORthern Seas Wind Index Database project (NORSEWIND project) NORthern Seas Wind Index Database project (NORSEWIND project), 46 NREAPs See National Renewable Energy Allocation Plans (NREAPs) NREL See National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 623 NTCs See Net transfer capacities (NTCs) Numerical modeling, 44 Numerical modelling limits, 372e373 Numerical weather prediction models (NWP models), 44e48 Nysted wind farm, 296f NZ See Nacelle corrosion zone (NZ) O O&G See Oil and gas (O&G) O&M See Operation and maintenance (O&M) Observational approaches, 38e43 See also Modeling approaches measurements, 40e43 National data buoy center discus buoy, 39f satellite, 39e40 wind speeds extrapolated to hub height from surface measurements, 44f OC3 See Offshore code comparison collaboration (OC3) Oceanographic data parameters, 37, 37t OD See Outer diameter (OD) OEMs See Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) Offshore collector system, 389 converter platforms, 445e446 design codes and methods, 595 foundations, system of loading on, 591e593 harbour, 540 installation, 527, 531 cable installation, 535e536 foundation installation, 532e534 substation installation, 534e535 turbine installation, 534 reality, 60e61 substations, 391, 392f configurations with circuit breakers and manual switches, 394f electrical systems, 392e393 optimum substation locations, 395e396 protection equipment, 393e395 switchgear, 393 transformers, 393 transport, 530e531 turbines, wind industry, 575 624 Offshore code comparison collaboration (OC3), 299 Offshore Renewable Energy (ORE), Offshore Renewable Energy Installation (OREI), 574 Offshore Wind Accelerator (OWA), 427 Offshore wind energy, cumulative and annual offshore wind installations, 4f disputable issues, energy cost, 5e7 key economic drivers for, 17e22 distance to shore and water depth, 19e22, 20fe21f project lifetime, 19 project size, 18, 18f specific investment costs, 22t turbine capacity, 19, 19f offshore wind farm, 3e5 quantitative LCoE assessment summary, 6f wind turbines, Offshore wind farm arrays, 389 converter interface arrangements and collector design, 399e410 design considerations, 390 electrical components offshore substations, 391e396, 392f subsea cables, 396e397 wind turbines, 390e391 offshore collector system, 389 topologies, 397e399 wind farm electrical collector basic designs, 398f Offshore wind farm cables, 420 cable layout and spacing, 425 export cables, 423e425 for fixed, 421f HVDC and HVAC cabling technologies cost comparison, 424f interarray cables, 420e422, 421t interplatform cables, 422e423 subsea layout, 426f three-core XLPE 66-kV cable, 424f Offshore wind farms, 3e5 See also Offshore wind turbine (OWT) delivery of components, 527e528 future trends, 538 breakwaters, 540e541 ECN Install tool, 539f Index offshore harbour, 540 optimal installation planning, 539e540 jack-up barge, 531f offshore installation, 527, 531 cable installation, 535e536 foundation installation, 532e534 substation installation, 534e535 turbine installation, 534 offshore transport, 530e531 onshore assembly, 528e530 tests and commissioning, 536e538 Offshore wind power, 496e497 development of, 9e10 expectations to, per area, 504e506 transmission systems, 444 HVAC transmission, 444e445 HVDC transmission, 445e446 MVAC transmission, 444 submarine power transmission technologies, 445f Offshore wind turbine (OWT), 264e265, 589 See also Floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) aspects of OWT monopile foundation system, 593e595 blades design, 105e106 aerodynamics, 106e113 blade layout, 86f loads on rotor blades, 85 manufacturing methods, 131e132 materials, 113e121 offshore turbines development, 86f relative contributions to cost of energy, 106t role of testing materials and structures, 90e92 structural design, 121e131 structural elements of rotor blades, 85e90 case study on material selection and blade design, 92e98 design of OWT foundation design procedure, 600e601 monopile embedment length and foundation stability, 601e603 resonance in structural systems, 599e600 environmental impacts on, 591f Index fatigue performance at one-million cycles, 93f foundation options for, 589e591 future trends coatings, erosion protection, 101 material and structural damping, 98 micromechanical modelling and interaction with condition monitoring, 100e101 multi-axial testing and damage progression, 98e100 safe life or damage tolerance, 101e103 mass and cost comparison of all-glass, all-carbon, and hybrid materials, 94f monopileesoil behaviour investigation, 595e599 offshore design codes and methods, 595 optimised blade spar cap thickness, 94f support structure options, 590f system of loading on offshore foundations, 591e593 thickness distribution scaled, 99f shifted, 98f squeezed, 97f of typical UD spar, 95f Offshore wind turbine condition monitoring challenges in operation and maintenance, 545e546 existing issues and future tendencies, 568e569 reliability of offshore wind turbines, 543e545 signal processing techniques, 564e568 systems, 552 failure rate proportions, 563f purpose-designed WT CMSs, 555e564, 556te560t vibration-based WT CMS, 561f wind farm SCADA system, 552e554 WT SCADA system, 553f techniques, 547 far offshore distance, 547 high cost of offshore WT CM, 548e552 increased offshore WT size, 548 increased use of electrical and power electronic components, 548 625 large diversity of the offshore WT concepts, 547e548 non-destructive techniques, 550te551t Offshore wind turbine generator, 163e164, 164f See also Electrical generator future trends developing existing generator technologies, 188 developing radical generator technologies, 188e189 future challenges, 187e188 generators for use with advanced torque/ speed conversion, 189 selection, 181e186 analysis, 186 availability, 185, 185f case study, 183e184 CoE, 184 cost comparison of PMG vs DFIG, 184f efficiency and losses, 185 generator costs, 184 O&M costs, 186 Siemens 6-MW power-train configuration, 183f Offshore wind turbine tower (OWT tower), 264e265 design spiral process and loads’ analysis, 281e300 designing for corrosion, 321e328 function and types, 265 full lattice, tubular, and wooden towers, 265e267 manufacturing and installation challenges on land, 267e269 from onshore to offshore, 271e274 promise of concrete, 269e270 optimization considerations, 328e339 component vs system optimization, 334e339 design hyperspace, 333f jacket optimization, 338f load and environmental parameters, 331te332t, 337te338t mass schedule for various components, 339t tower profile and utilization distributions, 332f, 335f trends for solution space, 334f 626 Offshore wind turbine tower (OWT tower) (Continued) secondary steel, 316e321 shell and flange sizing, 300e316 SSt, 271 standards of reference, 274e281 Ohm’s law, 159e160 Oil and gas (O&G), 271 industry, 281, 322e323 legacy, 371e372 Oil quality analysis, 549 Oil rigs, 39 On-bottom stability, 428, 436 1PenP forcing, resonance avoidance, and modal requirements, 287e293 Onshore assembly, 528e530 converter stations, 446 wind turbine generators, 163e164, 164f Open source, 573 Operating and maintenance costs (O&M costs), 137e138 Operating costs, 16e17 See also Investment costs Operation and maintenance (O&M), 159, 271 costs, 16, 16t, 183e184, 186, 186f Operational expenses (OPEX), 5e6, 59, 374 Optimal blade design, 110e112 Optimal installation planning, 539e540 Optimum dynamic response to wind and wave forces, 364e365 frequency approach, 364e365 time-domain approach, 365 Optimum substation locations, 395e396 ORE See Offshore Renewable Energy (ORE) OREI See Offshore Renewable Energy Installation (OREI) Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), 317, 573e574 Orthogonal axis system, 366 OTM See Overturning moment (OTM) Outer diameter (OD), 294, 328 Overturning moment (OTM), 291e292 OWA See Offshore Wind Accelerator (OWA) OWT See Offshore wind turbine (OWT) Index P PalmgreneMiner rule, 121, 306 Parallel connection of power modules, 199e201 Parallel DC cluster, 406, 406f Parallel gear shaft arrangement, 144e145, 144fe145f Pareto-front with SPWM, 240e247, 246f Park model, 50 Passive load alleviation, 123 Passive microwave radiometers, 40 PBL See Planetary boundary layer (PBL) PCC See Point of common coupling (PCC) PECs See Power electronic converters (PECs) Pelton model, 484 Penstock construction, 477e479 Performance tests, 538 Permanent magnet generator (PMG), 182, 399e401 cost comparison with DFIG, 184f direct-drive, 183 medium-speed, 182e183 Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs), 7, 161e162, 441 Petersen method, 311, 315e316 Physical testing of monopile installations, 596 “Plan, Do, Check, Act” approach, 575, 576f act, 586 check, 585 do, 579 emergency preparation and response, 582e585 marine hazards, 582 occupational hazards, 582 risk assessment matrix, 581f risk assessments, 580 risk reduction, 581 WTG hazards, 582 plan, 576e578 Planet gears, 144e145 Planetary boundary layer (PBL), 46e47, 50 Planetary gear stage, 144e145, 146f systems, 144 Ply stack, 123e124 Index PMG See Permanent magnet generator (PMG) PMSGs See Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) Point of common coupling (PCC), 412 Polyesters, 114 Polymer matrix, 114 Polyurethane elastomer coatings, 130e131 Potential flow theory, 592e593 Power angle, 170 coefficient, 111 cure test, 538 curve verification, 68, 76 density, 193e194 flow analysis and nodal representation, 501e502 equations, 500 law curve fit, 118e119 peak shaving, 468 performance verification, 75e76 Power electronic converters (PECs), 412 Power semiconductor devices (PSDs), 194, 196, 199, 291e292 current evaluation, 223e227 switch valve design and selection, 233e239 Power spectral density (PSD) See Power semiconductor devices (PSDs) Power System Simulation Tool (PSST), 501 model overview, 502 results, 516 offshore grid alternatives, 516e519 Tonstad to assessing correlation between wind and pumping profile, 519e520 size, 503t Power-to-mass ratio, 254fe255f Prandtl tip loss factor, 108 Precast reinforced concrete tower, 270f Precautionary principle, 575 Precipitation, 35 Preinstallation survey, 427 Prepreg mats, 132 Prepreg technology, 132 Probe length, 64 Profiling lidar, 42 Protection equipment, 393e395 PSDs See Power semiconductor devices (PSDs) 627 Pseudo-RAO, 369 PSSs See Pumped storage systems (PSSs) PSST See Power System Simulation Tool (PSST) Pulsed lidars, 65 Pumped storage systems (PSSs), 463, 467 power peak shaving, 468 S-PSS, 470e471 structure, 467f wind-powered pumped storage systems, 468e470, 469t Purpose-built meteorological towers, 40e41 Purpose-designed WT CMSs, 555e564, 556te560t failure rate proportions, 563f vibration-based WT CMS, 561f pey method, 597e598 for laterally loaded pile, 598f limitations of design approaches on, 599 Q Qualitative assessment (Q assessment), 580 Quantified risk assessment (QRA), 580 R R-ratio, 90 R-value, 118 Radars, 73e75 Radial design, 397 Rain erosion test set-ups, 101 Range-gating, 65 RANS model See Reynolds-averaged NaviereStokes model (RANS model) RAO See Response Amplitude Operator (RAO) Rayleigh-Ritz method, 290e291 Reanalysis datasets, 48 Reconstructing wind speed, 76 Rectifier operation mode, 248f Reference inductor technology parameters, 212e213 Reference points, 366e367 Relative humidity, 35 Remote sensing technologies conventional methods, 61e62 future trends, 80e81 near-coastal wind farm project, 78e80 need for data, 59e60 628 Remote sensing technologies (Continued) offshore reality, 60e61 space-borne RS, 77 surface-based remote sensing, 62e77 Remotely operated vehicle tracking system (ROV tracking system), 428 Remotely operated vehicles (ROV), 536 Renewable energy source (RES), 459, 500 Repowering, 102e103 RES See Renewable energy source (RES) Reservoir design, 474e477 handling, 511e512 Resin cure-kinetics, 88 Resin curing, 88 Resin transfer moulding, 131e132 Resource assessment, 61, 68 Response Amplitude Operator (RAO), 364e365, 369 Restoring moments, 367e368 Return periods (RPs), 279 Reynolds-averaged NaviereStokes model (RANS model), 49 Ring gear, 144e145 Risk, 579 RMSE See Root mean square error (RMSE) RNA See Rotor nacelle assembly (RNA) RNA loads, 286e287 Root mean square error (RMSE), 46 Rotating electrical machines, 165 coils, 167 electromagnetic phenomena, 166 electromechanical energy conversion, 165f Rotational sampling by blades, 152 Rotational speed window, 293 Rotor, 160, 179 speed, 173e175 Rotor blades filling time simulation, 88f loads on, 85 requirements for materials, 87e90 cost, 89e90 in manufacturing, 87e89, 87f specific properties, 89 structural elements of, 85e90 Rotor nacelle assembly (RNA), 263 Rotor side (RS), 137 ROV See Remotely operated vehicles (ROV) Index ROV tracking system See Remotely operated vehicle tracking system (ROV tracking system) RPs See Return periods (RPs) RS See Rotor side (RS) S S-PSS See Seawater-pumped storage systems (S-PSS) “Safe life” design, 101e103 Safer by design, 581 Safety management system (SMS), 575 SAR See Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) Satellite, 39e40 Satellite-based ocean wind retrieval, 77 SbS See Substructure (SbS) SCADA system See Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition system (SCADA system) Scanning lidars, 73e75 See also Floating lidars; Nacelle lidars; Wind lidars dual Doppler measurement, 74e75 single, 73e74 Scatterometers, 40, 77 SCFs See Stress concentration factors (SCFs) Schmidt/Neuper’s method, 315e316 Scientific Measurement and Evaluation Programme (WMEP), 543e544 SCIG See Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) Scissor-brace, 320f SDP See Stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) Sea breeze circulation, 33f Seawater-pumped storage systems (S-PSS), 470e471 See also Wind-powered pumped storage systems (WP-PSS) characteristic features, 474t in Rhodes and Astypalaia, 471 annual energy productions and storage, 485e487, 486t Astypalaia S-PSS, 481f, 483f characteristic features of PSSs’ upper tanks, 475t construction of penstock, 477e479 Crete S-PSS, 482f design of reservoirs, 474e477 economic results, 487e489 Index hydrodynamic machine stations, 479e483 hydrodynamic machines, 484 PSS tank position, 473f siting of S-PSSs, 472e474 suction pipeline, 479e483 wind parks, 485 Secondary steel, 316e321 oscillator and expected DAF, 319f tower internals and, 318f and auxiliary platform, 317f Sector scanning, 73e74 Segment-model See Petersen method Seismic loads, 297 Self-supporting lattice structure, 40e41 Semi-submersible/tri-floater, 361e362 Semiconductor parameters, 207, 208te209t Semiconductor power losses, 194e199, 195f Semipermanent Bermuda High, 32e33 Semiquantitative assessment (SQ assessment), 580 Sensors, 40 Series DC cluster, 406e407, 407f Serviceability limit state verifications (SLS verifications), 301e304, 302t SFTM See Symmetrical flat-top modulation (SFTM) Shaft torque and torsional vibration measurement, 549 Shape modifier, 96 Shear flows, 128e129 Shear properties, 127 Shell and flange sizing, 300e316 approximate derivation of structural loads and shell design, 304e310 approximation of failure modes for flange connections, 312f code-to-code verification, 301f flanges and detail components, 310e316 LRFD approach, 301e304 Shell buckling utilization ratio (EUUtil ratio), 330 Shell elements, 129e130 SHM See Structural health monitoring (SHM) Shock pulse method (SPM), 549 Sideeside DOF (SS DOF), 320e321 Siemens SWT 2.3 MW, 181e182, 182f 629 Siemens SWT MW, 183 Signal processing techniques for WT CM, 564 techniques by commercial CMSs, 564 frequency domain analysis, 566 SKF WindCon3 software interface, 565f time domain analysis, 564e566 techniques in research, 566e568, 567t Simulator for Offshore/Onshore Wind Farm Applications (SOWFA), 50e51 Single-core cables, 396 Single-sided ring design, 399 Single-staged pump models, 484 Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM), 221e225, 226te227t, 247 Pareto-front with, 240e247, 246f Site acceptance tests, 537 Sizing optimization, 328e329 SKF WindCon3.0 software interface, 565f SKF’s WindCon system, 564 Slamming, 364 Slip, 173e175 Slow-curing resins, 88 SLS verifications See Serviceability limit state verifications (SLS verifications) SMS See Safety management system (SMS) SN curves, 118, 119f SO See Structural optimization (SO) Soft-cutout strategy, 293 Softesoft zone, 599e600 Softestiff design, 600 Softestiff zone, 599e600 Soil behaviour and testing, 595e596 Soilestructure interaction (SSI), 263e264 Solar radiation data, 35 SOWFA See Simulator for Offshore/ Onshore Wind Farm Applications (SOWFA) Space-borne RS, 77 Space-vector PWM (SVPWM), 221e225, 226te227t, 247 Spar caps, 86e87 SPAR system, 361 Speed-increasing ratio, 144 Speed-up ratio, 140 Splash corrosion zone (SZ), 326 Splash zone, 323 Split torque systems, 146 630 SPM See Shock pulse method (SPM) Spur gears, 148 SPWM See Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) SQ assessment See Semiquantitative assessment (SQ assessment) Squirrel cage, 175f Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG), 181e182, 182f, 399e401 SRB See Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) SS DOF See Sideeside DOF (SS DOF) SSI See Soilestructure interaction (SSI) SSM/I, 40 SSt See Support structure (SSt) Standards of reference for OWT tower, 274e281 advanced standards development, 278e281 costebenefit analysis schematics, 281f exposure levels, 279t prioritization in codes and standards, 276te278t Star design, 399 State-of-the-art design tools, 372e373 Static tilting, 72 Statnett’s grid development plan, 509 Stator, 175, 180 Stiffestiff zone, 599e600 Still-water level (SWL), 263e264 Stochastic dynamic programming (SDP), 500 Storm systems, 33 Strain accumulation models models for long-term cyclic lateral loading, 597 pey method, 597e598 limitations of design approaches on, 599 Strategic exploitation of hydro power, 500e501 Stress analysis using finite element analysis, 129e130 Stress concentration factors (SCFs), 310 Strings, 425 Strouhal number, 436e437 Structural health monitoring (SHM), 102 Structural integrity, 180e181 Structural optimization (SO), 328 Strumming, 436 Subcomponent test, 91 Submarine cables, 396 Index Submarine power transmission technologies, 445f Submodule circuits, 450e451 Suboptimal modulation, 221 Subsea cables, 396e397 Subsea cables, mechanical aspects of, 434 catenary configuration, 434e435 laying tension and hang-off angle, 435 MBR, 435 on-bottom stability, 436 VIV, 436e437 Subsea transmission scheme, 3e5 Substation installation, 534e535 Substructure (SbS), 263, 271e272 floating OWT, 273, 273f lattice OWT, 272e273 Suction pipeline, 479e483 Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), 323e324 Sun gear, 144e145 Supernode concept, 454e455 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition system (SCADA system), 536e537 Support structure (SSt), 263 Surface crack detection, 151 Surface-based remote sensing, 62e77 basic principles continuous-wave lidars, 64 direct detection lidars, 66 idea in nutshell, 63 line-of-sight wind speeds, 63e64 pulsed lidars and contrasts to continuouswave systems, 65 floating lidars, 71e73 Nacelle lidars, 75e77 scanning lidars and radars, 73e75 wind lidars, 66e70 Surface-based remote sensing methods, 61 SVPWM See Space-vector PWM (SVPWM) SWAY’s system, 274f switch valve volume and mass, 203e207 Switchgear, 393 Switching frequency selection, 252e253 objective function, 252f results for design of 2L-VSR, 254fe255f results of optimal selection, 253t Switching losses, 196e199 SWL See Still-water level (SWL) Index Symmetrical flat-top modulation (SFTM), 221e225, 226te227t, 247 Synchronous machine(s), 167 See also Asynchronous machines equivalent circuit, 170, 170f flux linkage and induced voltage, 169f operation principle at no load, 167e172 phasor diagram, 170, 171f power and torque characteristics, 171e172 rotors used in, 168f torque speed plane for variable speed wind turbine, 172f Synchronous reluctance machines, 189 Synchronous speed, 173e175 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 40, 77 System of loading on offshore foundations, 591e593 SZ See Splash corrosion zone (SZ) T Tangential inflow factor, 111 Teeter hubs, 113 Ten-Year Network Development Plan, 518 Tension leg platform (TLP), 273, 360, 362e363 Tests and commissioning, 536e537 commissioning tests, 537 completion tests, 538 factory acceptance tests, 537 performance tests, 538 site acceptance tests, 537 Textile permeabilities, 88 Thermal stability, 35 Thermocouples, 549 Thermoplastic matrix materials, 114 Thermosetting matrix materials, 114 Third-degree dimensionless polynomial function, 97 Â 1-core cables See Single-core cables Three-bladed turbines, 112 Three-level neutral point clamped (3LNPC), 220 Three-level VSCs, 449 Thrust coefficient, 111 TI See Turbulence intensity (TI) Time domain, 368e369 analysis, 564e566 approach, 365 Tip loss correction factor, 111 631 Tip-speed ratio, 110e111 effect, 112 TLCD See Tuned liquid column damper (TLCD) TLP See Tension leg platform (TLP) TMDs See Tuned mass dampers (TMDs) Toggle-brace, 320f Tolerance stack up, 150 Tonstad cases, 508f Tonstad to assessing correlation between wind and pumping profile, 519e520 Torque, 141 Torque angle See Power angle Torsional stiffness constant, 128 Total pitch/roll restoring moment, 360 Tower clearance, 93 Tower collapse following typhoon event, 280f TP See Transition piece (TP) Transformers, 165, 393 Transition piece (TP), 263e264, 532 Transmission system, 498e499 Tri-floater, 376e378, 376f Trifloater, 361 Tripods, 533 Tropical cyclones, 33 Truss towers, 113 Tuned liquid column damper (TLCD), 320 Tuned mass dampers (TMDs), 292, 317e319 theoretical effect, 320 wind turbine, 318f Turbine installation, 534 Turbine loads, 286e287 Turbine technologies, Turbine-induced wakes modeling, 49e51 Turbines, 13 Turbulence intensity (TI), 30e31, 35 TWENTIES study, 504t Two-bladed turbines, 112e113 Two-level voltage source converter (2LVSC), 194, 220, 221f, 449, 449f See also 1-MW 2L-VSC bridge leg current definitions, 224f evaluation of power losses, volume and mass, 239 guidelines of design for, 227e239 AC filter inductor and current ripple, 231e233 632 Two-level voltage source converter (2L-VSC) (Continued) DC-link design and semiconductor voltage ratings requirements, 228e231 dependency of DC-link capacitor current RMS value, 232f IGBT module selection, 229f limit-switching frequency, 237f maximum allowable heat sink temperature, 236f minimum number of parallel connected devices, 234f power losses per module, 238f switch valve design and selection of PSDs, 233e239 Two-mass drivetrain shaft model, 152e154 U UK’s Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations (COMAH), 576 Ultimate limit state verifications (ULS verifications), 301e304, 302t Ultrasonic testing, 549 Underwater corrosion zone (UZ), 326 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS), 537 Upwind rotor, 113 V Vacuum infusion, 131e132 VAD scanning, 73 Validation, 373e374 Variable loading, 151e152 Variable speed operation, 177e178 Variable-frequency collection configurations examples, 407e408 VAWTs See Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) Vensys 1.5 MW turbine, 268f Verification, 373e374 escalade, 90e91, 91f Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs), 369, 379 Vestas V90, 182 Vibration absorbers See Tuned mass dampers (TMDs) Vibration analysis, 549 Visibility data, 35 VIV See Vortex-induced vibration (VIV) Index Voltage source converter (VSC), 446, 484 inverter, 453 operating characteristics, 448 physical structure, 447 AC filters, 447e448 converter station, 447 phase reactors, 447 transformers, 448 VSC-HVDC system, 447f topologies, 448 examples of VSC-HVDC projects, 451, 452t multilevel VSCs, 449e450 submodule circuits, 450e451 three-level neutral point clamped VSC, 451f three-level VSCs, 449 two-level VSCs, 449, 449f Voltage source inverter (VSI), 235, 498 Voltage source rectifier (VSR), 230 Volume utilization factor, 193e194 Voluntary Observing Ships program (VOS program), 38e39 Vortex-induced vibration (VIV), 436e437 VOS program See Voluntary Observing Ships program (VOS program) VSC See Voltage source converter (VSC) VSI See Voltage source inverter (VSI) VSR See Voltage source rectifier (VSR) W W-type cable, 431e433 Wake effects, 410e411 predictions, 50 Wake farm arrangement See Wake effects Wakes, 49e50 Warping ordinate, 127e128 WAsP See Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program (WAsP) Water-and sea bed-related variables, 36e37 Waterline, 367 “Waterplane stabilised” structure, 360 Wave loads, 592e593 Wave spectrum, 36 WCAES See Windecompressed air systems (WCAES) Weather buoys, 39e40 Weather delay, 530e531 Weather-driven generation, 495 Index WECS See Wind energy conversion systems (WECS) Wet lay-up, 131 WF See Wind farm (WF) WF1 See WindFloat prototype (WF1) White box calibration, 76 Wind, 35e36 energy, parks, 485 power generation, generators, 274e275 shear, 30e31, 35 speed, 59, 63, 66 vanes, 62 Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program (WAsP), 48e49 Wind energy conversion systems (WECS), 193e194 average thermal model of IGBT power module, 206f conduction loss, 194e196 currentevoltage conduction characteristic, 197f evaluation approach and design methodology, 220 average and RMS values, 227t evaluation of PSD currents, 223e227 guidelines of design for 2L-VSC, 227e239 modulation strategies, 221e223 power loss evaluation, volume and mass of 2L-VSC, 239 ratio of RMS phase current to RMS current, 226t filter capacitors, 215e219 filter inductors, 207e215 1-MW 2L-VSC, 239e253 parallel connection of power modules, 199e201 power density, 193e194 regression coefficients, 205t semiconductor parameters, 207, 208te209t power losses, 194e199, 195f switching losses, 196e199 voltageecurrent characteristic of semiconductor device, 195f volume and mass of switch valve, 203e207 633 Wind farm (WF), 411 collection systems, 441 AC collection systems, 441e443, 442f DC collection system, 443e444 collector system, 389 level, 3e5 SCADA system, 552e554 shadowing, 49e50 Wind lidars, 66e70 See also Floating lidars; Nacelle lidars; Scanning lidars accuracy, 68 deploying wind lidars offshore, 69e70 Leosphere Windcube V2, 67e68 measuring turbulence and gusts, 68e69 ZephiR 300, 67 Wind resource assessment, 29 for offshore wind farms data parameters, 34e38 future trends, 52 key issues, 29e30 metocean factors, 30f modeling approaches, 44e51 nature of offshore wind environment, 30e34 observational approaches, 38e43 satellite image of northbound hurricane Sandy, 34f sea breeze circulation, 33f wind power density over global oceans in winter and summer, 31f Wind turbine generator systems (WTGS), 137 concept stage, 139, 140f basic operation of WTGS gearbox, 139e143 concept variants for WTGS gearbox, 144e146 early stage design considerations, 143 wind tunnel data for HAWT turbine, 141f development stage, 146e148, 147f applicable gear standards, 149t gear design, 148e149 drivetrain dynamic analysis, 151e157 generic design life cycle, 138e139, 138f production stage, 149e151 gear manufacture and inspection, 150e151 634 Wind turbine generators (WTGs), 271, 390, 407e408, 573e574 conventional power plants vs., 162e163 Drivetrain choice, 162f Wind turbines (WT), 7, 193, 390e391, 543 See also Offshore wind turbine (OWT) level, 3e5 output, 37 TMDs, 318f wake effects, 59 wake parameters, 411f Wind-powered pumped storage systems (WP-PSS), 460 See also Pumped storage systems (PSSs) set-up cost calculation, 488t Wind-powered pumped storage systems, 468e470, 469t operating philosophy, 470f Windecompressed air systems (WCAES), 462 Index Windcube, 67 WindFloat, 374 WindFloat prototype (WF1), 361e362 Winding losses, 210e214 Winkler model, 597 WMEP See Scientific Measurement and Evaluation Programme (WMEP) WP-PSS See Wind-powered pumped storage systems (WP-PSS) WT See Wind turbines (WT) WTGS See Wind turbine generator systems (WTGS) WTGs See Wind turbine generators (WTGs) X XLPE See Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) Z ZephiR 300, 67 ... installation and commissioning of offshore wind farms Chapter 19 Health and safety of offshore wind farms Chapter 20 Offshore wind- turbine foundations: analysis and design Introduction to offshore wind. .. offshore environment, wind and wave loadings, as discussed in Chapter 10 ? ?Design of offshore wind turbine towers’ and Chapter 19 ‘Health and Safety of Offshore Wind Farms’, would create new design. . .Offshore Wind Farms Related titles Wind Energy Systems: Optimising Design and Construction for Safe and Reliable Operation (ISBN: 978-1-84569-580-4) Advances in Wind Turbine Blade Design and