INTRODUCTION
Research background
Business ethics research has focused heavily on marketing exchange and participants within this process (Rawwas, Patzer, & Klassen, 2005; Liu, Zeng, & Su, 2009; Zhao et al.,
Marketing exchanges are central to many ethical issues in business (Vitell, Singhapakdi, & Thomas, 2001) While the impact of business ethics on the global economy has been extensively studied (DeGeorge, 1993; Vogel, 1992), there is a rising focus on international consumer ethics Consumers play a crucial role in business dynamics (Vitell and Muncy, 1992), making their ethical decision-making increasingly significant (Fullerton et al., 1996; Muncy and Vitell, 1992).
However, consumer ethics in Asian countries have been addressed less frequently
Research on consumer ethics has predominantly focused on the United States and other industrialized nations, while studies in Asian markets, particularly Indonesia, remain limited (Ang et al., 2001; Chan et al., 1998; Erffmeyer et al., 1999; Rawwas, 2001; Rawwas et al., 1998; Thong and Yap, 1998) Notably, a few ethical studies have targeted Indonesian consumers (Rawwas, 2001; Sawono and Armstrong, 2001; Wu, 2001) Vitell (2003) emphasized the need for more cross-cultural research to explore ethical beliefs in greater detail and cultural context, highlighting the importance of understanding the universality or variability of consumer ethics across different cultures.
Located on the eastern tip of the Indo-China peninsula in south-east Asia, Vietnam is one of the larger and more densely populated countries in the region With a significant population growth, the country's estimated population in 2014 was approximately 92.5 million, marking an increase from the 2012 estimate of 91.5 million, solidifying its position as a prominent nation in the area.
Vietnam ranks as the 14th most populous country globally and the 46th in terms of population density It is also recognized for its remarkable ethnic diversity, with the Vietnamese government officially acknowledging 54 distinct ethnic groups within its borders.
The prolonged Vietnam War significantly influenced the standard of living in Vietnam, shaping the ethical behavior of Vietnamese consumers in their daily practices.
Between 2011 and 2013, the global rate of unlicensed PC software installations increased slightly from 42% to 43% The commercial value of these unlicensed installations decreased marginally to $62.7 billion, with emerging economies still representing the majority of this value.
Vietnam has an unlicensed PC software installation rate of 81%, significantly higher than the Asia-Pacific average of 62%, according to a 2014 Global Study On April 9, 2015, the Department of Market Management, part of the Ministry of Industry and Trade, took steps to address this issue.
The Cooperative Vereniging SNB–REACT U.A (React) has partnered with Vietnam to combat counterfeit goods and uphold intellectual property rights through a signed memorandum of understanding (MoU) According to Do Thanh Lam, Vice Director of the Department, over 100,000 legal violations have been addressed by market-management forces nationwide, with more than 10,000 cases specifically related to counterfeit goods and intellectual property infringement Despite these efforts, challenges remain in the fight against counterfeit products, emphasizing the need for enhanced collaboration among all sectors and legal enforcement agencies.
The global shift of manufacturing to countries with weak intellectual property protections has significantly fueled the rise of counterfeiting Additionally, the internet and e-commerce platforms like eBay have facilitated the distribution of counterfeit goods In Vietnam, many consumers with limited disposable incomes often opt for cheaper, lower-quality products, unknowingly jeopardizing the nation's potential for a brighter future.
The World Health Organization estimates that 60% of counterfeit medicine cases occur in developing countries, highlighting a significant global health issue Many people mistakenly believe that purchasing fake medications is a harmless way to save money, assuming they know what they are buying However, this perception is misleading, as the consequences of counterfeit drugs can be severe and detrimental to health, making it crucial to recognize the serious implications of this crime.
In 2014, law enforcement agencies identified and prosecuted 17,396 cases of counterfeit product trading, seizing fake goods valued at approximately VND 36 billion This marked a year-on-year increase of 24.2% in the number of cases and 12.1% in value However, the true extent and economic impact of counterfeit products remain uncertain.
Vietnam's law enforcement struggles to combat sophisticated piracy due to a lack of advanced technology Addressing this complex issue requires a collaborative effort involving relevant authorities, businesses, and consumers to effectively tackle counterfeiting.
Consumers often promote unethical practices, influenced by their lax ethical standards In many ASEAN countries, the relatively low economic status limits consumers' ability to afford authorized products, which tend to be more expensive (Kusumadara, 2010).
The ethical perspectives of Vietnamese consumers present contrasting viewpoints on right and wrong, warranting deeper examination to understand the key factors influencing consumer behavior Gaining insights into these ethical considerations can aid firms in developing strategies to mitigate the negative effects of counterfeiting on their operations in Vietnam Additionally, this understanding can inform government policies aimed at raising awareness and combating illegal activities, particularly unethical consumer practices.
Research gap
While research in marketing ethics often focuses on consumers' ethical perceptions of business and marketing practices, there is a notable lack of studies examining consumers' views on their own ethical behaviors This gap highlights the need for a deeper understanding of how consumers perceive their own practices within the marketplace.
The marketing ethics literature reveals a significant gap regarding the ethical beliefs and attitudes of consumers towards potentially unethical practices (1991) Recent research by Rao and Al-Wugayan (2005) highlights a growing interest in consumer ethics, noting the emergence of cross-cultural studies However, they emphasize that the number of such studies remains inadequate given the diversity of global cultures, with many focusing narrowly on specific geographic regions or even single countries (Al-Khatib et al., 2002; Polonsky et al., 2001; Al-Khatib et al., 1995; Chan et al., 1998; Erffmeyer et al., 1999; Van Kenhove et al., 2001).
Despite the existence of cross-cultural studies on consumer ethics (Al-Khatib et al., 1997; Rawwas, 2001; Rawwas et al., 1995), Vietnam has been notably absent from this research As Vietnam continues to integrate into the global economy, it presents a unique opportunity for exploration There is an urgent need to investigate the ethical judgments of consumers in this emerging market to address the existing research gap in cross-cultural consumer ethics.
Research objectives
Consumers play a crucial role in the marketing process, and neglecting their perspectives in ethics research can hinder our understanding of ethical behavior among all participants in exchanges Furthermore, while marketing literature has consistently urged the integration of personality and attitudinal factors into ethical research, few studies have explored the impact of traits such as self-monitoring, Machiavellianism, and opportunism on consumer ethics.
This research highlights the importance of exploring the interplay between various factors influencing consumer behavior, particularly in the context of ethical decision-making It emphasizes the need for a systematic investigation of the relationships between personality traits, such as Machiavellianism and opportunism, and attitudinal factors like self-monitoring By focusing on consumers' ethical perceptions of potentially unethical practices in Vietnam, a rapidly developing economic region, this study aims to enhance understanding of the variables that significantly impact consumer performance in the marketplace, thus advancing existing marketing models.
The overall objective of this study is to examine some factors that are associated with consumers’ ethical beliefs Specifically, it investigates:
The relationship between self-monitoring and consumers’ ethics
The relationship between machiavelianism and consumers’ ethics
The relationship between oppotunism and consumers’ ethics.
Research scope
Research on business ethics predominantly centers around the marketing exchange process and the key participants involved, as highlighted by various studies conducted by Ferrell and Gresham (1985), Hunt and Vitell (1986), Ferrell et al (1989), Hunt and Vitell (1992), and Chonko and Hunt.
The marketing exchange process is a critical point where many ethical issues in business emerge, as highlighted by various scholars (Baumhart, 1961; Brenner and Molander, 1977; Vitell and Festervand, 1987) While there is a significant amount of literature on marketing ethics, research focusing on ethical concerns in developing regions remains limited This gap underscores the necessity to explore the ethical judgments of consumers in these areas, particularly in Ho Chi Minh City and Binh Duong City, Vietnam, where respondents aged fifteen and older will provide valuable insights into the factors influencing these judgments.
Research contributions
This research enhances existing literature on consumer ethics by offering valuable insights into how consumers develop their ethical beliefs and orientations To effectively meet the culturally ingrained needs of their target audience, global marketers must first grasp the diverse habits, customs, and ethical differences of consumers in foreign markets (Kramer and Herbig, 1994).
Multinational firms often encounter significant challenges in effectively marketing their products and engaging with customers in emerging global markets due to differing cultural and ethical values compared to their home countries These firms must continuously navigate the complexities of culturally-driven consumer responses to their marketing strategies As a result, cultural and ethical differences greatly influence the structure, messaging, and outcomes of marketing communications.
As Kerlin (1997) noted, "like politics, all ethics are local," highlighting the importance of cultural context in ethical considerations Rawwas (2001) emphasizes that international marketers must acknowledge the diverse pathways through which different cultures interpret ethicality A thorough understanding of environmental factors is crucial, as it necessitates the implementation of tailored strategies for engaging with consumers from various cultural backgrounds By leveraging these insights, marketing practitioners can enhance their comprehension of international consumer ethics, enabling them to devise effective strategies that resonate with diverse audiences.
Minister of Industry and Trade Vu Huy Hoang emphasized the significant impact of counterfeiting on Vietnam's product competitiveness and foreign investment appeal He highlighted the necessity for government awareness through relevant studies to enhance law enforcement, ensuring that the comparative advantages of foreign investors are upheld and safeguarded.
Understanding firm-level strategies to mitigate the negative effects of counterfeiting on operations in Vietnam can enhance insights into government policies aimed at raising awareness and combating illegal activities, particularly unethical consumer practices.
Therefore, the expected contribution of this study is to close this gap in the literature
In this framework, the present study will give special emphasis to examine the main and interaction effects of those selected personality factors on consumers’ ethical attitudes.
Research structure
This thesis is organized as follows:
- Chapter 1 presents the research background, research gap, research questions and objectives, research contribution, and research structure
- Chapter 2 introduces research model and its hypotheses as well as its literature review
- Chapter 3 illustrates the methodology conducted in this paper
- Chapter 4 presents research results is based on data collected
- Chapter 5 summarizes the research results, provide the findings and recommendations
LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENTS
Theoretical background
Ethics is defined as the ‘‘inquiry into the nature and grounds of morality where the term morality is taken to mean moral judgments, standards, and rules of conduct’’ (Taylor,
Consumer ethics encompasses the moral principles that guide individuals in their purchasing behaviors, including the rightness or wrongness of their actions in consumer situations According to Dodge et al (1996), this ethical framework helps buyers evaluate their decisions, while Muncy and Vitell (1992) emphasize its role in guiding behavior throughout the acquisition, use, and disposal of goods and services.
Research on consumer ethics has explored various aspects, including the establishment of normative guidelines through a consumer code of ethics (Stamfl, 1979), strategies to address consumer abuse (Fullerton et al., 1996; Schubert, 1979), and consumer perceptions regarding the ethicality of different behaviors (Vitell and Muncy, 1992; Muncy and Vitell, 1992; Kallis et al., 1986; Moschis and Powell, 1986) Additionally, studies have examined the ethical beliefs of elderly consumers (Vitell et al., 1991) and the implications of consumer ethics in cross-cultural contexts (Rawwas et al.).
In the context of evolving consumer materialism, significant marketing ethics theories have emerged, such as those proposed by Ferrell et al (1989) and Hunt and Vitell (1986, 1992) As globalization progresses, understanding the cultural influences on consumer ethics becomes increasingly vital However, marketers have yet to fully explore the complex dynamics that shape consumer ethics in this global landscape.
Since the early 1980s, ethical concerns in business have been a significant area of study, highlighting the crucial role of consumers as key participants in the marketplace (Vitell and Muncy, 1992) Prior to 1990, research on consumer ethics was already underway, with notable contributions from DePaulo (1986) and Moschis and Churchill.
Since 1990, there has been a significant increase in literature focusing on consumer attitudes toward unethical practices, as highlighted by Vitell (2003) Notably, earlier studies by Moschis and Powell (1986) and Wilkes (1978) laid the groundwork for this research area, which has gained considerable attention among scholars.
Numerous studies have explored consumer perceptions of unethical behavior, highlighting significant contributions from researchers such as Al-Khatib et al (1997), Muncy and Vitell (1992), and Vitell et al (1991) These investigations have provided valuable insights into how consumers view unethical actions, with notable findings from Rallapalli et al (1994) and Rawwas et al (1994, 1998), as well as Strutton et al (1994).
Since 1992, numerous empirical studies have utilized the consumer ethics scale developed by Muncy and Vitell, as evidenced by research conducted by Fullerton et al (1996), Higgs-Kleyn (1998), Muncy and Eastman (1998), Polonsky et al (2001), Rawwas (1996, 2001), and Swaidan et al (2003).
According to Vitell (2003), three primary theoretical models explain individual ethical decision-making: those by Ferrell and Gresham (1985), Hunt and Vitell (1986, 1993), and Trevino (1986) Among these, the Hunt–Vitell model is particularly relevant for understanding consumer ethical behavior, as it highlights an individual's moral philosophy or ethical ideology as the crucial factor influencing variations in ethical judgments and actions.
The ethical evaluation process, as outlined by Hunt and Vitell (2006), is shaped by various background factors, including cultural, professional, industry, and organizational environments, along with individual personal characteristics While the Hunt–Vitell model identifies multiple distinct factors, only personal characteristics and cultural environment are pertinent to consumer ethics (Vitell, 2003).
The Vitell model, along with other ethical decision-making frameworks, acknowledges the influence of both individual and situational variables For example, Ferrell and Gresham (1985) introduce a contingency framework that highlights the diverse factors involved in the ethical decision-making process.
The Hunt–Vitell model identifies several personal factors that influence ethical judgments, including an individual's moral development level, as outlined by Kohlberg (1981), and various personality traits According to Vitell (2003), characteristics such as value consciousness, Machiavellianism, a high propensity for risk-taking, a strong need for closure, as well as age and gender, have been examined as independent variables affecting ethical intentions and decisions.
(2003) suggests that ‘‘these as well as other personality variables should be included insubsequent research studies.’’
This study aims to explore the influence of self-monitoring, Machiavellianism, and opportunism on consumer ethics While existing research has examined the link between Machiavellianism and consumer ethics, such as the works of Chen et al (2008) and Kavak et al (2003), the roles of self-monitoring and opportunism in this context have largely been overlooked.
While extensive research has been conducted on marketplace ethics, much of it has predominantly focused on sellers, overlooking the role of consumers Rao and Al-Wugahan (2005) highlight that marketing involves an exchange between buyers and sellers, where unethical behaviors can arise from both sides Ignoring consumer perspectives leads to an incomplete understanding of this exchange and may result in ineffective marketing strategies (Swaidan et al., 2004; Vitell, 2003) Consequently, consumer ethics has gained prominence as a critical area of research in the past decade (Steenhaut and Kenhove, 2006).
Consumer ethics refers to the moral principles and standards that influence individual or group behavior in the selection, purchase, use, or sale of goods and services Research in this field has focused on understanding consumers' ethical decision-making processes For instance, Davis (1979) found that individuals are more inclined to assert their consumer rights than to accept the responsibilities that accompany those rights Additionally, De Paulo (1986) explored students' perceptions of the ethical implications of various behaviors.
In various scenarios, the focus can shift between the behaviors of sellers and buyers, highlighting the ethical dilemmas faced by both parties While some behaviors appear conceptually similar, they diverge based on whether the unethical actions are taken by the buyer or the seller during negotiations, such as a buyer misleading the seller or vice versa.
Consistent with Davis (1979), consumers are more critical of sellers who engage in potentially unethical behavior than they were of buyers who engage in the same behavior
Hypotheses development
actively benefiting from illegal actions
passively benefiting at the expense of the seller
actively benefiting from questionable but legal actions
‘no harm, no foul’ actions
The research hypotheses for this study, therefore, are as follows:
Self-monitoring and Consumers’ Ethics
Self-monitoring is negatively related to beliefs regarding actively benefiting from illegal actions
Self-monitoring is negatively related to beliefs regarding passively benefiting at the expense of the seller
Self-monitoring is negatively related to beliefs regarding actively benefiting from questionable but legal actions (deceptive practices)
Self-monitoring is negatively related to beliefs regarding ‘no harm, no foul’ actions
Machiavellianism is positively related to beliefs regarding actively benefiting from illegal actions
Machiavellianism is positively related to beliefs regarding passively benefiting at the expense of the seller
Machiavellianism is positively related to beliefs regarding actively benefiting from questionable but legal actions (deceptive practices)
Machiavellianism is positively related to beliefs regarding ‘no harm, no foul’ actions
Opportunism is positively related to beliefs regarding actively benefiting from illegal actions Opportunism is positively related to beliefs regarding passively benefiting at the expense of the seller
Opportunism is positively related to beliefs regarding actively benefiting from questionable but legal actions (deceptive practices)
Opportunism is positively related to beliefs regarding ‘no harm, no foul’ actions.
Summary
This chapter defines the dependent and independent variables while reviewing relevant literature on the research topic It aims to clarify the significance of the research problem and establish a theoretical framework for the study The subsequent chapter will provide a justification for the chosen research methodology and outline the methods employed.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Process
This study is conducted as given in the chart below
Measurement scales
In a comprehensive review of consumer behavior research since 1990, Vitell (2003) highlights significant studies, particularly those by Muncy and Vitell (1992) and Vitell and Muncy (1992), which pioneered consumer ethics research These authors developed a consumer ethics scale to evaluate the degree of ethical considerations among consumers.
Assessment of measurement (Cronbach alpha, EFA)
Testing of hypotheses (Standard multiple regression)
A literature review highlights that consumers' ethical beliefs significantly influence their behaviors, categorizing them into four dimensions These dimensions include actively benefiting from illegal activities, such as altering price tags in retail settings; passively benefiting, exemplified by receiving excess change without reporting it; and actively benefiting from deceptive practices, like using expired coupons for purchases Understanding these dimensions is crucial for addressing ethical consumer behavior.
(4) no harm/no foul (e.g., using computer software or games that you did not buy) (Vitell and Muncy, 1992)
Research indicates that consumer actions can be categorized into four dimensions based on their legality and ethical perception The first dimension involves actions initiated by consumers who view these actions as illegal In the second dimension, consumers passively benefit from sellers' mistakes The third dimension also features consumer-initiated actions, but these are not seen as illegal, though they raise moral concerns Interestingly, consumers perceive it as more unethical to actively benefit from illegal activities compared to passive benefits Lastly, the fourth dimension includes actions, primarily related to copying intellectual property like software and movies, which most consumers do not consider unethical at all.
Table 3.1 Scales of Consumer Ethics
Actively benefiting from an illegal activity
1 Returning damaged merchandise when the damage is your own fault
2 Changing price tags on merchandise in a retail store
3 Reporting a lost item as “stolen” to an insurance company in order to collect the money
4 Using a long distance access code that does not belong to you
5 Drinking a can of soda in a supermarket without paying for it
6 Giving misleading price information to a clerk for a nonpriced item
1 Saying nothing when the waitress miscalculates the bill in your favor
2 Getting too much change and not saying anything
3 Not informing the cashier about an unscanned item placed in the grocery bag
4 Getting more food than you paid for at a fast-food restaurant and not informing the cashier
5 Moving into a new residence and using a preexisting cable service that has not been purchased
6 Lying about a child’s age in order to get a lower price
Actively benefiting from a questionable action
1 Using an expired coupon for merchandise
2 Observing someone shoplifting and ignoring it
3 Breaking a bottle of salad dressing in a supermarket and doing nothing about it
4 Stretching the truth on an income tax return
5 Not telling the truth when negotiating the price of a new automobile
6 Using coupon for merchandise that you did not buy
7 Returning merchandise to a store by claiming that it was a gift when it was not
1 Returning merchandise after trying it and not liking it
2 Tasting grapes in a supermarket and not buying any
3 Spending over an hour trying on different clothes and not purchasing any
4 Taking an ashtray or other “souvenir” from a hotel or restaurant
5 Taping a movie off the television
6 Recording an album instead of buying it
7 Using computer software or games that you did not buy
Self-monitoring was assessed by using a widely utilized measure: Snyder and
The 18-item Self-Monitoring Scale, derived from Gangestad’s original 25-item version, includes true/false questions designed to measure self-monitoring traits As established by Snyder (1974), the scale demonstrates internal consistency and stability, while showing no correlation with related concepts This study utilized the revised scale, which features ten reverse statements, such as "I’m not always the person I appear to be" and "I would probably make a good actor." Scoring is oriented towards high self-monitoring, where participants earn points for responses indicating high self-monitoring tendencies Specifically, eight items score a 'True' response as high self-monitoring, while ten items score a 'False' response as high self-monitoring (Ratner and Kahn, 2002).
Table 3.2 Scales of Self-monitoring
1 I find it difficult to imitate the behavior of other people
2 At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like
3 I can only argue for ideas which I already believe
4 I can make important speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information
5 I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people
6 I would probably make a good actor
7 In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention (reverse)
8 In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons
9 I am not particularly good at making other people like me (reverse)
10 I am not always the person I appear to be
11 I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor
12 I have considered being an entertainer
13 I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting (reverse)
14 I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations
15 At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going (reverse)
16 I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should
17 I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with straight face (if for a right end)
18 I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them
Machiavellianism was assessed using the Mach IV scale, created by Christie and Geis in 1970 This scale consists of 20 items, with half framed to reflect Machiavellian traits and the other half countering those traits Participants rated their level of agreement or disagreement with each item on a seven-point scale.
Likert scale where a 7 indicated strong agreement
1 Never tell anyone the real reason why you did something unless it is useful to do so
2 The best way to handle people is to tell them what they want to hear
3 One should take action only when sure it is morally right
4 Most people are basically good and kind
5 It is safest to assume that all people have a vicious streak and it will come out when given the chance
6 Honesty is the best policy in all cases
7 There is no excuse for lying to someone else
8 Generally speaking, people won't work hard unless they're forced to do so
9 All in all, it is better to be humble and honest than to be important and dishonest
10 When you ask someone to do something for you, it is better to give the real reasons for wanting it to than give reasons which carry more weight
11 People who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral lives
12 Anyone who completely trusts others is asking for big trouble
13 The biggest difference between criminals and others is that the criminals are stupid enough to get caught
15 It is wise to flatter important people
16 It is possible to be good in all respects
17 It is hard to get ahead without cutting corners
18 Barnum was wrong when he said that there's a sucker born every minute
19 People suffering from incurable diseases should have the choice of being put painlessly to death
20 Most people forget more easily the death of their father than the loss of their property
Opportunism was assessed through eight specific indicators, including the concealment of information, compliance only during audits, exaggeration of challenges, making empty promises, falsifying information, overstating claims, neglecting obligations, and performing roles in a superficial manner Participants rated their level of agreement with these statements on a seven-point scale, from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree," as established by Dwyer and Oh (1987, 1989).
1 At times, I may have to overstate my difficulties in order to get others attention
2 Sometimes data falsification is acceptable
3 With minor injury, people tend to exaggerated claims for bigger compensation
4 It is commonly seen that the insurer often neglected obligations to the claimant
5 In the absent of the boss, the employee shows perfunctory role performance
6 It is acceptable with masking information to the self-benefit
7 In developing countries, the company shows compliance only in the face of audit
8 When love gone, empty promises come with love
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research aims to investigate the factors influencing consumers' ethical beliefs and their purchasing decisions As noted by Vishnevsky and Beanlands (2004), qualitative research includes various methods within the naturalistic paradigm, each with distinct research design approaches Three common qualitative designs are ethnography, phenomenology, and grounded theory, which provide valuable insights into consumer behavior and ethical considerations (Polit, Beck, and Hungler, 2001, as cited in Vishnevsky and Beanlands, 2004).
Phenomenology relies heavily on in-depth discussions between the researcher and the informant, making it an ideal approach for this study The subsequent section will detail the sampling methods, data collection processes, and the outcomes of the in-depth interviews conducted.
Seven consumer representatives from various social classes were selected for the study, with a focus on ethical indicators such as marital status and parenthood Each participant, residing in Ho Chi Minh City, will be examined individually to gather insights into their perspectives and experiences.
Before data collection, in-depth interviews are conducted to refine and enhance the draft questionnaire This process consists of three steps: initially, participants respond to questions about specific scenarios, such as “Drinking a can of soda in a supermarket without paying for it” and “Lying about a child’s age to obtain a lower price.” Next, participants review a detailed questionnaire that examines various factors Finally, the researcher documents the outcomes of the in-depth interviews to inform the official questionnaire.
In measurement scales of consumers’ ethics:
The item of “Stretching the truth on an income tax return” and the item of
“Not telling the truth when negotiating the price of a new automobile.” had both not suitable to Vietnam context So, these two items was eliminated
The behaviors of "spending over an hour trying on different clothes without making a purchase" and "returning merchandise after trying it and not liking it" convey similar sentiments As a result, the former behavior was deemed redundant and subsequently discounted.
The official English questionnaire has been translated into Vietnamese and then back-translated to ensure its validity It consists of two sections, with the first section focusing on demographic information such as gender, age, marital status, education level, monthly income, family size, and occupation of the respondents.
Such information is used to classify and compare groups of respondents The second section explores the determinants affecting to the consumers’ ethics
Questionnaires are distributed to respondents either directly or via social networks, providing a link to an online Google Drive survey Each questionnaire includes a cover letter detailing the study's purpose, informed consent, confidentiality procedures, and clear instructions for completion Hard copy responses are manually entered, while online submissions are converted into an SPSS database for analysis All items are rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Sampling method
This study utilized a questionnaire survey to explore the relationships among self-monitoring, Machiavellianism, opportunism, and consumers' ethical beliefs, involving 69 variables—43 independent and 26 dependent Conducted in Ho Chi Minh and Binh Duong cities, the research employed convenience sampling to gather data, leveraging quantitative methods for empirical analysis.
According to Haire et al (2010), the minimum sample size for effective statistical analysis should be at least five times the number of variables involved, with a total sample size not falling below 100 Therefore, the sample size must satisfy the conditions n > 0 and n ≥ 5k, where k represents the number of variables.
The model in this study consisted four factors with sixty-two variables, thus, the necessary sample size should be: 69*545 observations
In Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), it is generally recommended to have a minimum sample size that is at least five times the number of variables being analyzed, with a total exceeding 100 observations (Hair et al., 2010) For this research, the minimum required sample size for EFA is calculated to be 345 observations.
Data analysis methods
The accepted questionnaires were thoroughly reviewed for completeness, coded, and the raw data was entered into IBM SPSS Statistics version 22 To assess the reliability and validity of the measurement scales, Cronbach’s alpha and exploratory factor analysis were employed Subsequently, multiple regression analysis was conducted to interpret the results from both managerial and statistical perspectives, as outlined by Hair et al (2010).
Cronbach’s alpha is a criterion for evaluating instruments or scales, as noted by Connely (2011, p 45) While it indicates whether items are correlated, it does not confirm that they accurately measure the intended attribute Thus, it is essential to assess scales based on both their content and construct validity.
Table 3.5 Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient (adapted from George and
Cronbach’s alpha Internal consistency α ≥ 0.9 Excellent
Norris and Lecavalier (2010) suggest that Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) operates on a testable model, which can be assessed for its alignment with the hypothesized population model through fit indices The primary aim of EFA is to uncover the latent constructs that underlie a collection of observable variables.
Hair et al (1998, cited in Lee and Hooley, 2005, p 376) claimed that with samples of
When conducting factor analysis, researchers should ensure a sample size of at least 350 to consider a factor loading significant if it exceeds 0.3 For smaller samples of around 200, a factor loading of 0.4 or higher is deemed significant Additionally, only factors with an eigenvalue of 1 or greater should be taken into account, while those with an eigenvalue below 1 are disregarded (Kim and Mueller, 1978, cited in Lee and Hooley).
Based on these studies, any factors with eigenvalue greater than 1 will be retained In addition, any factor loadings of 0.3 or higher on a factor are counted
Hair et al (2010) highlighted the discrepancy between actual and predicted values of the dependent variable, indicating that random errors, known as residuals (ε or e), arise during sample data predictions This understanding forms the basis for the multiple regression formula.
Y = a + β1X1 + β2X2 + … + βnXn + ε Where in: Y: is the dependent variable a: is constant β: is called beta weight, standardized regression coefficient, or beta coefficient
X: is the predictor entered into the equation in a single step ε: is the residual
Meyers, Gamst, and Guarino (2006) emphasized the significance of R2 in measuring the variance of the dependent variable explained by a regression model A higher R2 value indicates a stronger explanatory power of the regression equation (Hair et al., 2010).
Summary
This chapter outlines the research methodology employed in the study, detailing the various analyses pertinent to scientific research It highlights the progressive decisions made regarding the research design and process, specifying that the study was conducted using a survey Additionally, the design and administration of the questionnaire are discussed, along with the outcomes of the pre-testing phase Finally, the analysis and results derived from the survey are presented.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Respondents’ demographic
According to Table 4.1, the majority of respondents were under 30 years old, comprising 50% of the sample Female respondents accounted for 61%, while males made up 39% Additionally, 75% of participants were undergraduates, and 42% were employed This demographic trend reflects the "golden population structure" of Vietnam, characterized by a higher number of working individuals compared to dependents.
Young consumers are a pivotal demographic in the Vietnamese market, with a median age of 30 years and over 25 million individuals aged 15-29, accounting for nearly 28% of the total population This growing segment plays an increasingly important role in family decision-making and exhibits rising purchasing power Many young consumers are actively involved in shopping for both their personal needs and those of their families, reflecting significant shifts in consumption patterns among teenagers and young professionals.
Vietnam are the target audience of many international brands Therefore, young consumers are also the main focus of this study
Variables Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Reliability Analysis
To ensure the reliability of the instrument developed for this research, Cronbach’s
Cronbach's Alpha is a crucial measure for assessing the internal consistency of scales, with a recommended value of 0.6 or higher to ensure reliability (Nunnally & Bernstein, as cited in Nguyen, 2011) This test aids in eliminating unstandardized scale items, enhancing the overall quality of the measurement tool Additionally, the Corrected Item-Total Correlation is significant, as an item is considered a valuable component of the scale if its correlation with the total of other items exceeds 0.3 (Nunnally & Bernstein, as cited in Nguyen, 2011).
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if Item Deleted
Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
The results presented in Table 4.2 demonstrate that most tested item scales exhibit significantly high or very high internal reliability, particularly within the four dimensions of the Consumer Ethics Scale: actively benefiting from an illegal activity (ABIA), passively benefiting at the expense of others (PBEO), actively benefiting from a questionable action (ABQA), and the principle of no harm, no foul (NHNF) Additionally, Self-Monitoring, Machiavellianism, and Opportunism also show strong average values.
The study reported a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.879, indicating strong internal consistency While the values for PBEO and NHNF were slightly lower than other tested items, they still exceeded the minimum acceptance criteria Additionally, the Corrected Item-Total correlation revealed significant values for all measurement items, further supporting the reliability of the assessment.
All seven measurement scales demonstrated reliability in assessing the research concepts, with Cronbach’s Alpha values exceeding 0.6 Additionally, the Corrected Item-Total correlations for all scale items were above the acceptable threshold of 0.3, confirming their reliability Consequently, these measurements were utilized to develop the primary survey aimed at testing the research hypothesis.
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed to validate the construct, focusing on the relationships among interval variables (Leech et al., 2005) In this study, EFA utilized Varimax rotation to eliminate items with low loadings on the construct while retaining those with Eigenvalues greater than 1.0 A strict criterion was applied, removing factors with loadings below 0.5 to ensure the integrity of the analysis.
The KMO value of 0.964, exceeding the 0.7 threshold (Leech et al., 2005), indicates a sufficient number of items for measuring each construct Additionally, Bartlett’s test yielded significant values below 0.05, confirming a high correlation among the variables, which supports the appropriateness of conducting factor analysis Overall, the diagnostic tests affirm the suitability of the data for factor analysis.
Table 4.3 KMO and Bartlett's Test of Independent Variables
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .964 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx Chi-Square 13793.840 df 1035
The three initial factors collectively explained 62.097 percent of the variance, indicating that over half of the variance can be attributed to these factors.
The Rotated Component Matrix (refer to Table 4.4) displays the factor loadings for items after rotation, adhering to the acceptable standard of loadings greater than 0.5 A total of 46 items representing three independent variables were successfully grouped into three distinct components, each defined by high loadings Furthermore, the items within the same construct were consolidated into a single component with strong loadings, demonstrating no correlation with other components This indicates that the items for each construct were effectively conceptualized.
Table 4.4 Rotated Component Matrix a for Independent Variables
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization a a Rotation converged in 5 iterations
The Consumer Ethics Scale comprises four dimensions: actively benefiting from illegal activity (ABIA), passively benefiting at the expense of others (PBEO), actively benefiting from questionable actions (ABQA), and the notion of no harm, no foul (NHNF) As indicated in Table 4.5, the KMO values for these dimensions exceeded the acceptable threshold of 0.7, confirming sufficient items to evaluate each construct Additionally, the significant results from Bartlett’s test demonstrate a strong correlation among the variables.
Table 4.5 Summary of EFA for dependent variables
Dimension Variable KMO Sig Component
The 23 dependent variable items were categorized into four distinct dimensions, each consolidated into a single component as illustrated in Table 4.5 This organization demonstrates that the items within each construct are clearly defined and effectively conceptualized.
Correlation testing is utilized to examine the relationships between independent and dependent variables, as well as among independent variables themselves The findings from correlation analysis serve as a foundation for progressing to regression analysis.
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
According to the Correlations matrix, Pearson correlation between self-monitoring, Machiavellianism, opportunism and consumers’ ethics is relatively (corresponding 0.193,
0.196, and 0.346 respectively) Additionally, all variables have significant value less than
0.05 This matrix proved that there would be a low possibility of multicollinearity
Nevertheless, the Correlation matrix failed in testing multicolinearity sometimes while variance inflation factor (VIF) was quite strict indicator in examining such problem
Therefore, it needed to consider more the VIF value in the table of Coefficients (see Table 4.7) for withdrawing the best conclusion prior running multiple regression analysis
According to Coefficients table in Table 4.7 above, all the VIF value were below 5 This indicated that there was no multicollinearity among independent variables
Multiple regressions was employed to test hypotheses in which Self-monitoring,
In this study, Machiavellianism and Opportunism are treated as independent variables, while consumer ethical beliefs—encompassing four dimensions: actively benefiting from illegal actions, passively benefiting at the expense of others, actively benefiting from questionable actions, and the concept of "no harm, no foul"—are regarded as the dependent variable Prior to performing multiple regression analysis, it is essential for these variables to meet specific critical assumptions.
Leech at al (2005) mentioned three main assumptions:
Assumption 1: The linear relationship between independent variables and dependent variable occurred
Assumption 2: The residual was distributed normally
Assumption 3: No multicollinerity among independent variables
Assumption 1 In order to examine Assumption 1, the shape of overall regression plot could be used If overall regression plot made a curvilinear shape, it indicated that predictors did not linear relate to dependent variable With the plot shown in Appendix D, this assumption was satisfactory
Assumption 2 This assumption could be confirmed by the residual scatterplot chart
If the dots in chart were scattered, it meant that the data met the assumption of residuals being normally distributed In this research, this assumption was confirmed (Appendix D)
Assumption 3 Multicollinearity assumption was vital to be satisfied before running multiple regression This problem can lead to misleading or impact negatively to the significance of data analysis results Multicollinearity appeared in case there were high intercorrelations among some composite of the independent variables (Leech et al.,
In 2005, variance inflation factors (VIF) were utilized to identify multicollinearity in statistical analysis VIF measures the extent to which the variance of a variable is increased due to collinearity with other variables A VIF value of 5 or higher indicates significant collinearity concerns for the associated variable.
Moreover, VIF >10 indicates high collinearity variables (Leech et al., 2005)
In summary, the data met all the required assumptions Therefore, all predictors were qualified enough for multiple regression analysis
Results of multiple regression analysis
This research employed the enter method for multiple regression analysis, allowing all three predictors to be input simultaneously to assess their influence on the dependent variable The findings are summarized in Table 4.8, which presents the model summary for the dependent variable ABIA.
Std Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 241 a 058 050 8.85770 1.566 a Predictors: (Constant), OPPO, MACHIA, SELFMON b Dependent Variable: ABIA
The first model analyzed consumer activities related to "actively benefiting from illegal action" (ABIA), revealing a multiple correlation coefficient (R) of 0.241 The variables of Self-Monitoring, Machiavellianism, and Opportunism accounted for 5.8% of the variance in the dependent variable, with an R² of 0.058.
Table 4.9 Coefficients a for Dependent Variable: ABIA
Self-monitoring is negatively associated with the belief in benefiting from illegal actions, as indicated by a Beta value of -0.224 and a significance level of 0.001, supporting hypothesis H1a Research by Bahtışen Kavak et al (2009) suggests that individuals with high self-monitoring exhibit stronger ethical attitudes across all dimensions of consumer ethics This aligns with Ross and Robertson's (2003) assertion that high self-monitors derive behavioral cues from their social surroundings Additionally, findings from Uddin and Gillett (2002) reveal that low self-monitors are more susceptible to the influences of others' attitudes.
(subjective norms) than high self-monitors when forming intentions to act in an unethical manner
Machiavellianism does not show a positive correlation with beliefs about benefiting from illegal actions, as indicated by a Beta coefficient of -0.051 and a p-value greater than 0.05, which means the hypothesis was not supported by the data Cultural context plays a crucial role in shaping ethical behavior, influencing what is deemed ethical or unethical There is a consensus that a nation's culture significantly impacts its citizens' ethical conduct, and deviations from societal norms can provoke surprise and anger, potentially resulting in sanctions against offenders This is encapsulated in the Vietnamese proverb: “After death, a tiger leaves behind his skin, a man leaves his reputation.”
Summary
This chapter reiterates the thesis objective introduced earlier, highlighting the relationship between the research findings and practical applications It proposes several strategies for managerial implications while also addressing key limitations that should be acknowledged Additionally, it recommends areas for future research to build on these findings.
Therefore, this chapter consists of three parts: conclusion, managerial implications, and limitation of study and future research
The purpose of this research is to understand the attitudinal ethic of Vietnamese consumers by examining the literature and determining antecedents of consumers’ ethics
The study aimed to explore the relationship between various factors and consumer ethics, seeking to identify which factors have the most significant influence Utilizing a scale comprising 69 variables related to self-monitoring, Machiavellianism, opportunism, and consumer ethics, the research yielded several key conclusions.
Firstly, the study contributes to our understanding of consumers’ ethics and its antecedent by examining their variables and their relationships
Secondly, the relationship between consumers’ ethics and its antecedents are tested And it gives opportunity to managers to choose an appropriate strategy for their organizations
Thirdly, the present study relies on the sample of actual consumers who comes from different social classes
The study concludes that self-monitoring has a contradictory effect on consumer ethics, with perceived opportunism being the most significant factor influencing these ethics Therefore, managers should prioritize addressing perceived opportunism to effectively enhance consumer ethics.
With respect to the self-monitoring variable, results indicate that self-monitoring
Vietnamese individuals exhibit low ethical attitudes across various dimensions of consumer ethics, with the notable exception of "actively benefiting from an illegal activity." This phenomenon can be attributed to the collectivist culture in Vietnam, where adherence to social rules and norms is often contingent upon the legality of a situation The findings particularly emphasize the dimension of "actively benefiting from an illegal activity," aligning with the conclusions of Uddin and Gillett (2002), which suggest a correlation with low self-regard in ethical decision-making.
