INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH BACKGROUND
1.1.1 Studying abroad in higher education in Vietnam
The Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) reports that more than 100,000 Vietnamese students are pursuing their studies in 47 countries and territories, with approximately 90% funding their education independently This trend highlights Vietnam's emergence as a significant market for international educational institutions.
International education is becoming a significant export industry for developed nations, with a notable increase in Vietnamese students studying abroad According to the US’ Open Doors 2011 report, the number of Vietnamese students in the US rose by 14% during the 2010-2011 academic year, positioning Vietnam as the eighth largest source of international students, up from 20th place five years prior Approximately 72.1% of these students are pursuing tertiary education Additionally, the range of countries attracting Vietnamese students has broadened, with more individuals applying to institutions in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Singapore.
According to a 2014 report by Australian Education International, Vietnam ranks as the third largest source of international students for Australia, following China and India The higher education sector accounts for a significant 44% of this international student population, alongside the ELICOS and VET sectors.
The trend of Vietnamese students pursuing overseas education, both through scholarships and self-funding, is on the rise, with Australia, the US, Britain, Canada, and France being early leaders in this market Additionally, emerging educational destinations like Singapore, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Thailand, Germany, South Korea, and Japan are intensifying their efforts to attract Vietnamese students through scholarships, education fairs, and recruitment initiatives As a result, Vietnam's international education market is becoming increasingly competitive.
Studying abroad offers students a chance to enhance self-awareness, boost self-confidence, forge new relationships, and immerse themselves in diverse cultures, leading to numerous positive outcomes (Naffziger, Bott, & Mueller, 2008) The increasing number of Vietnamese students pursuing education overseas presents a significant opportunity for established educational institutions in countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada However, this trend has also intensified competition among foreign institutions to attract these international students.
Every year, numerous higher education fairs, including Australian education exhibitions, Study USA Higher Education Fairs, and UK education festivals, are organized to attract Vietnamese students interested in studying abroad This growing trend indicates that an increasing number of international institutions are entering the Vietnamese market, making higher education an increasingly competitive sector.
Hence, to study the factors that affect students’ intention to study abroad in higher education is the important part of marketing strategy planning for student’s recruitment of foreign institutes
1.1.2 Existing studies about factors that impact on study oversea intention
There are a numerous researches about factors influencing choice of study abroad as Zhang, Sun and Hagedorn (2013) summarized, for instance, a research of Barnick
In Canada, students view studying abroad as a vital investment in their future, aiming to become global citizens and skilled knowledge-workers Similarly, European students are driven to study internationally to learn new languages, understand different cultures, and enhance their career prospects Research on American students reveals a strong desire for overseas opportunities to boost their future careers Additionally, studies of international students from countries like Indonesia, Taiwan, India, and mainland China highlight similar motivations for pursuing education abroad.
International students' decisions to pursue a degree in Australia are influenced by several key factors These include a positive perception of studying abroad, easy access to information about Australia, and familiarity with the country The quality of education, recognition of foreign degrees in students' home countries, and recommendations from family and friends also play significant roles Additionally, considerations such as the cost of education in both home and host countries, low crime rates, the presence of fellow countrymen, and family connections in Australia further impact their choices.
A report from Australian Education International (2005) identified key factors influencing study abroad participation, including having university-educated parents, prior personal international travel experience, family income, program costs, and local work or living commitments (Naffziger, Bott, & Mueller, 2008).
A survey conducted by Baker et al (1996) revealed that the primary factors attracting overseas students to Australia include the high quality of educational institutions, the excellence of academic courses, the strong reputation of programs in various fields, and the potential for enhanced job prospects upon returning to their home countries.
Research on study abroad motivations has been limited, with few studies employing theoretical frameworks like the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to analyze the factors influencing students' decisions to pursue overseas education in various contexts.
Several studies have explored the factors influencing students' intentions to study abroad, particularly through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) Notably, research by Adrien Presley, Dathat Damron-Martinez, and Lin Zhang (2010) examined business students' choices to study abroad, while Schnusenberg, de Jong, and Goel (2012) focused on predicting study abroad intentions using TPB Additionally, Rachel Bobbitt and Cindy Akers (2013) investigated the study abroad intentions of agriculture and natural resource students in Taiwan, and Jianyao Li et al (2009) conducted an empirical study in China analyzing the relationship between attitude and behavior Collectively, these studies confirm a strong correlation between TPB predictors and students' intentions to study abroad.
Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior has garnered significant research support from social scientists in recent years, highlighting its applicability across various behaviors and contexts, including health communications, environmental issues, and risk communication (Ajzen, 2011; Sideridis, Kasissidis, & Padeliadu, 1998) Its effectiveness has been demonstrated in hundreds of studies over the past two decades, making it a robust framework for understanding behavior This study aims to further test the theoretical sufficiency of the Theory of Planned Behavior within the overseas industry context.
Numerous studies have explored student enrollment in study abroad programs, including works by Dembowski (1980), Chapman (1981), and others, as noted by Li et al (2009) However, there is a scarcity of research utilizing theoretical frameworks, such as the theory of planned behavior, to analyze student motivations for studying overseas, particularly within the context of Vietnam.
This paper explores the factors influencing the study abroad intentions of Vietnamese students, drawing on existing research and the Theory of Planned Behavior By analyzing the current landscape of overseas education for Vietnamese students, it identifies key antecedents that shape their intentions to study abroad.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), developed by Ajzen as an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), posits that an individual's behavior is influenced by their intention to act, which is shaped by their attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms Additionally, TPB emphasizes that perceived behavioral control (PBC) plays a crucial role in determining behavioral intentions, which are influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control (Ajzen, 1991).
Intention represents an individual's readiness to engage in a specific behavior and serves as the immediate precursor to that behavior Behavioral intention is influenced by three key factors: the person's attitude toward the behavior, the subjective norms surrounding it, and their perceived control over the behavior.
This study utilizes the theory of planned behavior to analyze the primary factors influencing high school students' intentions to study abroad in Vietnam The research aims to identify specific antecedents that contribute to these intentions, providing valuable insights into the motivations of students considering international education.
(1) To examine the impact of attitude toward foreign education on study abroad intention of Vietnamese students
(2) To examine the effect of influential people (such as parents, relatives, teachers, friends and others which represent subjective norm) on Vietnamese students’ intention of study abroad
(3) And to examine the effect of perceived behavioral control on intention to study abroad of Vietnamese students.
This study evaluates the relevance of the theory of planned behavior in understanding how Vietnamese students choose higher education institutions in English-speaking countries It identifies and examines key factors influencing the intention to study abroad, focusing specifically on the primary antecedents outlined in the research objectives while excluding other variables.
This study focuses on high school students in Ho Chi Minh City, specifically examining those with aspirations to pursue undergraduate studies abroad The research is conducted in select high schools that have a significant population of students preparing for international education opportunities.
And the last points, the study just focuses on students studying abroad under self- funded English – speaking country is defined where English used as the mother tongue
This study explores the study abroad experience in higher education in Vietnam through the lens of the theory of planned behavior, offering a new measurement tool that can enhance future research in the education sector.
This study provides valuable insights for foreign educational institutions in English-speaking countries, enhancing their understanding of Vietnamese students' behaviors when selecting a study destination By leveraging this knowledge, these institutions can significantly improve their business performance in the Vietnamese market.
The study is built in five parts including:
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to enhance the understanding of study abroad motivations in Vietnam's higher education sector by applying the theory of planned behavior It introduces a novel measurement instrument that can be beneficial for future research in the education industry.
This study provides valuable insights for foreign educational institutions in English-speaking countries, enhancing their understanding of Vietnamese students' preferences when selecting a study destination By leveraging this knowledge, these institutions can effectively improve their business performance within the Vietnamese market.
THESIS’S ORGANIZATION
The study is built in five parts including:
This chapter provides an overview of the study abroad trend in Vietnam and examines existing research on higher education abroad It identifies the research problem, outlines the research objectives, and highlights the significance of the study.
LITERATURES REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES
LITERATURES REVIEW
2.1.1 An overview about the Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior, developed by Icek Ajzen in 1985, extends the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and serves as a foundational framework for understanding behavioral intent Although TRA is not the primary focus of this study, its insights contribute to a deeper comprehension of the constructs and variables within the Theory of Planned Behavior, highlighting its significance as a leading social scientific theory in behavioral research.
The Theory of Reasoned Action
The Theory of Reasoned Action, introduced by Fishbein in 1967 and further developed by Ajzen and Fishbein in 1977, posits that individuals evaluate the consequences of their actions before engaging in behavior, which is reflected in its name This theory suggests that attitudes toward specific behaviors arise from underlying beliefs about those behaviors and their associated characteristics Critical to this framework is the concept of intent, which serves as the strongest predictor of whether an individual will follow through with a particular action.
The Theory of Reasoned Action, proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein in 1980, asserts that intention to perform a behavior is primarily influenced by an individual's positive attitude towards that behavior and the perceived pressures from subjective norms They argue that people are more likely to intend to engage in a behavior if they view it favorably and believe that significant others endorse it However, the impact of Attitude and Subjective Norms on intention can differ depending on the specific behavior and individual differences.
The Theory of Planned Behavior
Ajzen (1988) introduced the Theory of Planned Behavior as an enhancement of the Theory of Reasoned Action, expanding its scope to include various aspects of behavior Unlike its predecessor, which focuses solely on behaviors within an individual's control, the Theory of Planned Behavior incorporates volitional control as a key variable Volitional control refers to the necessity for individuals to possess the resources, opportunities, and support required to engage in a specific behavior.
The Theory of Planned Behavior effectively predicts behavioral intention by considering three key components: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control This theory posits that an individual's intention to engage in a behavior is influenced by their attitude towards that behavior, the perceived social pressures (subjective norms), and their confidence in their ability to perform the behavior (perceived behavioral control) While intention and perceived behavioral control are crucial in explaining actual behavior, this paper focuses solely on examining the impact of these factors on the intention to study abroad, without analyzing the actual behavior itself.
Figure 2.1: The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
According to Ajzen, intention is an indication of a person's readiness to perform a given behavior, and it is considered to be the immediate antecedent of behavior
Intention reflects the motivational factors that drive behavior, indicating the level of effort individuals are prepared to invest to engage in a specific action It serves as a mediator in the attitude-behavior relationship, where attitude represents an evaluation of the behavior, and intention signifies the decision to act, showcasing a person's readiness to take action.
The formation of behavioral intention relies on an individual's attitude towards the behavior, social norms, and their perception of the ease or difficulty of executing the behavior A positive behavioral attitude is essential for the intention to translate into action.
The intention to engage in a behavior is influenced by three key factors: positive attitudes, favorable subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control When individuals have a positive outlook on an action and believe that significant others support it, along with having the necessary resources to carry it out, their intention to perform that behavior strengthens For instance, students who view studying abroad positively, feel that their family endorses this choice, and possess the means to do so are more likely to intend to study overseas Research by Chen and Zimitat (2006) and Bobbitt and Akers (2013) confirms that a combination of these elements—attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control—significantly predicts students' intentions to pursue international education.
Attitude toward the behavior refers the degree of behavioral performance is positive or negative that a person holds towards a particular behavior
According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), an individual's general attitude toward an object is shaped by salient beliefs, which represent the subjective probability of a relationship between the object and other values or attributes Product quality beliefs can be established through three types of formation: descriptive, informative, and inferential Descriptive beliefs arise from direct observation of product characteristics, while informative beliefs are based on information about product attributes obtained from external sources like friends, advertisements, or consumer magazines Inferential beliefs are developed through the interpretation of available information.
The perception process involves 13 key elements that draw on previously held beliefs stored in memory, which influence how individuals interpret the connection between cues and product attributes, alongside new information gathered from their surroundings (Steenkamp, 1990; Peter & Hans, 1995 as cited in Thom, 2007).
Numerous studies highlight the significant impact of personal beliefs and attitudes on participation in study abroad programs (BaileyShea, 2010) Research by Chen et al (2006) emphasizes that students' perceptions of higher education in the destination country are crucial in shaping their intentions to study overseas, particularly in Taiwan The belief that studying abroad enhances career prospects is a key motivating factor, especially for students considering options in Australia and the USA Additionally, findings from Zhang, Sun, and Hagedorn (2013) reveal that Chinese students view studying abroad as a pathway to better education and increased competitiveness upon returning to China They recognize that obtaining an overseas degree can equip them with valuable skills that expand their career opportunities (Zwart, 2013) Furthermore, Phang (2013) indicates that factors such as university accreditation, ranking, and reputation significantly influence students' choices for higher education abroad Thus, the author proposes the hypothesis that these elements play a critical role in the decision-making process for studying overseas.
H1 Attitude toward foreign education have positive impact on intention to study abroad of Vietnamese students
Subjective norm refers to the perceived social pressure to engage in a particular behavior, as outlined by Ajzen (2006) The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) suggest that behavioral intentions are influenced by both personal attitudes and subjective norms Research indicates that individuals vary in how much they prioritize these factors; for some, personal considerations are more predictive of intentions, while for others, subjective norms hold greater significance than attitudes (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005).
Empirical research and meta-analyses in social science indicate that subjective norms are the weakest predictors of intention and behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Conner & Armitage, 1998; 2001) This weak effect can be attributed to measurement issues and the failure to adequately capture the relevant components of normative influence Consequently, some researchers advocate for the removal of this construct from analyses due to its insufficient predictive power regarding intentions (Conner & Armitage as cited in Thom, 2007).
Numerous studies indicate that social pressures from peers, parents, teachers, and relatives significantly influence students' enrollment choices (Ray, 1991; Koballa, 1998) Chapman (1981) found that students are heavily swayed by the advice and comments of family and friends when selecting a college While the ultimate decision to study abroad rests with the students, the opinions of family members, friends, and teachers play a crucial role by providing valuable information and suggestions (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002) Additionally, research by Bobbitt and Akers (2013) highlights that peers positively encourage the decision to study abroad, even though the intention to do so is primarily a personal choice, influenced to a lesser extent by others.
H2 Advices of influential people such as parents, relatives, teachers, friends and others) have positive impact on intention to studying abroad of Vietnamese students
Perceived behavioral control refers to individuals' beliefs about their capability to execute a specific behavior, distinguishing it from the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and playing a crucial role in the Theory of Planned Behavior This concept is shaped by the various factors that can either facilitate or hinder the execution of the behavior (Ajzen, 1991) It reflects the perceived ease or difficulty in performing the behavior (Li et al., 2009) Even with positive attitudes and strong social pressures, a person will not act if they feel they lack the necessary resources or opportunities Therefore, the likelihood of a behavior occurring increases when individuals possess both the ability and motivation to act, rather than having just one or neither.
In study context, for students, whether they choose to study through an offshore program is also influenced by the perceived behavioral control factors (Li et al.,
RESEARCH MODEL
Based on a literature review and the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior, the research model depicted in Figure 2.3 includes three key constructs: attitude toward foreign education, advice from influential individuals, and perceived behavioral control Additionally, the hypotheses of this study are summarized within this framework.
HYPOTHESES
H1 Attitude toward foreign education have positive impact on intention to study abroad of Vietnamese students
H2 Advices of influential people such as parents, relatives, teachers, friends and others) have positive impact on intention to studying abroad of Vietnamese students
H3 Perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on Vietnamese students’ study abroad intention.
RESEARCH METHOD
RESEARCH PROCEDURE
Following the identification of the research problem, the research objectives and scope were established A comprehensive literature review on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and relevant prior studies informed the development of hypotheses A draft questionnaire was created by consolidating elements from various existing questionnaires After conducting a pilot study, the main study was carried out to gather data for analysis, culminating in the conclusion and implications of the research The research procedure in this study involved several key steps.
Step 1: Developing the initial research model and a consolidated draft questionnaire based on the literature review The draft questionnaire was conducted from various measurement scales in some previous studies that applied the Theory of Planned Behavior in examining study abroad intention
Step 2: Conducting a qualitative pilot study to refine a questionnaire A sample with seven students which selected randomly was interviewed They were required to give their opinion about each statement to ensure that the final questions would be well understood Based on the results of this research, the measurement scales of the questionnaire was refined
Step 3: Carrying out a quantitative pilot survey to test the reliability of measurement scales Cronbach’s alpha was used for this step The final questionnaire was launched after all scales were reliable
Step 4: Launching a main survey and collecting the data for data analysis step 300 questionnaires were sent to three high schools, 289 responses were received four weeks after the survey was launched
Step 5: With the data collected from this main survey, after data cleaning, the reliability of the measurement scales was testing by using Cronbach Alpha
Literature review Draft questionnaire Back translation
(nU) Reliability Analysis Final Questionnaire
Analysis The scale reliability testing means testing the internal consistency among variables of the same construct
Step 6: Validity of the scales was tested with Explore Factor analysis (EFA) to explore the inter-relationships among a set of variables
Step 7: Testing the research hypotheses by using multi linear regression analysis After the reliability was confirmed, multiples regression analysis was employed to test the hypotheses.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This research was conducted in two phases: a pilot study followed by a main survey Prior to these studies, a draft questionnaire was developed based on measurement scales from earlier research.
The study analyzed four first-order constructs, utilizing a total of 24 measurement variables associated with these factors The details of these variables are presented in the table below, while the measurement scales for all factors are summarized in Table 3.2.
Measurement scales for attitude toward foreign education were modified from scales of attitude toward study abroad intention of Chen and Zimitat (2006) with 7 items
Advices of influential people scales were adapted from Subjective norm scales of Bobbitt and Akers (2013); Chen and Zimitat (2006) with 6 items
Measurement scale for perceived behavioral control were also adapted from Bobbitt and Akers (2013) and Chen and Zimitat (2006) Perceived behavioral control was also measured by 6 items
Intention to studying abroad was based on Bobbitt and Akers (2013) scales and
Davis et al (2002) with 5 items
These constructs were assessed by series of items with five-point Likert type from 1
- strongly disagree to 5 - strongly agree:
Respondents were asked to indicate their levels of agreement or disagreement with statements regarding each construct
Original scale Adjusted scale Codin g
Attitude toward behavior scale Attitude toward foreign education
(1) Education in many English- speaking countries will improve my
(1) Education in English- speaking countries will improve my English skills
English-speaking countries are more valuable than Taiwanese qualifications
English-speaking countries are more valuable than Vietnamese qualifications
(3) The academic reputation of universities in many English- speaking countries is higher than those in Taiwan
(3) The academic reputation of universities in English- speaking countries is higher than those in Vietnam
(4) High achievement in academic research in an English- speaking country is important to me
(4) High achievement in academic research in an English-speaking country is one of things that I interested in.
(5) Studying in many English- speaking countries can improve my job prospects
(5) Studying in English- speaking countries can improve my job prospects after graduation
(6) A degree from an economically powerful English- speaking country is highly valued in Taiwan
(6) With an international degree, I may have better career opportunities in Vietnam
(7) International degree is one of important things that may can help me get a job with high salary
Subjective norm scale Advices of influential people scale
(1) My parents can influence my decision-making process
(1) My parents’ advice influences on my intention to study abroad
(2) My other family members can influence my decision-making process
(2) My other family members’ advice influences on my intention to study abroad
(3) My teachers can influence my decision-making process
(3) My teachers’ advice influences my intention to study abroad
(4) My friends can influence my decision-making process
(4) My friends’ opinion influences my intention to study abroad
(5) Word of mouth from other people who have studied overseas can influence my decision-making process
(5) Word of mouth from other people who have studied overseas influences my intention to study abroad
(6) When it comes to study abroad, how much do you want to be like your friends
(6) I may study at the institution which my friends will study/is studying
(1) The cost of university tuition fees is an important factor for overseas study
(1) University tuition fees is an factor that impact on my intention study abroad
(2) Cost of living is an important factor for overseas study
(2) Cost of living is an factor that impact on my intention study abroad
(3) The length of time taken to complete my degree is an important factor overseas study
(3) The length of time taken to complete my degree is factor that impact on my intention study abroad
(4) It is important to maintain sufficient contact with my family when I study overseas
(4) It is important to maintain sufficient contact with my family when I study overseas
(5) Entry into university in Taiwan is so competitive that I would prefer to study overseas
Vietnam is so competitive that
I would prefer to study overseas
(6) They would have difficulty due to language barriers when participating in a study abroad program
(6) I would have difficulty due to language barriers if I study abroad
Intention to study abroad Intention to study abroad ISA
(1) I have previously considered participating in a study abroad program
(1) I have previously considered participating in a study abroad program
(2) Participating in a study abroad program is something that interests me
(2) Participating in a study abroad program is something that interests me
(3) I intend to participate in a study abroad program
(3) I intend to study abroad ISA3
(4) I expect to study abroad (4) I expect to study abroad ISA4 (Davis,
(5) I will try to study abroad in future
(5) I will try to study abroad in future
As the author has mentioned in the measurement scale part, scales of each construct were modified from previous researches Thus, the quantitative analysis is applied
23 mainly for this paper However, the qualitative study is performed in focus group interview with the purpose of measurement refinement
Above these scales were used in many countries, but not in Vietnam They need to be tested and modified before using them to examine empirical study
Measurement refinement was performed by the pilot study in two steps:
A qualitative study was conducted as the initial step, involving the creation of a draft questionnaire based on scales derived from a literature review The original English draft was translated into Vietnamese to prevent any misunderstandings among students A focus group consisting of seven randomly selected high school students reviewed the questionnaire, ensuring that all questions were clear and aligned with the intended constructs.
The pilot study survey participants recommended minor changes to the initial statements, including clarifications in wording and the reduction of redundant questions Additionally, the construct "Intention to study abroad" was enhanced with the statement, "I intend to study abroad because of my parents’ request." This addition reflects feedback from interviewees who noted that they and many of their friends pursue overseas studies due to parental plans.
In the second step, a quantitative pilot survey was conducted after refining the questionnaire This survey was distributed to 55 grade 12 students at Saigon International College, and the validity of the scales was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha.
Alpha The results indicate that all scales were accepted because Cronbach’s alpha of each construct above 0.6
The final questionnaire which shown in Appendix A was done after the pilot study
It was structured into 2 sections:
Section A examines respondents' attitudes toward foreign education in English-speaking countries, the influence of key figures, and their perceived control over the intention to study abroad This section includes 25 statements divided into four constructs: 7 statements assess attitudes toward foreign education, 6 evaluate advice from influential people, 6 measure perceived behavioral control, and 6 reflect intentions to study abroad Each statement is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1).
Section B provides detailed information about the respondents, aiming to assess the diversity of the data and highlight behavioral differences across various segments, including gender, occupation, and income levels.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
DATA STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
A total of 289 questionnaires were distributed among grade 11 and grade 12 students from Le Quy Don, Nguyen Thuong Hien, and Gia Dinh high schools in Ho Chi Minh City After data cleaning, 201 valid responses were analyzed, categorized by gender, parental occupation, and income Descriptive statistics revealed a diverse sample across various demographics, as illustrated in Table 4-1.
Occupation of parent Government sector 35.30%
Income of parent Less than 20 million 47.80%
MEASUREMENT SCALES ASSESSMENT
The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for internal consistency reliability test was used for each factor in this research model
Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient typically varies from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating better reliability A scale is considered to have good reliability when its alpha falls between 0.7 and 0.8, while a coefficient of 0.6 or above is deemed acceptable (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994, as cited in Tho, 2011).
Each construct in the study was assessed using multiple items, necessitating a correlation among these items It is essential to consider the corrected item-total correlation (r) as an indicator of reliability Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) suggest that a variable demonstrates good reliability when its r value exceeds 3.
The findings indicated that the Cronbach’s Alpha for all constructs exceeded 6, with the exception of perceived behavior control Additionally, three items—PBC5, PBC6, and ISA6—were removed due to their item-total correlation being below the acceptable threshold of 3.
Table 4-2: Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for each measurement scale
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if Item Deleted
Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted Decision Attitude toward foreign education
After removing low-correlated items, the Perceived Behavioral Control scale showed a reduced range, resulting in an increased Cronbach's alpha of 823 Additionally, the intention to study abroad factor was re-evaluated, revealing that all scales met the reliability requirement, with each Cronbach's alpha exceeding 6, as detailed in Table 4-3.
The study revealed that the Cronbach's Alpha values ranged from a low of 762 for the measurement of advice from influential individuals to a high of 883 for attitudes toward foreign education Furthermore, the items within each scale demonstrated strong correlations with the criterion, with values exceeding 3.
Table 4-3: Cronbach’ Alpha results after excluding unsatisfactory items
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if
Item Deleted Decision Attitude toward foreign education Cronbach α =0.883
Advices of influential people Cronbach α =0.762
Intention to study abroad Cronbach α =0.872
In summary, the Cronbach’s alpha test was utilized to evaluate all items across four variables, leading to the rejection of those that did not meet the test's criteria Following modifications, the number of items for each construct was adjusted accordingly.
Attitude toward foreign education included 7 items: ATT1, ATT2, ATT3, ATT4, ATT5, ATT6, and ATT7
Advices of influential people consisted 6 items: AIP1, AIP2, AIP3, AIP4, AIP5, and AIP6
Perceived behavioral control comprised 4 items PBC1, PBC2, PBC3, and PBC4 Intention to study abroad included 5 items: ISA1, ISA2, ISA3, ISA4, and ISA5
In next step, the validity of above scales was examined by Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
Before implementing Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), it is essential for the data to meet specific criteria beyond just sample size It is recommended that Bartlett's test of sphericity yields a p-value of less than 05, indicating a correlation among all variables Additionally, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure should exceed 5, ideally approaching 1 for optimal results (Tho, 2011).
The author employed the extraction method utilizing Principal Component Analysis and Varimax rotation to conduct an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) This analysis was performed separately for independent variables such as Attitude toward Foreign Education, Advice from Influential People, and Perceived Behavioral Control, alongside the dependent variable, Intention to Study Abroad.
4.2.2.1 EFA test for independent variables
The results revealed a KMO value of 819, suggesting an adequate number of items for each factor Additionally, a significance level of 000 indicates that the correlation matrix significantly differs from the identity matrix, confirming the data's suitability for exploratory factor analysis (EFA).
To validate the scales measurement, there are three important attributes in EFA results including the number of extracted factors, factor loading indicators and total variance explained (Tho, 2011)
The Rotated Component Matrix revealed that the observed variables grouped into four distinct components: Component 1 represents Attitude toward Foreign Education, Component 2 is Perceived Behavioral Control, and Component 3 encompasses the Advice of Influential People, which is further divided into two sub-components Both Attitude toward Foreign Education and Perceived Behavioral Control align with the initial theory, while the Advice of Influential People is categorized into two groups Notably, all factor loading indicators exceeded 0.5, indicating a strong correlation among the variables.
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization a.Rotation converged in 5 iterations
The analysis revealed four distinct components, diverging from the theoretical framework The advice from influential individuals was categorized into two groups: Group 1, comprising AIP2, AIP3, and AIP1, is referred to as AIPI (Advice of Influential People – Important People), while Group 2, consisting of AIP4, AIP5, and AIP6, is designated as AIPP (Advice of Influential People).
The reliability of the new constructs was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding values of 826 and 774, indicating strong reliability Additionally, correlation indicators for both constructs exceeded 3, confirming their discriminant validity Overall, the measurement approach was deemed appropriate for the factor analysis.
According to Hair et al (1998), a cumulative percent of variance extracted exceeding 0.5 is essential for establishing convergent validity The Total Variance Explained table (Table 4-5) indicates that the cumulative indicator TVE= 65.955 demonstrates that the four extracted factors account for 65.95% of the variability in the observed variables, confirming the scales' convergent validity.
Table: 4-5: Total Variance Explained of independent variables
Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared
Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared
4.2.2.2 EFA test for dependent variable
The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) conducted on the dependent variable, study abroad intention, revealed a strong KMO value of 0.858, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.6 Additionally, Bartlett's test of sphericity yielded a significant result with a p-value of 0.000, confirming the suitability of factor analysis for this construct.
As in the table 4-6, the loading factors are higher than 5, the variance extracted by 66.28% that qualified for the requirement TVE > 50% (Appendix F)
Table 4-6: Total Variance Explained of dependent variable
After EFA test, the model consisted of five groups of variables that had been aggregated as follows:
Attitude toward foreign education included 7 items: ATT1, ATT2, ATT3, ATT4, ATT5, ATT6, and ATT7
Influential people's advice can be categorized into two groups: the first group consists of key insights from significant figures, labeled as AIP1, AIP2, and AIP3, while the second group features advice from peers, represented by AIP4, AIP5, and AIP6 Additionally, perceived behavioral control is measured through four elements: PBC1, PBC2, PBC3, and PBC4 Lastly, the intention to study abroad is assessed using five indicators: ISA1, ISA2, ISA3, ISA4, and ISA5.
HYPOTHESES TESTING
Multi-linear regression is a statistical technique employed to analyze the linear relationship between one dependent variable and multiple independent variables In this study, Multiple Linear Regression was utilized to evaluate the research model and test the associated hypotheses.
In accordance with Pallant (2005), the assumptions of a multiple regression are:
- The sample size is appropriate: n > 50+8m (where m = number of independent variables)
- No multi collinearity is found
- No outliers are found or in case they are, no significant impact of outlier is found
Before conducting multiple regression analysis, it is essential to test all underlying assumptions In this research, the data collected from 201 valid respondents exceeded the minimum sample size required for robust multiple regression analysis.
Pallant (2005) stated that the commonly used cut–off points for determining the presence of multicollinearity among independent variables are 1 for Tolerance Value and VIF values are lower than 2
Table 4-9 showed that the tolerance values of all independent variables were big than the cut–off Tolerance value of 0.10 (ATT: 840; AIPI: 845; AIPI: 894
39 supported by the VIF values of all independent variables that were below the cut –off value of 2 (ATT: 1.191; AIPI: 1.184; AIPI: 1.119 and PBC: 1.262)
The assumptions testing confirmed that the data is suitable for multi-linear regression analysis As a result, this study employed multi-linear regression to assess the influence of independent variables—ATT, AIPI, AIPP, and PBC—on the dependent variable, ISA The primary aim was to test the hypotheses using the enter method in the multi-linear regression The subsequent results of the testing are detailed below.
Table 4-9: Hypotheses testing result (Model Summary, ANOVA, Coefficients)
Std Error of the Estimate
1 682 a 465 454 52118 a.Predictors: (Constant), PBC, AIPP, AIPI, ATT
Squares df Mean Square F Sig
Total 99.555 200 a.Predictors: (Constant), PBC, AIPP, AIPI, ATT b.Dependent Variable: ISA
The Model Summary indicates an R square value of 0.465 and an Adjusted R square of 0.454, confirming the regression model's fit, as evidenced by a p-value of 0.000 in the ANOVA table This suggests that the independent variables—Attitude toward foreign education, advice from influential individuals, and perceived behavioral control—account for approximately 45% of the variance in the intention to study abroad.
Hypotheses were analyzed based on the findings of Tho (2011), which indicate that an independent variable positively influences a dependent variable when the significance value is below 05 Additionally, the Standardized Coefficients beta is utilized to assess the relative impact of each independent variable on the dependent variable.
H1 Attitude toward foreign education have positive impact on intention to study abroad of Vietnamese students
The standardized coefficient Beta for Attitude toward foreign education was found to be 228, with a significance value of 000, indicating a statistically significant positive relationship between Attitude toward foreign education and Intention to study abroad at a 95% confidence level Therefore, the hypothesis H1 is supported.
H2a Advices of important people such as parents, relatives, and teachers have positive impact on intention to studying abroad of Vietnamese students
The analysis revealed a standardized coefficient Beta of 243 for the independent variable, Advices of Important People, with a significance value of 000 This indicates a positive relationship between the advices of important individuals and the intention to study abroad, supported at a 95% confidence level, thereby validating hypothesis H2a.
H2b Advices of peers have positive impact on intention to studying abroad of Vietnamese students
The findings revealed that peer advice significantly influences the intention to study abroad, as evidenced by a standardized coefficient Beta of 237 and a significance value of 000, thereby supporting hypothesis H2b.
H3 Perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on Vietnamese students’ study abroad intention
The standardized coefficient Beta for the Perceived Behavioral Control construct was found to be 303, with a significance value of 000, indicating a positive influence on the study abroad intentions of Vietnamese students at a 95% confidence level Consequently, hypothesis H3 is supported.
The study highlights that perceived behavioral control significantly influences the intention to study abroad, with a coefficient of β=.303 Additionally, the analysis reveals that the impact of advice from parents, relatives, and teachers (AIPI) is more substantial than that from friends or alumni, as indicated by coefficients of β=.243 and β=.237, respectively The last three independent factors demonstrate a similar level of effect on the intention to study abroad.
In consequence, after analyzing linear regression we discovered all hypotheses were supported.
DISCUSSION
Globalizing education in developing countries like Vietnam presents both opportunities and challenges for international higher education institutions Understanding the factors that influence students' decisions to study abroad is essential This study utilizes the theory of planned behavior to predict how key antecedents affect students' intentions to pursue education overseas.
This study supports the proposed research model, demonstrating that attitudes toward foreign education, advice from influential individuals, and perceived behavioral control account for 45% of the variance in the intention to study abroad Consequently, the Theory of Planned Behavior effectively predicts the intention to pursue studies abroad within the context of Vietnam.
The study reveals that attitudes toward foreign education, along with the advice of parents, relatives, teachers, and peers, significantly influence the intention to study abroad Additionally, perceived behavioral control is identified as a crucial factor affecting this intention, highlighting its importance among other antecedents These findings contribute to the understanding of the theory regarding perceived behavioral control in the context of studying abroad.
Influential figures, such as parents and teachers, significantly impact students' intentions regarding studying abroad, particularly in Vietnam Research by Bobbitt and Akers (2013) indicates that subjective norms play a lesser role in shaping these intentions, a finding consistent with prior studies This discrepancy can be attributed to the considerable financial resources required for overseas education, including tuition, living expenses, and travel costs, which far exceed those of domestic studies As parents typically bear these financial burdens, their concerns about safety and the suitability of the host country further influence their children's educational choices Consequently, in Vietnam, parents often take the lead in deciding which foreign institutions their children should attend.
The guidance provided by influential figures can be categorized into two main groups: advice from important individuals such as parents, relatives, and teachers, and insights from peers and alumni This distinction highlights the crucial role that parents play in shaping decisions Moreover, it suggests that Vietnamese students' choices to study abroad are significantly influenced by those who have firsthand experience in overseas education.
While the influence of attitude toward foreign education may be somewhat less significant than other factors, it remains crucial for Vietnamese students They perceive foreign education as a pathway to acquiring cutting-edge knowledge and gaining international experience, which enhances their competitiveness in the labor market and increases their chances of achieving success in life.
Conclusion, in the context of Vietnam, study abroad is not only a personal choice of students but influenced by others factors.
SUMMARY
This chapter outlines the implementation of data analysis techniques, including the results of Cronbach’s alpha test and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for measurement scales Additionally, it discusses the application of multiple linear regression to test the model and hypotheses.
The study's findings revealed that three observed variables were removed during the Cronbach’s alpha reliability test, while exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified four independent factors, accounting for a total variance of 65.95% Among these factors, "Attitude toward Foreign Education" and "Perceived Behavioral Control" were aligned with the initial theoretical framework Additionally, the influence of significant individuals was categorized into two groups: AIPI (Advice from Important People) and AIPP (Advice from Peers) All factors met the necessary validity and reliability standards.
The theoretical model test demonstrated a good fit with the data, confirming hypotheses 1, 2a, 2b, and 3 Notably, perceived behavioral control emerged as a significant independent variable influencing the intention to study abroad.
CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS
MAIN FINDINGS
Finding 1: All of the prediction variables comprising Attitude toward the foreign education, Advice of influential people (Subjective Norm), and Perceived Behavioral Control were found to be positive predictors of intention study abroad and statistically significant at varying strengths This supports past researches about the same topic such as Bobbitt & Akers (2013) indicated that approximately 54% of the variance in intent to study abroad in the sample can be accounted for by the linear combination of TPB constructs; the research of Li et al., (2009) found that this study has found that TPB could be well applied in China to predict potential students’ enrollment intention towards an offshore program although the effect of the three predictive components on intention is contingent on which country the offshore program is from ; Chen & Zimitat (2006) state that Attitude, Subjective Norm and PBC were predictors of Taiwanese students’ intention to study in English speaking such as Australia, USA However the greatest predictors of the intention to study are different in each country
Finding 2: Subjective norm divided into two groups: advice of important people (parents, relative and teachers) and friends (peers and Alumni) In which standardised beta weight of advice of important people (β=.243) bigger than peers (β=.237) This means role of parents is essential This finding did not perform in the previous researches
Finding 3: Among of the three independent variables, the Perceived behavioral control construct had a strongest relationship with the Intention (β=.237) This is an interesting finding compared to some previously research As detailed, Bobbitt & Akers (2013) did a study with undergraduates in the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources at Texas Tech University and a study of Li et al.,
(2009) in China found that the students’ attitude toward studying abroad was the most important linear predictor of their intention to study abroad A research of
A study by Chen & Zimitat (2006) involving Taiwanese students revealed that the primary factor influencing the intention to study abroad in Australia is Attitude, while the key determinant for studying in the USA is Subjective Norm.
Finding 4: With the R square =.465 (≠ 0)and Adjusted R square =.454 and p = 000 the model-fit of this study is acceptable.
IMPLICATIONS
This study utilizes the Theory of Planned Behavior to explore the factors influencing the intention to study abroad The findings provide valuable insights for foreign educational institutions in English-speaking countries, enhancing their understanding of Vietnamese students' decision-making processes when selecting an institution Consequently, this understanding can help these institutions improve their business performance in the Vietnamese market.
Vietnamese students pursue education abroad, particularly in English-speaking countries, due to the perception that these institutions offer advanced learning opportunities and globally recognized degrees Consequently, educational institutions should highlight their academic accomplishments, including rankings and the potential for enhanced career prospects.
To enhance marketing and communication strategies, it is crucial to target both parents and high schools, as their advice significantly influences decision-making Additionally, cultivating a robust alumni network can serve as a valuable referral source, leveraging recommendations from family and friends to strengthen the institute's reputation.
Perceived behavioral control significantly influences intention, as students who possess adequate resources are more inclined to develop a strong intention to engage in specific behaviors Consequently, support systems play a crucial role in enhancing students' perceived behavioral control and intention formation.
47 government in financial aid such as partial scholarships for outstanding students, part-time jobs policies will attract Vietnamese students
This study enhances the scientific literature on the study abroad industry by developing a theoretical model that examines how attitudes toward foreign education, the influence of key individuals, and perceived behavioral control affect the intention to study abroad among Vietnamese students Additionally, it identifies variations in measurement scales compared to prior research and tailors the theoretical model to fit the specific context of Vietnam.
LIMITATIONS
While contributing valuable information in predicting the intention study abroad of Vietnamese high school student in higher education, this study has a number of limitations
This study fully utilized the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), addressing limitations identified by Knabe (2012), which suggest that the theory does not incorporate personality, emotions, and demographic factors According to Ajzen (1988), these variables can be integrated into the TPB framework only if they impact the underlying beliefs that shape Attitude and Subjective Norms.
This study adapted measurement scales from previous research that have been utilized in various countries but not in Vietnam Prior to their application in this empirical study, these scales underwent testing and modification However, the qualitative research sample was limited, consisting of only seven interviewees, which restricted the generalizability of the modifications Additionally, the study focused on measuring Attitude, Perceived Subject Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control, and Behavioral Intention.
These measures are indirect because actual observations of these behaviors are not feasible
The limited sample size of the main survey, primarily consisting of students from Ho Chi Minh City and utilizing convenient sampling methods, may not accurately reflect the intentions of all students in Vietnam who aspire to study abroad.
The study faced limitations in data collection, as it only gathered information from three high schools, a small sample compared to the 200 high schools available in Ho Chi Minh City Consequently, the research did not include the effects of income and occupation in its model, leaving these influential factors unexamined.
Due to the author's limited experience in EFA analysis, independent and dependent variables were tested separately, resulting in an inability to establish the validity of scales through the correlation between these variables.
While the Theory of Planned Behavior effectively predicts behavioral intentions, it is essential to investigate additional factors that influence the study abroad intentions of Vietnamese students for a comprehensive understanding.
CONCLUSION
This study investigates how the constructs of the theory of planned behavior influence the intention to study abroad The results identify four key factors affecting this intention: attitudes toward foreign education, advice from parents, relatives, teachers, and peers, and perceived behavioral control Notably, perceived behavioral control significantly impacts the intention to study abroad, with influential figures playing a crucial role These findings contribute to a theoretical model for future research and provide insights for foreign institutions in English-speaking countries to better understand student motivations.
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APPENDICES Appendix A: Questionnaire (Vietnamese Version)
Lê Thị Hồng An hiện đang thực hiện luận văn cho chương trình Cao học tại Đại học Kinh tế Tp.HCM, với chủ đề nghiên cứu về các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến ý định du học bậc Đại học của học sinh Việt Nam tại các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh.
Chúng tôi rất mong bạn dành 5 phút để chia sẻ ý kiến của mình về các phát biểu trong Phiếu khảo sát Quan điểm của bạn là yếu tố quan trọng cho thành công của nghiên cứu này Phiếu khảo sát mang tính tự nguyện và thông tin cá nhân của bạn sẽ được bảo mật hoàn toàn.
Trong nghiên cứu này, cụm từ "các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh" được sử dụng để chỉ những quốc gia mà tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ mẹ đẻ, bao gồm Anh, Úc và Mỹ.
Phần này trình bày các ý kiến liên quan đến việc học tập đại học ở nước ngoài Xin vui lòng cho biết mức độ đồng ý của bạn với các phát biểu sau bằng cách đánh dấu vào ô tương ứng.
1-Hoàn toàn không đồng ý 2-Không đồng ý 3-Không có ý kiến
Xin vui lòng cho biết mức độ đồng ý hoặc không đồng ý của bạn với các phát biểu liên quan đến việc học tập tại các trường Đại học ở các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh.
1- Hoàn toàn không đồng ý 5- Hoàn toàn đồng ý
1 Học tập tại các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh sẽ nâng cao khả năng Anh ngữ của tôi 1 2 3 4 5
2 Danh tiếng về học thuật của các trường Đại học tại các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh cao hơn so với các trường ĐH tại Việt Nam 1 2 3 4 5
3 Bằng cấp ở các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh có giá trị hơn so với bằng cấp tại Việt Nam 1 2 3 4 5
4 Thành tựu cao trong nghiên cứu khoa học tại các quốc gia nói tiếng Anh là một trong yếu tố thu hút sự quan tâm của tôi 1 2 3 4 5
5 Học tập tại quốc gia nói tiếng Anh, tôi sẽ có cơ hội làm việc ở nước ngoài sau khi tốt nghiệp 1 2 3 4 5
6 Bằng cấp quốc tế sẽ mở rộng cơ hội nghề nghiệp của tôi khi tôi trở về Việt Nam 1 2 3 4 5
7 Bằng cấp quốc tế sẽ giúp tôi có một công việc với mức lương cao 1 2 3 4 5 Ảnh hưởng của những người xung quanh đến ý định đi du học của bạn
(trong phạm vi chọn trường, chọn quốc gia để du học)
8 Ba mẹ tôi có ảnh hưởng rất lớn đến việc tôi sẽ học đại học ở đâu 1 2 3 4 5
9 Các thành viên khác trong gia đình (anh, chị…) có ảnh hưởng rất lớn việc tôi sẽ học đại học ở đâu 1 2 3 4 5
10 Lời khuyên giáo viên ở trường THPT có ảnh hưởng việc tôi sẽ học đại học ở đâu 1 2 3 4 5
11 Ý kiến bạn bè tôi có ảnh hưởng việc tôi sẽ học đại học ở đâu 1 2 3 4 5
12 Nhận xét của cựu du học sinh về việc du học tại một trường nào đó ảnh hưởng việc tôi sẽ học đại học ở đâu 1 2 3 4 5
13 Có thể tôi sẽ học tại trường nơi mà bạn bè/người thân của tôi sẽ học (hoặc đang học) 1 2 3 4 5
Khả năng kiểm soát các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến ý định du học
14 Học phí là yếu tố quan trọng khi chọn trường đại học để du học 1 2 3 4 5
15 Sinh hoạt phí là yếu tố quan trọng khi chọn nơi để du học 1 2 3 4 5
Khi lựa chọn trường để du học, độ dài của khóa học là một yếu tố quan trọng cần xem xét Tại các quốc gia có nền giáo dục phát triển như Anh, Mỹ và Úc, chương trình đại học thường kéo dài từ 3 đến 4 năm, tùy thuộc vào từng trường.
Khi du học ở nước ngoài, 17 yếu tố thuận tiện trong việc duy trì liên lạc thường xuyên với người thân đóng vai trò quan trọng Du học sinh học ở các quốc gia gần Việt Nam sẽ dễ dàng hơn trong việc trở về thăm gia đình hoặc để gia đình có thể thăm họ Sự gần gũi về địa lý giúp tạo điều kiện thuận lợi cho việc giữ mối liên hệ, góp phần làm cho trải nghiệm du học trở nên ý nghĩa hơn.
18 Tôi nghĩ tôi sẽ gặp khó khăn khi giao tiếp vì sự khác biệt về ngôn ngữ nếu tôi đi du học 1 2 3 4 5
19 Việc thi tuyển vào ĐH uy tín/danh tiếng ở Việt
Việt Nam đang trở nên ngày càng cạnh tranh, vì vậy tôi quyết định đi du học để nâng cao trình độ và cơ hội nghề nghiệp Hầu hết các ngành học tại các trường đại học ở các quốc gia như Anh, Mỹ, và Úc thường áp dụng hình thức xét tuyển thay vì thi tuyển Điều này tạo điều kiện thuận lợi cho sinh viên quốc tế trong việc theo đuổi ước mơ học tập và phát triển bản thân.
20 Tôi đã từng xem xét về việc sẽ đi du học 1 2 3 4 5
21 Việc xin đi du học là điều tôi quan tâm 1 2 3 4 5
22 Tôi mong đợi là sẽ đi du học 1 2 3 4 5
23 Tôi cố gắng để đi du học trong tương lai 1 2 3 4 5
24 Tôi dự định sẽ đi du học 1 2 3 4 5
25 Gia đình bắt buộc tôi đi du học 1 2 3 4 5
PHẦN B – Thông tin cá nhân
Các bạn vui lòng cung cấp một số thông tin sau để phục vụ cho việc phân loại và so sách các nhóm đối tượng khảo sát:
1 Giới tính (của người tham gia khảo sát) Nam; Nữ
2 Lĩnh vực làm việc của ba hoặc mẹ (người tạo thu nhập chính cho gia đình):
Tổ chức/Cơ quan Nhà nước Tổ chức/Doanh nghiệp tư nhân
Tổ Chức/Doanh nghiệp đầu tư nước ngoài/ Liên doanh
Chủ doanh nghiệp Hộ kinh doanh Khác
3 Thu nhập (TN) trung bình của ba hoặc mẹ (triệu đồng/tháng) (người tạo thu nhập chính cho gia đình)
TN