INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Research background
Human resources are the most critical asset for an organization's success, surpassing reputation, customers, technology, and physical resources A business cannot thrive without skilled manpower, making talent retention a significant challenge that organizations must address Berry (1997) emphasizes that enhancing job satisfaction is vital for organizational success, while Robbins & Judge (2007) found that effective organizations tend to have more satisfied employees Furthermore, satisfied employees are generally more productive Therefore, improving employee satisfaction is essential for an organization to achieve success.
Leadership has been a fundamental practice for thousands of years, with over 50 years of research dedicated to understanding its impact within organizations (Bass, 1990) Effective leaders are crucial for fostering teamwork, enhancing morale, and driving performance, while ineffective leadership can lead to job dissatisfaction, reduced commitment, and poor performance (Avolio & Bass, 2002; Bass, 1998, 1999; Collins, 2001a, 2001b; Day, Zaccaro, & Halpin, 2004).
Recent scandals have highlighted a significant decline in ethical leadership both globally and in Vietnam Notable Vietnamese companies like Hàng Hải Đông Đô, Masan Group, and Quoc Cuong Gia Lai misled investors by reporting large profits while actually facing substantial losses (Thuc, 2011) Similarly, high-profile cases involving WorldCom, Enron, General Motors, and Lehman Brothers have eroded trust in U.S corporate leadership Compounding these issues are societal challenges such as terrorism, an aging population, and environmental pollution, which further diminish investor confidence According to the National Leadership Index 2009, 63% of Americans distrust business leaders, with 83% believing they prioritize personal or special interests over societal welfare In light of these challenges, there is an urgent need for more positive and authentic leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), emphasizing the importance of reliability, integrity, and authenticity in business leadership (Blausten, 2009).
In today's global business landscape, authentic leadership has emerged as a vital concept, characterized by transparency and openness in leaders' behaviors This leadership style involves sharing essential information for decision-making, valuing input from others, and openly communicating personal values and motives Such authenticity allows followers to better evaluate the leader's competence and ethical standards Business professionals increasingly demand leaders who prioritize purpose, values, and integrity, fostering enduring organizations that inspire employees to deliver exceptional customer service and generate long-term shareholder value.
Research objectives
This study investigates the impact of authentic leadership behaviors on job satisfaction among followers, while also exploring the moderating effects of self-efficacy and optimism in this relationship The primary research questions focus on understanding how authentic leadership influences job satisfaction and the roles that self-efficacy and optimism play in moderating this connection.
In order to answer to this research question, the following four sub-questions are addressed in this research:
1 What is the relationship between authentic leadership and follower job satisfaction?
2 How does self-efficacy play a moderating role in the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction?
3 How does optimism play a moderating role in the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction?
4 Is job satisfaction level different between male and female?
Research scope and approach
This study takes place in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam's largest city, focusing on respondents who have worked with their leaders for a minimum of three months This timeframe ensures that followers have ample opportunity to observe and be influenced by their leaders' behaviors.
The research specifically targets employees with a high school diploma or higher, making it a practical choice given time and resource constraints This focus enables the use of an online survey method, effectively addressing the research questions in a straightforward manner.
This study examines self-efficacy and optimism as moderating variables within the framework of psychological capital, which consists of four components While self-efficacy and optimism are included in the analysis, the other two components—resilience and hope—are not addressed in this research.
The research is structured into two primary phases: a pilot study, which includes two sub-phases, and the main study The pilot study aims to evaluate the content and assess the measurement scales, while the main study is designed to validate these scales, test the hypotheses, and confirm the research model.
Research structure
The structure of study includes 5 chapters as following:
Chapter 1: Introduction will provide the research background, research objectives, as well as research scope and approach
Chapter 2: Literature review provides theoretical and empirical background behind the hypothesized research model
Chapter 3: Methodology details the methodologies the author use to conduct this research
Chapter 4: Analysis is conducted based on the collected data to test the hypotheses and answer the research questions
Chapter 5: The author discusses the results; provide practical implication and possible directions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES
Authentic leadership
The modern concept of authenticity has developed over the last 80 years, as noted by Erickson (1995) The Concise Oxford English Dictionary defines authenticity as "genuine, original, not a fake." Harter (2002) traces the origins of this term back to Greek philosophy, emphasizing the idea of being true to oneself.
Authenticity involves acting in alignment with one's true self, as defined by Harter (2002), who emphasizes the importance of expressing inner thoughts and feelings consistently He elaborates that authenticity is a blend of personal experiences—values, beliefs, emotions—and the genuine expression of these elements in behavior Similarly, Kernis (2003) describes authenticity as the unobstructed functioning of one's core self in daily activities, highlighting the significance of self-recognition and alignment between one's actions and inner self.
Authenticity and sincerity are often mistakenly viewed as synonymous, yet they hold distinct meanings Sincerity, as defined by Lionel Trilling, refers to the alignment between one's expressed feelings and actual emotions, highlighting a relational aspect with others In contrast, authenticity pertains to being true to oneself While sincerity involves accurately representing oneself to others, authenticity focuses on self-truth Thus, sincerity is about being genuine in interactions with others, whereas authenticity emphasizes inner truthfulness.
The research on authenticity has historically concentrated on inauthenticity, with sociologist Seeman (1960) developing a scale that defines an inauthentic leader as one who excessively conforms to stereotypical leadership roles Concurrently, Hill and Stone (1960) emphasized the significance of positive thinking, illustrating that success can be achieved through a positive mental attitude Contemporary scholars exploring authentic leadership now draw from positive psychology, shifting the focus toward the positive dimensions of authenticity In this study, the author adopts a definition of authenticity rooted in positive psychology, as articulated by Harter et al (2002), which encompasses owning one’s thoughts, beliefs, and emotions while acting in alignment with one's true self.
Gardner et al (2005) suggests the 4 core components of authentic leadership including self-awareness, the self-regulatory processes of balanced processing, authentic behavior and relational transparency
Self-awareness is one of the most important characteristics of an authentic leader
To cultivate authentic leadership, one must prioritize self-awareness, which is defined as the understanding of one’s emotions and their effects (Avolio and Luthans, 2005; Bill George, 2011) This self-awareness is closely linked to self-reflection, enabling authentic leaders to gain clarity about their core values, identity, emotions, motives, and goals.
Kernis (2003) defines self-awareness in the context of authenticity as the recognition and trust in one's motives, feelings, desires, and self-relevant thoughts An authentic leader with high self-awareness possesses a clear understanding of their strengths, weaknesses, and complex identity This self-awareness process allows individuals to express their unique values, identity, emotions, and goals A deeper examination of these four components of self-awareness will be discussed further.
According to Erickson (1995), individuals who remain authentic to themselves align with their core values Schwartz defines these values as "conceptions of the desirable" that influence how social actors—such as organizational leaders, policymakers, and individuals—choose their actions, assess people and events, and justify their decisions and evaluations.
Values serve as trans-situational, normative standards that guide behavior and evaluation, shaping actions to meet the needs of both the leader's community and the organizational unit These values are acquired through socialization processes.
Self-knowledge involves not only understanding personal values but also a deep emotional awareness, which is crucial for effective decision-making This emotional intelligence is a key factor in successful leadership, as authentic leaders recognize and manage their own emotions as well as those of others By being aware of the emotional influences on their decisions, these leaders avoid making impulsive choices based on fleeting feelings.
Identity is defined by Schlenker (1985) as a framework that encompasses an individual’s relevant features, characteristics, and experiences Self-identification involves both private reflection and public expressions of one’s identity through various activities Authentic leaders integrate their leadership roles into their personal identities, achieving a strong person-role merger As noted by Shamir and Eilam (2005), authentic leaders do not feign leadership; rather, they express their leadership naturally George Borst, CEO of Toyota Financial Services, highlights the significance of self-awareness in leadership, warning against the pitfalls of adopting a false persona, as people can easily discern insincerity (anonymous, 2009).
Goals are best understood through self-awareness as frameworks that guide information processing (Lord, Brown & Freiberg, 1999) In leadership, the distinction between self-view and possible selves is crucial; self-view-related goals foster self-enhancement motives, while possible selves promote self-verification motives Authentic leaders, driven by self-verification, prioritize self-development and seek genuine feedback to enhance self-understanding Additionally, Gardner et al (2005) highlight the importance of ideal self-guides (hopes) and ought self-guides (obligations) Authentic leaders, being self-aware and true to themselves, typically experience minimal discrepancies between their ideal selves and their perceived obligations.
Balanced processing, also known as unbiased processing, is a key component of authenticity in leadership According to Kernis (2003), this concept involves the ability to accurately and objectively process personal knowledge and external evaluations without distortion or exaggeration Authentic leaders excel in handling self-relevant information with a balanced perspective, yet achieving true objectivity in this process is challenging Research in social psychology by Tice and Wallace further explores the complexities of unbiased information processing.
(2003) find that people are inherently imperfect in processing (self-relevant) information
Individuals often perceive themselves based on their assumptions about how others view them, rather than on reality, as they may struggle to accurately gauge others' perceptions (Tice & Wallace, 2003) Those with high self-esteem, in particular, may resist or undervalue external feedback, finding it challenging to acknowledge their own flaws or negative traits.
According to Kernis (2003), individuals often deceive themselves about their motivations, a concept highlighted in the book "Leadership and Self-Deception" by The Arbinger Institute (2000) This book illustrates how leaders, in particular, tend to justify their actions by believing they are acting for the right reasons, despite underlying self-deception.
Authentic leadership, as described by Kernis (2003), involves distinct information processing mechanisms that set these leaders apart from others They possess a low ego, allowing them to objectively assess their strengths and weaknesses This objectivity extends to their understanding of both positive and negative attributes Ilies et al (2005) emphasize the importance of unbiased information selection, noting that authentic leaders seek out challenging situations that promote personal growth and self-verification, rather than simply looking for experiences that reinforce their self-image.
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is a key topic in various fields, including industrial-organizational psychology, social psychology, and human resource management As a result, multiple definitions of job satisfaction exist, reflecting the diverse perspectives of different authors on this important concept.
Job satisfaction is defined by Hoppock (1935) as a combination of psychological, physiological, and environmental factors that lead an individual to feel satisfied with their job This perspective highlights the influence of both internal and external elements on an employee's feelings Ivancevich and Donnelly (1968) describe job satisfaction as a positive attitude towards one's current work role, while Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) characterize it as emotional responses to various aspects of the work situation.
Job satisfaction, as defined by Statt (2004), is the degree to which employees feel content with the rewards from their jobs, especially regarding intrinsic motivation This concept encompasses the attitudes and feelings workers hold about their roles Positive attitudes reflect job satisfaction, while negative attitudes indicate job dissatisfaction (Armstrong, 2006).
Job satisfaction is commonly defined as an employee's attitude toward their job, influenced by various factors in the workplace Essentially, it reflects how well an employee perceives their job in meeting their personal needs and values.
Job satisfaction influences on various aspects of organizational life such as organizational commitment, loyalty and absenteeism
Recent studies indicate a significant connection between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, despite ongoing debates about whether satisfaction drives performance or vice versa (Luthans, 1998; Carrell, Jennings, and Heavrin, 1997).
Employees who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to be absent, which can significantly reduce costs for companies To minimize absenteeism, managers should focus on enhancing job satisfaction, as a higher level of satisfaction is directly linked to lower rates of absenteeism.
Employee loyalty is a critical focus for human resource managers, encompassing three main types: affective loyalty, normative loyalty, and continuity loyalty Affective loyalty reflects an emotional connection to the company, while normative loyalty arises from a sense of obligation to the organization Continuity loyalty occurs when employees remain with a company due to a lack of alternative job opportunities Research by Vanderberg and Lance (1992) highlights a strong correlation between job satisfaction and employee loyalty, indicating that higher job satisfaction leads to increased loyalty among employees.
Research indicates a positive correlation between various factors and job satisfaction, with a significant focus on personal characteristics and work-related elements in the literature.
Personal factors such as age, gender, and education significantly influence job satisfaction Research indicates a U-shaped relationship between age and job satisfaction, where younger employees initially report high satisfaction that declines over time, only to rise again as they grow older (Waskiewicz, 1999) Older workers tend to exhibit higher job satisfaction levels compared to their younger counterparts (Wangphanich, 1984) However, some studies suggest that age may not have a direct correlation with job satisfaction (Coll and Rice, 1990) Similarly, the link between gender and job satisfaction remains ambiguous, as highlighted by Hollen and Gemmell.
A comparison of job satisfaction levels among community-college professors revealed that male professors reported higher overall job satisfaction than their female counterparts (Wangphanich, 1984) Conversely, a study by Sagol Jariyavidyanont (1978) at NIDA found no significant differences in job satisfaction based on gender, age, education, or work experience Education's impact on job satisfaction remains debated; Carrel and Elbert (1974) identified a negative correlation, suggesting that highly educated employees often feel dissatisfied with routine tasks In contrast, Quinn and Baldi de Mandilovitch (1980) argued for a positive relationship between higher educational levels and overall job satisfaction.
Work-related factors significantly influence job satisfaction, with challenging roles that allow employees to utilize their skills and engage in diverse tasks being particularly valued According to Arnold and Feldman (1986), employees prefer jobs that offer autonomy and performance feedback Locke (1976) suggests that interesting and challenging work contributes to higher job satisfaction levels Additionally, having friendly and supportive coworkers is a key factor in enhancing job satisfaction, as highlighted by Ducharme and Martin (2000), which indicates that positive coworker relationships can significantly boost employee morale (in DeMato, 2001).
Salary is a crucial factor in job satisfaction, as it meets both basic and higher-level employee needs and reflects management's valuation of their contributions (Luthans, 2001) While fringe benefits also enhance job satisfaction, they are generally considered less significant than salary (Derlin & Schneider, 1994) Opportunities for personal and professional development have a varied impact on job satisfaction, with a focus on intellectual growth and skill enhancement becoming increasingly important over traditional promotions (Luthans, 2001) Employees who can expand their knowledge and skills report higher job satisfaction (Waskiewicz, 1999; Luthans, 2001) Additionally, the style and quality of supervision significantly influence job satisfaction, as research shows a direct correlation between employee attitudes and the quality of supervision they receive (DeMato, 2001) Furthermore, effective organizational communication is positively linked to employee commitment, highlighting its importance in fostering a satisfying work environment (Brunetto, 2002).
The influence of authentic leadership on job satisfaction
Research by Gardner et al (2005) highlights a positive link between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, a concept further validated by the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire developed by Walumbwa and Avolio in 2008 Avolio (1999) posits that working with authentic leaders fosters trust among followers, which in turn enhances their job satisfaction (Dirks and Ferrin, 2002) Additionally, authentic leaders' positive moods can create a social contagion effect, boosting the job satisfaction of their followers Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: authentic leadership positively influences followers' job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1: Authentic leadership is positively related to follower’ job satisfaction.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, a key concept from Bandura's social cognitive theory, highlights the importance of human agency and the influence individuals have over their actions (Bandura, 2006) Defined by Bandura (1977) as the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations, self-efficacy significantly impacts how individuals approach their goals, tasks, and challenges.
In 2006, Schunk and Meece highlighted that individuals are inherently self-organizing, proactive, self-regulating, and self-reflective This self-efficacy significantly influences personal goals and behaviors, shaped by both individual actions and environmental conditions Furthermore, Bandura emphasized that one's sense of efficacy can impact how opportunities and challenges within the environment are perceived.
2006) and affect choice of activities, how much effort is used on an activity, and how long people will persist when facing obstacles (Pajares, 1997) Stajkovic and Luthans
Self-efficacy in the workplace, as defined by 1998, refers to an individual's confidence in their ability to mobilize the necessary motivation, cognitive resources, and actions to successfully complete specific tasks within a particular context Bandura (1982) emphasizes that self-efficacy is a situation-dependent variable that evolves with experience, indicating that it can change over time.
There are some reports which show the mediating roles of self-efficacy between authentic leadership and job satisfaction
Authentic leaders are characterized by their genuine approach to leadership, prioritizing values and convictions over personal gain or status (Shamir and Eilam, 2005) They enhance their followers' confidence by helping them recognize their own abilities, which ultimately boosts self-efficacy Through their modeling behavior and verbal expressions of confidence, authentic leaders facilitate vicarious learning and verbal persuasion, both of which are essential sources of self-efficacy identified by Bandura.
Self-efficacy is a key predictor of job satisfaction, as highlighted in various studies (Judge et al., 1998; Judge & Bono, 2001) It refers to an individual's belief in their ability to cope, perform, and succeed, which leads to positive self-assessments Individuals with high self-efficacy are better equipped to handle challenges and derive greater satisfaction from their work Moreover, self-efficacy is one of four essential psychological capacities, along with hope, optimism, and resilience (Luthans et al.).
Research conducted in the United States and China demonstrates a positive correlation between employees' psychological capital and job satisfaction among followers Studies by Luthans and colleagues (2007, 2008) support this finding, highlighting the importance of psychological well-being in enhancing job satisfaction.
Recent research highlights the significant impact of self-efficacy beliefs on job satisfaction within the educational sector (Caprara et al., 2003) Individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to exert greater effort towards achieving their goals, resulting in increased job satisfaction (WK Lau, 2012).
While previous studies have explored the mediating effects of self-efficacy on the connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, there is a notable absence of research examining the moderating roles in this relationship Therefore, the author proposes the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 2: Self-efficacy moderates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction: the relationship is stronger with higher level of self- efficacy.
Optimism
Optimism, as defined by Chang (2001), is the expectation that positive outcomes will occur, influencing an individual's emotional outlook and future orientation (Hitlin and Elder, 2007) Optimistic individuals typically credit their successes to their own abilities, viewing these as stable and universal, while attributing failures to external, temporary, and specific factors beyond their control This mindset not only fosters a belief in future successes but also enhances overall positive emotional experiences (Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004).
Research indicates that optimism plays a mediating role between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Authentic leaders, characterized by self-awareness and confidence, tend to exhibit high levels of optimism (Gardner et al., 2005) This optimism is positively correlated with job satisfaction (Youssef & Luthans, 2007) and can inspire followers to adopt a similar optimistic outlook (Wunderley, Reddy & Dember, 1998) Optimistic employees are typically more motivated, satisfied, and aspirational However, excessive optimism can lead to a lack of accountability for failures and unrealistic goal-setting Therefore, the importance of realistic optimism is emphasized in the literature, as it has been shown to enhance performance and satisfaction among both managers and employees (Peterson, 2000; Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004).
While some studies have indicated that optimism mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, there is currently no empirical evidence supporting the moderating role of optimism in this context Consequently, the author proposes the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3: optimism moderates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction: the relationship is stronger with lower level of optimism.
Summary
This chapter explores the definitions, history, and components of authentic leadership, alongside job satisfaction, optimism, and self-efficacy It highlights the conceptual connections and existing research indicating relationships among these variables Notably, there is a lack of research on the moderating roles of optimism and self-efficacy in the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Therefore, the author proposes to investigate these moderating roles in this study A summary of all hypotheses is illustrated in Figure 2-1 below.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
This quantitative study divided into 2 main phases: pilot study (including of 2 sub- phases) and main study
The first phase of the pilot study involved in-depth interviews with a small group of five target participants to evaluate the clarity and significance of the terminology used in the measurement scales This feedback led to modifications in the draft questionnaire for the subsequent phase In the second phase, an online survey was administered to a larger group of 50 target participants to assess the internal consistency of the measurement scales, as well as the response rate and quality of the responses.
Following the pilot study, the main research was carried out using an online survey method via a web-based platform (https://docs.google.com) The objectives included validating the measurement scales, testing the hypotheses, and confirming the research model The author opted for an online survey due to its numerous advantages, including speed, cost-effectiveness, accuracy, ease of analysis, participant convenience, honesty, and flexibility.
The process of this research is shown in figure 3-1:
Questionnaire development
The survey comprised four sections focused on authentic leadership, self-efficacy, optimism, and job satisfaction Following Babbie's (1998) guidelines, brief instructions were provided at the start of each section Responses were measured using a Likert-type scale, where 1 indicated "never" (or disagreement) and 7 signified "always" (or strong agreement).
Authentic leadership was measured by the recently developed 16-item Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) (Avolio, Gardner & Walumbwa, 2007) The four
Define research problem; identify research objectives and scope
Review literature; Adapt conceptual framework
Pilot Study 1: Conduct qualitative study (in-depth interviews) to check the content and meaning of words
Pilot Study 2: Examine the internal consistency questionnaire
Main survey: Conduct data collection
Analyze data: Validate scales using Cronbach alpha, Confirmatory Factor
In conclusion, the theoretical framework of authentic leadership, as confirmed by Walumbwa, Avolio et al (2008), encompasses four key factors: self-awareness, balanced processing, authentic behavior, and relational transparency It is recommended that organizations prioritize the development of these factors to enhance leadership effectiveness The implications of this research suggest that fostering authentic leadership can lead to improved team dynamics and organizational performance.
Authentic leadership is characterized by five key constructs that reflect higher-order principles These include self-awareness, demonstrated by leaders who understand the impact of their actions on others; balanced processing, where leaders listen attentively to diverse perspectives before making decisions; authentic behavior, as seen in leaders who uphold high ethical standards when faced with tough choices; and relational transparency, exemplified by leaders who communicate difficult truths openly.
Job satisfaction was assessed using a five-item version of the Brayfield Rothe scale, originally developed by Brayfield and Rothe in 1951 This abbreviated scale is known for its reliability and has been widely utilized in various research studies, including those by Bono and Judge (2003) and Walumbwa et al.
The study utilized a response scale from 1 (Strongly agree) to 7 (Strongly disagree) to assess job satisfaction through five key statements These statements included, “Most days I am enthusiastic about my work,” “I feel fairly satisfied with my present job,” and “I find real enjoyment in my work.” Additionally, two reverse-scored items were included: “Each day at work seems like it will never end” and “I consider my job rather unpleasant.”
The study assessed Optimism and Self-Efficacy using 12 items from the Psychological Capital Questionnaire, which is based on the 24-item Psychological Capital scale developed by Luthans, Youssef, and Avey (2007) The Self-Efficacy component comprised six specific statements, including confidence in analyzing long-term problems, representing one's work area in management meetings, contributing to discussions on company strategy, setting targets in the work area, engaging with external contacts like suppliers and customers, and presenting information to colleagues.
Optimism in the workplace can significantly impact our outlook and performance When faced with uncertainty, I tend to expect the best outcomes, fostering a positive mindset While I acknowledge that things can go wrong, I choose to focus on the bright side of my job My optimism extends to my future career prospects, as I believe positive developments are on the horizon Despite occasional setbacks, I maintain the perspective that every challenge has a silver lining, reinforcing my resilience and motivation in my professional journey.
Translation of the questionnaire
Surveys were translated into Vietnamese following cross-cultural translation procedures, specifically utilizing the committee approach as recommended by Brislin (1980) This method involved multiple translators independently translating the same questionnaire During a reconciliation meeting, the translators compared their translations, resolved discrepancies, and agreed on a final version that incorporated the best elements of each independent translation In this study, a committee of two translators was employed.
Back translation, as defined by Harkness & Schoua-Glusberg (1998), involves translating a translated text back into its original language This process allows for a comparison between the back-translated text and the source material, facilitating an assessment of the translation's quality In the context of survey translation, back translation provides researchers with a valuable method to evaluate translation quality, especially when they are unable to read or assess the translations directly.
The basic steps involved were as follows:
1 A source text in one language (Source Language Text One, SLT1) was translated into another language (Target Language Text, TLT) using committee approach
2 The TLT was translated back into the language of SLT1 by a second translator, unfamiliar with the SLT1 and uninformed that there was an SLT1 This second translation, the back translation, was SLT2
3 SLT1 was compared to SLT2
4 On the basis of differences or similarities between SLT1 and SLT2, conclusions were drawn about the equivalence of TLT to SLT1
In this study, SLT1 and SLT2 were found identical or close in meaning across translated items Therefore the author decided to us the original questionnaire for the pilot study.
The pilot study
A pilot study was conducted to reduce misunderstandings in the questionnaire, incorporating feedback from five participants Consequently, several questions were revised or eliminated, and the overall format was adjusted for clarity.
The questionnaire was pre-tested using 5 respondents who were working at HSBC Vietnam Bank (n = 1), VietJet Air (n = 1), and VAECO (Vietnam Airlines Engineering Company) (n=2) and Vietcom Real (n=1)
The qualitative feedback primarily focused on the wording and meaning of the survey items Modifications were made to enhance clarity and ensure the translation was more aligned with Vietnamese context Consequently, some questions were eliminated due to their unclear meaning and lack of relevance to the Vietnamese environment Specifically, authentic leadership was assessed through five items, with self-awareness exemplified by the statement, "My leader shows he or she understands how specific actions impact others," and balanced processing represented by
Effective decision-making involves actively listening to various perspectives before reaching conclusions, demonstrating authentic behavior by making choices aligned with core values, and encouraging others to support these values Relational transparency is crucial, as it involves communicating difficult truths Job satisfaction is assessed through five specific criteria, while self-efficacy is represented by confidence in goal-setting and presenting information Additionally, optimism is measured through three indicators, including a belief in positive future outcomes and a proactive approach to work challenges.
The phrase "every cloud has a silver lining" reflects the author's efforts to enhance understanding among respondents by replacing the term "Giá trị" (Value) with "Nguyên tắc sống" (Living Principles), which is more familiar Additionally, the author advised respondents to select leaders who have significantly influenced them, as many were uncertain about which leaders to evaluate The finalized questionnaires, available in both English and Vietnamese, have been posted on Google Docs and can be found in Appendix 1.
In phase 2 of the pilot study, the author enlisted the help of five respondents from phase 1 to share the survey link, resulting in 50 completed questionnaires Nunnally (1978) indicates that a Cronbach Alpha above 70 reflects an acceptable level of internal consistency In this study, all variables demonstrated strong reliability, with Cronbach Alphas of 89 for the Authentic Leader construct, 911 for Self-Efficacy, and 98 for Optimism These positive results bolstered the author's confidence to proceed with the next steps.
Target population
In research, the population refers to the complete set of cases from which a sample is drawn (Saunders et al., 2003), or a collection of elements with the necessary information sought by the researcher (Malhotra, 1996) For this study, the target population consists of employees employed by firms located in Ho Chi Minh City.
Sample size
Sample size refers to the number of cases or elements included in a research study, as defined by Malhotra & Birks (2000) An element is an object that holds the data sought in the study, allowing for inferences to be made Most research studies utilize samples due to constraints such as limited cost and time (Saunders et al., 2003) According to Bouma & Atkinson (1995), the required sample size is contingent upon the accuracy of the desired generalization; thus, a larger sample size is necessary for greater accuracy regarding population parameters.
According to Hair et al (2006), a minimum sample size of 50 is recommended, with an observation-to-item ratio of 5:1, leading to an ideal sample of 75 employees for this research The author aimed to collect at least 150 responses, with the samples categorized accordingly.
Selecting the sample and collecting data
According to Saunders et al (2000), there were 2 kinds of sampling: probability and non-probability
Probability sampling, characterized by the random selection of samples, is primarily associated with survey-based research aimed at drawing conclusions about a population to address specific research questions or objectives (Saunders et al., 2000) When executed properly, this method guarantees that the sample accurately represents the broader population (Hair et al., 2003).
Non-probability sampling, as described by Saunders et al (2000), involves selecting sample elements based on the researcher's subjective judgment rather than aiming for statistical representation of the population This approach utilizes methods such as personal experience, convenience, and expert judgment, leading to an unknown probability of selection for the population elements (Samuel et al., 2003).
Convenience sampling, a widely used non-probability sampling method, involves selecting participants who are readily available and can provide the necessary information for a study (Samuel et al., 2003) This approach allows researchers to conduct a high volume of interviews quickly and at a low cost However, a significant drawback of convenience sampling is the potential for selection bias, which arises from differences within the target population (Hair et al., 2003).
Based on above theory, the convenience non-probability sampling method was chosen in this study.
Sample characteristics
Participants fulfilling the following criteria were selected and included in the analysis:
1 The participants had at least high school degree
2 The participants had a full time job
3 The participants had been working with his/ her direct leader in the current organization for at least 3 months to ensure that they had enough time to observe and to be influenced by their leaders’ behaviors.
Methods of data analysis
Questionnaires would be reviewed, and the wrong answers would be rejected after collecting Then, data screening will be carried out by using SPSS for window version
The author began by filtering qualified respondents based on specific criteria, including a minimum of a high school diploma, full-time employment, and at least three months of experience working with their leader Following this, the author conducted a data screening process, noting that web-based surveys typically necessitate minimal data cleaning.
The author carefully examined the reverse-scored questions in the job satisfaction section to ensure they were answered logically By marking all questions as "required," the author ensured that respondents could not submit the survey without providing complete answers, eliminating the possibility of missing responses.
The reliability of scales is assessed using the Cronbach Alpha factor, which aids in eliminating unsatisfactory variables during research and validating scale reliability According to Pallant (2007), any variable with an item-total correlation below 0.3 should be discarded Furthermore, Peterson (1994) and Slater (1995) recommend a threshold of 0.6 as a practical criterion Generally, a Cronbach Alpha value ranging from 0.8 to 1 indicates that the scale is of very high quality.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is employed to evaluate the quality of measurement models by testing the fit between the data and the hypothesized model This study utilized CFA to validate the factor structure of key variables, including authentic leadership, optimism, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction, thereby providing a confirmatory assessment of the underlying measurement theory.
To assess model fit, chi-square (χ²) values serve as an index of absolute fit, reflecting the difference between observed and expected covariance matrices, with values closer to zero indicating a better fit (Kline, 2011; Gatignon, 2010) Additionally, the comparative fit index (CFI), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) are reported to evaluate the model's performance against a null or independence model, where correlations among observed variables are assumed to be zero The CFI and GFI are recognized as the best approximations of the population value for a single model, while the RMSEA measures the average standardized residual per degree of freedom A summary of the reported fit indices and their desired ranges can be found in Table 3-2.
Goodness-of-fit indices abbreviation Desired range of values for a good fit
Minimum Fit Function Chi-Square χ² p>.05
Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ²/df 1 to 3
Goodness of Fit Index GFI ≥.9
Root Mean Square Error of
Non-Normed Fit Index TLI ≥.90
Parsimony Normed Fit Index PNFI ≥.50
Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI ≥.50
Source: Hair et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Kline, 2011; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Carmines & McIver 1981
Correlation analysis is essential in data analysis as it helps identify the relationship between two variables According to Diamantopoulos & Schlegelmilch (1997), this method not only determines the existence of a relationship but also reveals its direction and magnitude.
Correlations measure the degree to which variations in one variable are associated with changes in another, represented by the correlation coefficient (r), which ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 According to Welman & Kruger (1999), a correlation of +1.00 signifies a perfect positive relationship, 0.00 indicates no relationship, and -1.00 reflects a perfect negative relationship Understanding these correlations is essential for analyzing the interplay between different variables in research.
The magnitude of the relationship between two variables reflects the significance level, which indicates the maximum risk of incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis This significance level should always be linked to the probability of error For instance, choosing a 5 percent significance level (p ≤ 0.05) means that the null hypothesis may be rejected incorrectly 5 times out of 100 Consequently, if the test result is less than or equal to the specified significance level, it is considered significant.
This study employs multiple regression analysis, a type of general linear modeling, to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction (the dependent variable) and authentic leadership (the independent variable) Additionally, hierarchical regression analysis is utilized to assess how self-efficacy and optimism moderate the impact of authentic leadership on job satisfaction.
According to Baron & Kenny (1986), a moderator is a variable that influences both the direction and strength of the relationship between an independent variable (X) and a dependent variable (Y) To statistically test two-way interactions, researchers typically regress the dependent variable on both the independent variable and the moderating variable, subsequently incorporating the interaction term (X*M) into the equation This study employed hierarchical regression procedures to examine the moderating relationship.
To enhance interpretability and reduce multicollinearity issues, each predictor was centered by its mean prior to regression analysis (Aiken & West, 1991) The first regression model included the centered independent variable (Xmean) and the moderator variable (Mmean), while the second model incorporated the interaction term (Xmean x Mmean) A significant increase in the adjusted R² from the first to the second model, along with a significant coefficient for the interaction term, indicates that the moderator variable influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
The t-test is a statistical method used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two groups This analysis is particularly useful for comparing job satisfaction levels between males and females In this study, the author employed the t-test to investigate potential differences in job satisfaction levels based on gender.
This chapter presents an overview of the methodology employed in the study, highlighting the use of confirmatory factor analysis to establish clear and interpretable factor structures for the measured constructs It also discusses additional data analysis techniques such as sampling, reliability analysis, correlation analysis, and regression analysis Furthermore, the chapter introduces the adjusted questionnaires and measurement scales for authentic leadership, job satisfaction, self-efficacy, and optimism Following this methodological framework, the author will analyze the survey data in the subsequent chapter.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data cleaning
A total of 183 responses were collected, all of which were fully completed However, 3 responses (1.67%) were disqualified for not meeting the minimum requirement of having at least 3 months of experience with a leader An examination of the 7 open socio-demographic questions and reverse-score items showed no illogical or unclear answers Consequently, 180 responses were included in the data analysis.
Profiles of qualified respondents
The survey included 180 qualified respondents, comprising 35.6% males and 64.4% females, with the majority (57.8%) aged between 26 to 30 years Educational backgrounds varied, with 1.1% having completed high school, 10% holding a college degree, 67.8% graduating from university, and 21.1% achieving higher university qualifications Experience with their current organization showed that 21.1% had been there for 12 months or less, 44.1% for 12-36 months, and 37-60 months or more than 60 months each accounted for 18.9% Regarding tenure with their current leader, 25.6% had been with them for a year or less, 34.4% for 1-2 years, and 40% for more than 2 years, with 85% of respondents working under Vietnamese leaders The gender distribution of leaders was predominantly male at 73.3%, while female leaders constituted 26.7% Income levels varied, with 12.2% earning between VND 2-5 million, 41.1% between VND 5-10 million, 21.1% between VND 10-15 million, 14.4% between VND 15-20 million, and 11.1% earning above VND 20 million Detailed results are presented in Table 4-2.
Table 4-1: Socio-demographic Characteristics of The Qualified Samples
Socio-demographic variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Reliability of the measurements
The scales for authentic leadership, self-efficacy, optimism, and job satisfaction demonstrated strong reliability, with Cronbach Alpha values exceeding 60 and corrected item-total correlations above 3 A summary of the Cronbach Alpha measures across these variables is presented in Table 4-2, while additional details on the measurement reliability test results are available in Appendix 2.
Table 4-2: Summary of Cronbach Alpha Measures Across Variables
Variables corrected item-total correlation
Confirmatory factor analysis
The results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated that the model effectively fits the data, as all indices fell within the desired range (refer to Table 4-3) For additional details on the CFA results, please see Appendix 3.
Table 4-3: Assessing Fit Indices – Hypothesized Model
Goodness-of-fit indices abbreviation
Desired range of values for a good fit
Minimum Fit Function Chi-Square χ² p>.05
Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ²/df 1 to 3 1.877
Goodness of Fit Index GFI ≥.9 901
Root Mean Square Error of
Non-Normed Fit Index TLI ≥.90 956
Parsimony Normed Fit Index PNFI ≥.50 726
Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI ≥.50 616
Correlation analysis
The author defined Authentic Leadership as the average of five observed variables (Leader1 to Leader5), Optimism as the average of three observed variables (Optimism1 to Optimism3), Self-efficacy as the average of two observed variables (Selfefficacy1 and Selfefficacy2), and Job Satisfaction as the average of five observed variables (Jobsatis1 to Jobsatis5) Subsequently, a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between demographic items and variables such as Job Satisfaction, Self-efficacy, Optimism, and Authentic Leadership.
Based on the below table, Authentic Leader clearly correlated with Job Satisfaction(r=0.418, p=0.000), Self-efficacy (r= 0.330, p=0.000), and Optimism
(r=0.249, p=0.000); Optimism clearly correlated with Education (r= -0.184, p=.013),
Income (of respondent) (r=-0.223, p=.003), Job Satisfaction (r=0.284, p=.001) and Self- efficacy (r=0.481, p=.000); Self-efficacy clearly correlated with Job Satisfaction
(r=0.398, p=0.000); Job Satisfaction clearly correlated with Education (r= -0.134, p=0.033) There was no inter-correlation above 0.8, therefore no any item must be removed
** Correlation is significant at the
* Correlation is significant at the
Hypotheses testing
4.6.1 Effects of authentic leadership, self-efficacy and optimism on job satisfaction:
To examine the hypotheses, multiple regression analysis was conducted, with Job Satisfaction as the dependent variable and Authentic Leadership, along with various demographic factors such as leader nationality, follower education, leader gender, and follower level, tenure, age, and income, as independent variables The results, including coefficients and significance levels, are presented in Table 4-5.
Table 4-5: result of regression analysis of authentic leadership on job satisfaction
Std Error of the Estimate
1 481 a 232 191 96482 a Predictors: (Constant), Lnationality, Education, GenderM, AuthenticLeader, Level, Tenure, GenderE, Income, Age
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
Total 205.949 179 a Predictors: (Constant), Lnationality, Education, GenderM, AuthenticLeader, Level, Tenure,
GenderE, Income, Age b Dependent Variable: JobSatis
The analysis revealed an Adjusted R Square of 0.191, indicating that 19.1% of job satisfaction can be attributed to authentic leadership With standardized coefficients of β = 0.402 and a significant p-value of 0.000, the findings demonstrate a positive association between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, thereby supporting hypothesis H1.
4.6.2 Moderating effects of self-efficacy and optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction :
The author examined how self-efficacy and optimism moderate the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Prior to performing regression analysis, each predictor was centered by its mean, as outlined by Aiken & West (1991) In the first regression model, the independent variable, authentic leadership, and the dependent variable, job satisfaction, were included The second model incorporated the interaction term, which represented the product of the centered independent variable and the centered moderator variable, specifically ALmean, as detailed in Table 4-6.
Table 4-6: result of regression analysis of moderating effect of self-efficacy and optimsm
Std Error of the Estimate
2 535 b 286 239 93548 a Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education, GenderE, Level, Age b Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education, GenderE, Level, Age, ALmeanxSEmean, ALmeanxOPmean
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
Total 205.949 179 a Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education,
GenderE, Level, Age b Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education,
GenderE, Level, Age, ALmeanxSEmean, ALmeanxOPmean c Dependent Variable: JobSatis
The analysis revealed that self-efficacy did not significantly moderate the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, as indicated by a p-value of 093, which exceeds the 05 threshold In contrast, optimism demonstrated a moderating effect, with a p-value of 013, satisfying the significance criteria Additionally, the Adjusted R Square value increased from 0.191 in model 1 to 0.239 in model 2, highlighting the impact of optimism on this relationship Notably, standardized coefficients β = -2.516 suggest that the connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction is stronger when optimism levels are lower.
To be clearer in investigating the moderating role of optimism on relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, the author grouped the respondents into
The study categorized respondents into three groups based on their levels of optimism: Group 1 comprised higher optimists, Group 2 included lower optimists, and Group 3 combined both groups A regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction for the two separate groups (Group 1 and Group 2) as well as the mixed Group 3 The summarized results of this regression analysis are presented in Table 4-9, with additional details available in Appendix 4.
Table 4-7: result of regression analysis of authentic leadership on optimism in
The analysis presented in Table 4-7 reveals significant findings regarding the impact of authentic leadership on job satisfaction across different levels of optimism In Group 1, consisting of higher optimists, the adjusted R square was 117, indicating that authentic leadership accounted for only 11.7% of job satisfaction, with a Standardized Coefficient of 245 Conversely, Group 2, which included lower optimists, showed a much stronger relationship, with an adjusted R square of 401, meaning authentic leadership explained 40.1% of job satisfaction, and a Standardized Coefficient of 637 When combining both groups into Group 3, the adjusted R square increased to 1.91, highlighting the moderating effect of optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, particularly stronger in individuals with lower optimism This supports hypothesis H3, as illustrated in Figure 4-2, which depicts the interaction between authentic leadership and optimism on job satisfaction.
Independent Samples T-test
In Chapter 3, the author employed a t-test to analyze the mean job satisfaction levels based on the gender of respondents The results presented in Table 4-8 indicated that Levene's Test and the t-test for equality of means both yielded significance values above 05 Consequently, the study found no significant difference in job satisfaction levels between male and female respondents, suggesting that gender did not impact job satisfaction in this research.
GenderE N Mean Std Deviation Std Error Mean
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
Summary
This chapter presents the results from the analyses conducted in Chapter 3, including confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, and regression analysis A key finding is the identification of an interpretable factor structure for each of the four constructs, demonstrating acceptable fit levels through confirmatory analysis The study revealed a significant relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, with optimism serving as a moderating factor in this relationship However, the research did not support the moderating role of self-efficacy in the connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction The implications of these findings, along with recommendations for interventions and future research in positive organizational behavior, will be discussed in Chapter 5.
DISCUSSION
Discussions of findings
The author examines the differences in job satisfaction levels between males and females, revealing that the research indicates no significant disparity This finding aligns with the work of Sagol Jariyavidyanont (1978), who also reported no notable differences in job satisfaction across genders.
The author explores the connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction among followers, revealing a significant positive relationship (β = 0.402, p = 0.000) as indicated by regression analysis This finding aligns with previous research by Thửnissen (2009) and Andrei (2012), which also highlighted the importance of authentic leadership in enhancing job satisfaction Additionally, insights from Ilies et al further support this relationship.
Authentic leadership significantly enhances job satisfaction among followers due to its emphasis on their well-being and emotions As highlighted in the literature review, the high level of trust that followers develop while working with authentic leaders contributes to their overall job satisfaction Therefore, it is clear that the behaviors exhibited by authentic leaders play a crucial role in fostering a positive work environment and increasing follower satisfaction.
The article explores the moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction While self-efficacy is found to correlate with both job satisfaction and authentic leadership, its role as a moderator in this context is also examined.
The study highlights the moderating effect of optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, supporting hypothesis H3 It reveals that individuals with lower levels of optimism experience a stronger connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction In contrast, highly optimistic individuals exhibit greater career planning and decision-making confidence, making them less influenced by authentic leaders Pessimists, often feeling helpless and viewing themselves as victims, are more reliant on authentic leaders, who provide essential knowledge, skills, and motivation, empowering their followers to take control of their own destinies.
Practical implications
Authentic leadership significantly influences job satisfaction among followers, particularly those with a pessimistic outlook When employees experience higher job satisfaction, they are more productive, have lower absenteeism rates, and demonstrate greater loyalty to their organization, ultimately contributing to the organization's growth and success.
Authentic leaders possess a profound self-awareness regarding their thoughts and behaviors, as well as an understanding of how they are perceived by others in relation to values, moral perspectives, knowledge, and strengths They are attuned to their operational context and embody qualities such as confidence, optimism, resilience, and high moral character (Avolio, Luthans, and Walumbwa, 2004) According to Robin Sharma, authentic leaders consistently engage in ten key practices: they speak the truth, lead from the heart, exhibit strong moral integrity, demonstrate courage, foster teamwork and community, pursue personal growth, dream big, prioritize self-care, strive for excellence over perfection, and work to make the world a better place.
Authentic leadership can be developed through a combination of innate potential and guided reflection While figures like Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, and Mother Teresa exemplify authentic leadership, not everyone possesses these qualities from birth; some may require assistance to uncover their leadership potential Research on authentic leader development is still emerging, with no definitive conclusions on whether such leaders can be trained (Cooper et al., 2005) However, many scholars, including May et al (2003), argue that individuals generally have the capacity for authentic leadership and benefit from structured guidance to enhance their moral leadership skills According to Sims and George (2007), maintaining an internal compass is crucial for individuals to stay aligned with their True North and take charge of their leadership journey By engaging in real-world experiences and reflecting on their life narratives, aspiring leaders can identify their passions and clarify their leadership purpose The core values of authentic leadership are tested under pressure, shaping the principles that guide effective leadership Active reflection on these experiences is essential for those seeking to cultivate authenticity in their leadership style (Cooper et al., 2005; George et al., 2007).
Discovering authentic leadership involves a commitment to personal development, as individuals do not need to possess inherent leadership traits (George et al., 2007) Leadership potential exists within everyone, and through reflection, guidance, and dedication, individuals can uncover their authentic leadership qualities This journey is not merely a destination but a continuous process of self-discovery and understanding one's life purpose (George, 2003).
Despite the necessary accuracy and deliberation, there are various limitations of this study and recommendation to the future research will be also discussed
First, the study was conducted in HoChiMinh city Future research should replicate the study in other cultures
This research utilized hierarchical regression analysis to test its hypotheses, rather than structural equation modeling (SEM), which is commonly used in studies on authentic leadership and psychological capital Unlike SEM, which evaluates the entire research model simultaneously, this study assessed each hypothesized relationship individually Previous studies in this field, such as those by Carsten et al (2008) and Luthans et al (2007), have predominantly employed SEM Therefore, future research should consider using SEM to provide a more comprehensive analysis of the proposed relationships.
This study focuses solely on the moderating effects of optimism and self-efficacy Future investigations should explore the influence of additional psychological capital elements, including hope and resilience.
The data collection method utilized in this study has certain limitations, as it relied on a web-based survey that primarily reached individuals who are regular internet users To enhance the accuracy of future research, it is recommended to incorporate paper-based surveys to capture a broader demographic.
This study focuses solely on analyzing the variance related to employee gender Future research should expand this analysis by incorporating other demographic variables, including income, manager age, respondent age, and manager gender, to gain a more comprehensive understanding.
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