INTRODUCTION
Problem Statement
While researchers and policymakers work on solutions to alleviate poverty, those living in poverty are actively seeking ways to survive independently of government assistance Often unaware that they are the focus of governmental concern, the poor navigate their circumstances without waiting for economic growth benefits Understanding the causes and trends of poverty is challenging due to insufficient data, yet the underlying stories and reasons for poverty vary significantly across different countries worldwide.
To effectively understand the causes of poverty, it is essential to analyze poverty dynamics rather than relying solely on static headcount rates Investigating why households fall into or escape poverty reveals critical insights According to Antolin et al (1999), job loss significantly contributes to poverty, as stable employment provides the necessary income for daily living expenses, including education and healthcare Therefore, examining job availability and stability is crucial, as income remains the primary determinant of the poverty line globally.
The official poverty line in Vietnam has been revised from VND 200,000 to VND 400,000 per month in rural areas, reflecting the impact of inflation (Decision No 09/2011/QĐ-TTg, 31/01/2011) This adjustment is likely to significantly increase the poverty rate in rural regions, where income from agricultural work is considerably lower than that from non-farm employment In fact, the lowest twenty percent of the population by consumption primarily relies on agricultural jobs, while the wealthiest twenty percent is engaged in non-farm sectors It is evident that a majority of the rural population is involved in agricultural employment, encompassing both wage labor and self-employment.
Farm employment plays a crucial role in the economy, despite income uncertainties The government actively promotes off-farm employment opportunities in rural areas to diversify income sources Research indicates that approximately fifty percent of rural women engage in off-farm jobs while their husbands remain in agriculture, enabling families to better manage fluctuations in agricultural product prices and the seasonal nature of farming income.
Figure 1.1.3 – Female labor in rural area
Examining job access and its impact on individuals reveals why certain households experience less poverty and how some have successfully escaped it By uncovering the underlying factors influencing women's participation in the labor market, this study offers a fresh perspective on poverty research and reduction, serving as a valuable reference for future studies The findings will narrate a new story about the origins of poverty and practical strategies for overcoming it, highlighting its significance in national development strategies Addressing this issue is not solely the government's responsibility; it is also a critical consideration in policymaking.
The scope and the purpose of the study
This case study investigates the dynamic processes of poverty reduction within an ethnic minority community, specifically focusing on a boundary village inhabited by the Rhade people in rural Vietnam While the findings are context-specific and not broadly generalizable, they contribute valuable insights into poverty dynamics, particularly regarding how women can secure stable incomes to help their families escape poverty The research highlights significant gaps in quantitative studies and the lack of data on migrants, which hinder a comprehensive understanding of poverty and pathways out of it in this region By exploring unique employment factors in this locality, the study aims to enhance the overall knowledge of poverty theories and their application in persistent poverty contexts.
For this purpose and context, the scope of this study will focus on a village which supplies a case study to implement the purpose of the research.
Research questions of the study
The study will attempt to answer three main research questions:
Question 1: Why do some women get better jobs than others?
Question 2: Why are some women more vulnerable to falling into poverty than others?
Question 3: What is the importance of jobs to poverty escapes?
The structure of the study
The study is organized into five chapters, beginning with an introduction followed by a literature review in Chapter 2, which establishes the analytical framework for the thesis by discussing relevant concepts and theoretical background related to women's employment disparities This chapter also examines empirical studies on poverty among women and ethnic minority communities, which are tested within the thesis on a specific group of women Chapter 3 details the data collection process, methodology, and survey implementation Chapter 4 presents the findings from the case study conducted in KrongPa village Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings, offers policy recommendations, and addresses the study's limitations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Concepts
This study examines two distinct types of poverty: the national poverty definition reported by the government and an alternative definition based on specific elements relevant to the research.
In this region, both men and women consider themselves poor if their households lack sufficient food and proper clothing, struggle with accumulating debt without the means to repay it, and cannot afford to send their children to school They strive diligently to secure these essential needs for their families.
Krishna, Anirudh (2004), “Escaping Poverty and Becoming Poor: Who Gains,
Who Loses, and Why”, World Development, Vol 32, No 1, pp 123
The official poverty line in Vietnam is set at VND 400,000 per month for rural, mountainous, and island regions, as established by Decision No 09/2011/QĐ-TTg on October 31, 2011 The Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) conducts surveys of poor households at the village level, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the living conditions and needs of impoverished communities.
Good jobs are defined as jobs which provide women a stable income all the time to help them have a decent life (Krishna, 2004)
A livelihood encompasses the necessary capabilities, assets, and activities for sustaining a means of living A sustainable livelihood is one that can withstand and recover from challenges, while maintaining or improving its resources and opportunities for future generations Additionally, it should provide positive contributions to other livelihoods both locally and globally, ensuring benefits in both the short and long term.
Chamber & Conway (1992) cited in Scoones, Ian (1998), “Sustainable Rural livelihood: A Framework for Analysis”, IDS Working Paper No 72, Institute of Development Studies.
Theoretical background
Poverty is more prevalent in rural areas than in urban settings due to limited employment opportunities and lower labor productivity Rural residents face fewer income-generating options, inadequate education, limited healthcare access, and heightened vulnerability to environmental factors As a result, many individuals migrate to urban areas in search of better economic prospects (Perkins 2006, pp.218-9) While there is insufficient evidence to conclusively state that women are poorer than men, women often encounter significant disadvantages in areas such as property rights, education, wages, and issues related to sex-selection abortion (Perkins 2006, pp.219-20).
Livelihood diversification is an effective strategy for reducing poverty rates in rural areas, particularly by encouraging farmers to develop non-farm activities Six key factors influence income source diversification: seasonality, risk, labor market conditions, access to credit, asset strategies, and attitudes toward risk (Tran, 2009) This study utilizes the sustainable livelihood theory to explore ways to enhance job opportunities for women According to Scoones, understanding the necessary livelihood resources for various strategy combinations is crucial for effective analysis For instance, a successful agricultural program may integrate access to natural capital (such as land and water) with economic capital (including technology and credit) and social capital (like social networks).
2.2.1 Theory of Poverty and Poverty Reduction
Poverty alleviation requires tailored solutions rather than a one-size-fits-all approach, as economic growth alone does not guarantee benefits for the poorest populations While growth can positively impact some, many obstacles hinder the poorest from reaping its rewards, making it clear that growth is not a direct policy tool for poverty reduction Effective policies should focus on enhancing education, boosting agricultural productivity, and minimizing mobility barriers Research in India highlights that health expenditures, debt, and social obligations significantly contribute to poverty declines, accounting for over 85% of cases To combat this, diversifying income sources, accessing reliable information, and implementing irrigation projects can help families escape poverty, with a focus on allocating land for perennial crops being a viable strategy.
2.2.2 Theory of Poverty in Ethnic Minorities
In Vietnam, the majority of ethnic minority populations are farmers facing more challenging living conditions compared to Kinh or Chinese households According to the Vietnam Development Report 2004, these minorities have lower education levels, with primary school enrollment rates for ethnic minority children at around 80 percent, lagging 12 percentage points behind their Kinh and Chinese peers Additionally, many ethnic minority children drop out of secondary school due to language and cultural barriers, inadequate infrastructure, poor teacher quality, an unsuitable curriculum, and a perception of low educational returns Furthermore, 40 percent of ethnic minorities in the Central Coast and Central Highlands give birth at home without professional assistance, leading to significant health issues post-delivery.
Only 13 percent of ethnic minority people work in wage employment (World Bank
The Vietnam Development Report 2004 highlights that many ethnic minority farmers possess forestry land and rely on self-employment However, their traditional swidden agriculture practices contribute to soil degradation, leading to decreased fertility and poor crop yields.
In rural Vietnam, the roles of women in Kinh and ethnic minority households vary significantly, with Kinh women experiencing restricted participation in community life Their involvement in village meetings is often minimal, as they are primarily occupied with agricultural and domestic responsibilities When they do attend these gatherings, they tend to be less vocal, contributing to a quieter presence in discussions, as noted by the World Bank and Vietnam.
Development Report 2004, pp 25-29) Single-parent women who are divorced or deserted by their husbands are likely to be poor in rural areas
Job loss significantly contributes to poverty, as employment is the primary source of income for individuals When people lose their jobs, they often lack the financial resources necessary to cover their living expenses Additionally, those in lower-paying or less stable jobs may find themselves more vulnerable during economic crises, leading to greater financial hardship compared to others.
Research indicates that key factors influencing rural farm households' decisions to engage in non-farm employment include education, skills, distance, credit, and farm size However, many studies overlook the dual role of rural residents who often pursue both farm and off-farm jobs to support their families Additionally, poverty research in Vietnam and other regions frequently excludes migrants, as national statistics often fail to account for short-term and long-term migrant workers Including these migrants would reveal the significance of temporary wage work in household survival and poverty alleviation Furthermore, studies highlight the active participation of rural women in off-farm employment, underscoring their critical role in the economy.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
Methodology
This thesis presents a case study, defined as a research strategy that employs various forms of evidence to investigate a specific phenomenon (Robson, 2002, as cited in Saunders et al., 2007) The case study method was selected for its effectiveness in exploring and explaining unknown values (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2007), focusing specifically on the context of KrongPa village in Son Hoa district, Phu Yen province The insights gained from KrongPa village will be instrumental in evaluating existing theories and uncovering the underlying factors that hinder women's access to stable income-generating jobs.
The study incorporates in-depth interviews to uncover insights beyond quantitative data, focusing on the personal histories of impoverished villagers and the factors leading to their financial struggles After completing a structured questionnaire, respondents were invited to share their life stories from three years prior, discussing their jobs, living conditions, children's education, and overall happiness They reflected on the pivotal events that altered their lives, often recalling a singular event they believe to be the root cause of their hardships Many women relied on supportive neighbors to share their narratives Additionally, interviews with Buon’s women officers provided further context about the respondents' lifestyles and challenges that may not have been articulated by the villagers themselves Chiefs of Buon contributed cultural insights into the Rhade people, explaining dietary practices and the socio-economic disparities between poor and affluent households, as well as the barriers faced by Kinh and Rhade communities The research also included discussions with specialists from Ba Ha hydroelectric power to examine the compensation processes and job creation for those displaced by the project.
Observation methods were utilized to enhance the findings of this study by assessing the living conditions of respondents, including the materials used for roofs, walls, and floors, as well as the clothing of children and household goods, to gauge their level of poverty These methods provided valuable insights into Rhade lifestyles and cultures that are often overlooked in traditional desk research Through direct observation, the interviewer gained a deeper understanding of the impact of poverty on people's lives, offering a perspective that goes beyond what can be captured in book reviews.
Data
Due to the lack of migrant-related information in existing data sets, an original survey was conducted in Krong Pa village, Son Hoa district, Phu Yen Province during the last two weeks of January 2011 to address the three research questions.
Secondary data encompasses information on poverty rates, credit data from the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies (VBSP), and agricultural development programs aimed at supporting poor households This data spans three years, from 2008 to 2010, and is categorized across three administrative levels: province, district, and village.
Data for the study were collected through structured interviews using a prepared questionnaire in KrongPa village, designed to address the “what,” “how,” and “why” of household poverty A random sample of 50 households was selected from the 736 listed by the KrongPa People’s Committee However, two households declined to participate, and three were unreachable, including the wife of the Chief of KrongPa People’s Committee and a Rhade woman whose husband prohibited her from being interviewed Additionally, two of the non-responsive households had women who passed away over two years ago, while another household was unavailable due to a death anniversary in a neighboring village.
Due to the absence of data sources documenting migrant information, the study will investigate ten individuals who have migrated from KrongPa village but remain within Vietnam This research will focus on these individuals, who are relatives of 50 randomly selected households, to gather comprehensive insights relevant to the research questions.
Out of the original group, only seven women are eligible for the interview, as the remainder are men Among these seven, three are university students, while one declined to participate Ultimately, only three women agreed to be interviewed by phone, resulting in a high respondent rate of 94 percent for data collection.
The interview process commenced with outreach to the chief of the Buon to outline the research objectives and seek guidance on selecting households for participation Subsequently, the chief coordinated meetings with officers from the Women’s Union in each Buon, who served as guides and translators during the interviews These officers were typically either Kinh or Rhade, reflecting the predominant ethnic group in the Buon For farming households, interviews were generally conducted between 4 PM and 8 PM, as most farming women were engaged in fieldwork during the day In contrast, interviewing households with their own enterprises proved to be more straightforward.
In January 2001, pilot interviews were conducted in the Tan Binh Industrial Zone to explore the relationship between poverty and employment Each interview lasted approximately 30 to 40 minutes, focusing on various topics related to this issue Following data collection, statistical analysis was performed to provide insights and explanations for the study's findings.
1 Real response rate = Number of respondents/(Number of people in sample – number of people who are not elegible – number of people who can not be reached).
KRONGPA CASE STUDY AND RESULTS
KrongPa case study
Son Hoa district, situated in the western part of Phu Yen province and adjacent to Gia Lai province, spans an area of 950 square kilometers and is home to a population of 51,365 residents Among its 14 towns and villages, KrongPa village is located 28 km west of Cung Son town, marking the boundary between Phu Yen and Gia Lai provinces.
736 households with six Buon where most of the Rhade live and one Buon where most of the Kinh live
KrongPa is part of Program 135, a government initiative aimed at improving socio-economic conditions in ethnic minority and mountainous villages This program provides essential infrastructure such as clean water supply facilities, concrete roads, housing, community trade, and low-voltage electrical systems Under the second phase of Program 135, kindergarten children from poor households receive monthly support of VND 70,000 for nine months, while boarding students from these families benefit from VND 140,000 per month, also for nine months, covering food, living expenses, and educational materials like uniforms, pens, and books, as outlined in Decision 112/2007/QĐ-TTg dated July 20, 2007.
The KrongPa poverty rate in 2010 was 57.67 percent, ranking second highest in the district This ranking has increased from third in 2008 while the first ranked village in
Between 2008 and 2009, Krong Pa experienced a significant rise in poverty, ranking third in 2010, indicating that more households fell into poverty than those that escaped it This trend suggests that other villages may have a higher rate of households successfully overcoming poverty The poverty growth rate in Krong Pa reached 22.03 percent, showing a dramatic increase over three years compared to other villages.
The rising poverty levels can be attributed to the increasing number of low-income households, particularly when compared to other villages, as illustrated in Table 4.1.2.
Table 4.1.1 - Poverty rate (%) of KrongPa village compared with others, 2008-2010
Source: Son Hoa District People’s Committee Table 4.1.2 - Number of households, poor households in Son Hoa, 2008-2010
Village Number of households Number of poor households
Source: Son Hoa District People’s Committee
The increase in poverty in KrongPa can be attributed to changes in the government poverty line, which rose from VND 200,000 to VND 400,000 in 2010, as outlined in Decision No 09/2011/QĐ-TTg Despite 161 households escaping poverty that year, many more fell into it, largely due to the loss of farmland from the Ba Ha river hydroelectric project and subsequent seasonal floods Additionally, some Rhade households, having received compensation for their lost land, quickly depleted their funds on housing and goods, leading to rapid impoverishment In contrast, those who invested their compensation in purchasing new farmland or retained their cultivated land were less likely to experience poverty Thus, the interplay of land loss and poor financial management has significantly contributed to the rising poverty levels in KrongPa.
Table 4.1.3 - Poverty over 3 years 2008 – 2010 in KrongPa village
Number of non-poor households 428 435 315
Source: KrongPa village People’s Committee Table 4.1.4 - Poverty rate (%) in KrongPa village in 2010
Buon Kinh households Rhade households Total Percentage (%)
Source: KrongPa village People’s Committee
In 2010, the Vietnam Bank of Social Policy (VBSP) provided over 44% of total loans to poor households in KrongPa, according to the Women’s Union Despite favorable loan conditions, 16 households, representing 0.92% of the total loans, struggled to repay their debts The Women’s Union plays a crucial role in facilitating access to low-interest, long-term microcredit for women, enabling many to escape high-interest private loans incurred due to healthcare costs or job loss By understanding the needs of impoverished women in the community, the Women’s Union effectively supports their financial stability and aids in poverty alleviation in KrongPa.
VBSP offers loans to low-income households aimed at enhancing business production and improving living conditions, thereby supporting the National Target Program for Hunger Elimination, Poverty Alleviation, and Employment.
Vietnam Bank of Social Policy, “Lending to the Poor”, VBSP website, Nov 11 th , 2010, http://www.vbsp.org.vn/evbsp/view_content.php?mamm ,
Table 4.1.5 - Micro Credit in KrongPa village
Amount No of households Amount No of households
Lending to business and production households 3179 124
Lending to specially disadvantaged ethnic minority households 265 53
Source: KrongPa village People’s Committee – Women Union – Year 2010
In the village, over 95 percent of residents rely on farming, primarily cultivating cassava and sugarcane Following a devastating drought in 2008 that wiped out sugarcane crops, many villagers, including the Kinh and Rhade communities, transitioned to cassava to mitigate risks While rice is grown for personal consumption, cassava remains the main cash crop, harvested annually, leading to a preference for yearly payment systems at the end of the harvest season The Rhade's farmland, established through reclamation and passed down through generations, was once sold to the Kinh for low prices in the early 1990s However, recognizing the value of their land, the Rhade now lease it to the Kinh or cultivate it themselves, selling only in emergencies for cash needs such as healthcare or weddings Additionally, many villagers engage in wage labor—performing tasks like weeding and cassava peeling—to supplement their income, earning approximately VND 80,000 for an eight-hour workday.
In 2009, the local government implemented agriculture development programs in Son Hoa district, including Buon Thu village, which received 10 tons of rice seed to aid flood victims Additionally, the village participated in a fruit tree program, although only a small number of Kinh villagers were trained in fruit tree cultivation, with no Rhade individuals involved in the training.
In Rhade families, women hold pivotal roles, making key decisions regarding finances, children's education, housing, and marriages They balance farming alongside their husbands during the day and manage household chores at night, often carrying babies on their backs while working in the fields When their daughters marry, women from non-poor households create handmade textiles as gifts, highlighting their significant contributions This study emphasizes the vital roles and responsibilities of Rhade women in both family and agricultural settings.
Results
A study conducted in KrongPa village surveyed 48 respondents, revealing that 94% were married, with 6% single and 9% of married women identified as widows The majority of husbands were farmers, while 5% were farm wage workers, with their wives engaged in similar occupations Additionally, 12% of respondents were unemployed, and the remainder worked in non-farm sectors The demographic composition included 50% Kinh and 50% Rhade individuals.
According to Figure 4.2.1, about 52% of respondents were not poor, while 21% remained in poverty for three years Additionally, 15% of households successfully escaped poverty, whereas 12.5% fell back into it during the same period The factors influencing these changes in poverty status are based on the four criteria discussed earlier, with the identification of poor and non-poor households detailed in the literature review.
Figure 4.2.1 - Trends in household poverty in KrongPa, (respondents, %)
WHO IS POOR AND NON POOR?
The daily meals of the Rhade people significantly differ from those of the Kinh, with all Rhade incorporating chili-salt, cassava leaf, and yellow ants from their local farms or forests Historically, the Rhade consumed chili to combat malaria and endure cold mountain winds, leading to its prevalent use in their diet today A key indicator of wealth among the Rhade is the frequency of meat consumption; 90% of those without meat in the past week are classified as poor, while nearly half of those enjoying meat three to four times a week are considered wealthy No Rhade family consumes meat more than four times weekly, and while some raise chickens for eggs, fruit and milk are absent from their diets Additionally, 57% of Rhade villagers prefer chili salt and cassava leaves over vegetables, with all maintaining the staple ingredients of chili salt, cassava leaves, and yellow ants, regardless of their economic status.
In stark contrast to the Kinh's daily meals, where the cost of food plays a crucial role in determining poverty, meat is not viewed as the primary indicator of wealth The Kinh recognize the nutritional benefits of meat and eggs, which contribute to their health and daily activities Notably, nearly 41% of villagers reported spending over VND 20,000 on their daily meals, while half of the villagers rarely allocate any money for food.
Table 4.2.1 – Cost of daily meal per household in KrongPa village (respondents, %)
Cost (VND) Total Kinh Rhade
The Rhade community primarily relies on chili-salt, cassava leaves, and yellow ants for their daily meals, with some occasionally purchasing dried fish or meat for health reasons Among them, 27% consume meat daily, primarily those who are not impoverished, while 41.67% have meat several times within a three to six-month period Additionally, 21% enjoy meat several times a week, with 10% being non-poor Rhade and 90% from the Kinh ethnic group Six percent of villagers, particularly those living near the river in Buon Hoc, obtain fresh fish as a meat substitute Other Rhade community members purchase dried fish from the market using savings from their harvest or income from seasonal farm jobs, especially during the dry season, and they often store these dried fish for several months.
Table 4.2.2 – How often each household has meat in their daily meal (respondents, %)
How often Total Kinh Rhade
The clothing needs of the Rhade differ significantly from those of the Kinh, particularly in terms of winter attire While the Kinh, regardless of their economic status, typically possess at least one warm coat, a staggering 31% of Rhade villagers lack any warm clothing, with 93.33% of those affected being Rhade In contrast, Kinh families often have more than three winter coats Additionally, 12% of villagers rely on charitable donations for warm clothing, while 56.25% purchase their coats from the market Among women who struggle to obtain winter coats for themselves, 16.67% cannot provide warm clothing for their children, even through charity Notably, Rhade families do not have children with more than three winter coats, and a greater percentage of Rhade parents possess only one winter coat for their children compared to those who have three.
Table 4.2.3 – Number of winter coats of each child (respondents, %)
No of winter coat Total Kinh Rhade
Nineteen percent of women surveyed have obtained private loans with annual interest rates exceeding 40 percent, with interest payments made once a year during harvest Following the harvest, these women are often only able to pay the interest, leaving the principal unpaid, which results in many of these loans persisting for over two years and significantly enhancing the wealth of creditors.
Seventy-seven percent of participants utilize loans from Program 135 via the VBSP, which offers a low interest rate of 0.65 percent per month This affordable rate has significantly improved capital access for women in Krong Pa, allowing some to borrow from the Women’s Union to settle private debts Consequently, women's savings during harvest season have increased due to reduced interest payments Additionally, this credit option is crucial for economically vulnerable women facing healthcare expenses that could otherwise lead to poverty.
Twenty-seven percent of surveyed women hold mortgage loans with the Vietnam Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development One woman, who obtained credit through the government’s sugarcane program three years ago, is unable to repay her debt due to the program's failure and remains uncertain about her current debt status.
In KrongPa village, women prefer year-end payments for loans, with 89% of private debtors, 53% of government debtors, and 43% of all debtors paying interest at this time, coinciding with the cassava harvest The second most common repayment method is monthly payments, utilized by women with stable incomes from non-farm jobs or seasonal farm wage work, who take out loans that require monthly repayments.
Table 4.2.4 –Credit in KrongPa village (respondents, %)
Kinds of credit Household in debts Household not in debts Total
Table 4.2.5 – Favorite payment methods of credit in KrongPa village (borrowers, %)
Private credit Government credit Deposit credit
The majority of women in the sample have children, with only three single respondents and four without children More than half of the kindergarten-aged children are enrolled in school, thanks to a free local government service that facilitates earlier access to education Notably, there have been no dropouts among primary school-aged children; however, older children are more prone to dropping out Additionally, the transition rate to higher education after high school remains very low.
Fifteen percent of villagers lack children, and nearly 40 percent struggle to support their children's education Among households with school-aged children, 53 percent cite poverty as the reason for dropping out, a statistic consistent across Kinh and Rhade communities Additionally, 5 percent of children leave school due to distance, highlighting the urgent need for a secondary school in nearby villages, including KrongPa, to reduce dropout rates, particularly among poorer families Furthermore, 21 percent of dropouts have left school to work and support their families A decade ago, the primary school was 28 kilometers away, forcing families to keep children home for chores Fortunately, most school-aged children from low-income households can now attend the local primary school, benefiting from free education.
Table 4.2.6 – Education levels of women’s children in KrongPa village (respondents, %)
Age Percent of 41 oldest child Percent of 36 youngest child
Total School Not school Total School Not school
Poverty is the primary factor contributing to school dropouts, as many families lack the financial resources to send their children to secondary school, located nearly 30 kilometers away Consequently, children often remain at home to help boost the family income, jeopardizing their future opportunities, especially in the face of potential risks to their farmland or health.
Table 4.2.7 – The reasons why aged school children dropped out of school (oldest children dropped out of school, %)
Reason for dropping school Total Kinh Rhade
Not enough money 52.63% 50.00% 50.00% do not like school 10.53% 0.00% 100.00%
Have to work for living 21.05% 75.00% 25.00%
In KrongPa village, 38% of respondents live in single-room homes known as "nha san," where all daily activities occur in a shared space, typically constructed with wooden floors and walls Wooden roofs are rare due to high costs, while 47% of villagers reside in houses with three or more rooms, indicating they are non-poor Among these, 29% have cement tile floors, whereas 6% of households with dirt floors are classified as poor Most villagers opt for steel roofs over brick for affordability, with only 10% using tiled roofs and painted walls, representing better-off households.
Table 4.2.8 – Number of rooms of in KrongPa villagers’ house (respondents, %)
Number of rooms Percentage of respondents
A longhouse, constructed from bamboo and wood, is characterized by its length, which is determined by the number of collar beams it contains The interior is divided into two main sections: the Gah area, which serves as the living room and occupies one-third to two-thirds of the total space, and the Ok area, designated for bedrooms The structure features two entrances— a front door for men and a back door for women— along with separate staircases for each gender Typically measuring around 100 meters in length, a longhouse accommodates three to nine nuclear families, earning the description: "The house is as long as the gong's echo."
CONCLUSION
Conclusion
A case study of Kinh and Rhade women in KrongPa village identifies four key factors that contribute to women's employment success: education, skills, credit, and farm size Education significantly impacts job opportunities, with higher educational attainment leading to increased incomes and improved job benefits Additionally, women who participate in agricultural development programs acquire essential farming skills that enhance their yields, achieving up to 13 million VND per hectare compared to 10 million VND for those without such training Access to credit also plays a crucial role, as it not only supports educational pursuits but enables women to relocate to urban areas with better job prospects Lastly, larger farm sizes correlate with higher incomes, allowing women to improve their economic status and escape poverty.
This research investigates the impact of various factors on the poverty levels among Rhade women The findings indicate that traditional ceremonies, such as funerals and marriages, do not contribute to their poverty Instead, healthcare expenses emerge as a significant driver of financial distress, as neglecting personal hygiene and postnatal care leads to gynecological issues that hinder women's ability to work Additionally, rising healthcare costs can plunge families into debt, often at exorbitant interest rates from private lenders The Ba Ha river hydroelectric power project further exacerbates the situation, as the flooding in 2008 resulted in the loss of farmland for many women, who, due to low education levels, struggle to find alternative means of livelihood Notably, some women misallocate their compensation funds, opting to invest in housing or goods rather than purchasing new farmland Consequently, the primary contributors to the poverty affecting 12.5 percent of the villagers are healthcare expenses, debt, and the adverse effects of the hydroelectric project.
A case study from Krong Pa village reveals key insights into how certain women are overcoming poverty, primarily through income diversification and increased farm size While challenging to quantify, the role of hard work is a crucial, yet often overlooked, factor in their success Additionally, families previously burdened by poverty due to having many children have found relief as their children mature and begin contributing financially.
Jobs play a crucial role in alleviating poverty by providing essential income for daily expenses, children's education, and healthcare Conversely, losing a job can plunge individuals back into poverty, highlighting the importance of stable employment for financial security.
The poverty line often fails to capture the complete picture of poverty, as some individuals with incomes above this threshold still struggle to meet their basic needs due to high healthcare expenses, debt, or large families Consequently, relying solely on household income data can lead officials to overlook many who genuinely require government assistance.
Policy recommendations
This section outlines key policy recommendations derived from the study's findings, emphasizing the need for improved educational access for women and children The study indicates that education is crucial for securing better job opportunities, yet the nearest secondary school is 28 kilometers away and lacks boarding facilities, making it challenging for non-poor children to attend without adult supervision Additionally, the government-funded support for poor children attending school is set to end in summer 2011, exacerbating the difficulties faced by these families To address these issues, local governments should first establish secondary classes within the villages to accommodate children at risk of dropping out due to distance However, the limited availability of secondary classes may hinder the district government's ability to understand and address the unique challenges faced by students As a second step, KrongPa and Ea Charang local governments should collaborate to create a boarding secondary school, which would reduce travel time for both teachers and parents, enhance teacher availability after school hours, and lower dropout rates Moreover, it is essential for local governments to develop inclusive policies that support both boarding and non-boarding poor children, with funding sourced from local budgets, non-governmental organizations, and relevant programs.
Local governments should implement supportive policies to encourage children to pursue careers in teaching, ultimately benefiting local education These initiatives would enable underprivileged children in the village to attend school and secure better job opportunities than their parents, thereby reducing poverty rates among ethnic minority communities and improving school retention rates Educated parents are more likely to invest in their children's education Additionally, providing evening classes for children who need to support their families can facilitate their education However, it is crucial to establish stable job opportunities for low-income parents who prioritize their children's schooling to prevent dropout rates.
To enhance farm and non-farm skills, it is essential to implement agricultural programs that educate farmers on effective farming methods, ultimately increasing their yields Many farmers remain unaware of these programs, leading to low attendance; therefore, local governments should facilitate interactions between attendees and non-attendees to share valuable experiences and knowledge Successful farmers can showcase their practices, motivating others, particularly in the Rhade community, to participate in future programs However, the challenge lies in the Rhade people's limited literacy skills, which necessitates the design of agricultural programs in the Rhade language This approach will help eliminate cultural and language barriers, allowing the Rhade community to access opportunities similar to those available to the Kinh.
The Women's Union plays a crucial role in empowering rural women, and both government and non-government programs should engage with this organization to enhance women's access to microcredit and resources Establishing a small cassava processing factory will provide stable employment opportunities for women, while skill-building training will improve their agricultural practices, leading to higher farm yields Additionally, the Women's Union should advocate for increased female participation in agricultural programs and leverage traditional Rhade textile skills by offering training in handmade textiles, enabling women to create crafts for manufacturers Collaboration with local government is essential to streamline administrative processes and secure financial support, ultimately helping poor women achieve stable incomes and improved livelihoods.
Local governments should prioritize creating job opportunities for highly educated Rhade individuals to serve as officials, leveraging their deep understanding of local communities This engagement can lead to the development of effective policies aimed at reducing poverty and enhancing economic mobility within the Rhade community Currently, there is a notable underrepresentation of Rhade individuals in local government positions, despite them constituting the majority of the village population While government policies dictate the ratio of Kinh to Rhade officers, there remain unfilled vacancies that could be effectively addressed by employing qualified Rhade officials.
Rural women, particularly in the Rhade community, are more vulnerable than their male counterparts The Women's Union plays a crucial role in translating policy recommendations into practical actions Local governments should actively support this Union in generating innovative ideas to diversify income sources for women in Krong Pa village.
Limitations of the study
The study has several limitations that impact its findings Firstly, it relies on a case study, making the results applicable only to the specific context defined by village officials over a three-year period, without historical data on poverty spanning five years This raises concerns about the accuracy of the records and the potential for measurement errors in assessing past poverty levels Additionally, the limited participation of migrants in the study restricts the ability to draw meaningful conclusions or identify significant differences related to mobile populations.
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Appendix 1 – Map of KrongPa location
Appendix 2 – Kinds of food in a daily meal per household in a week
Total Kinh Rhade Total Kinh Rhade Total Kinh Rhade
Milk Vegetable Chili salt, cassava leaf
Total Kinh Rhade Total Kinh Rhade Total Kinh Rhade
Appendix 3 – Where each household gets fish in their daily meal (respondents, %)
Appendix 4 – Number of winter coats each woman has (respondents, %)
No of winter coat Total Kinh Rhade
Appendix 5 – Where each woman gets her winter coats (respondents, %)
Appendix 6 – Where villagers get winter coats for their children (respondents, %)
Appendix 7 Đối tượng phục vụ của Ngân hàng Chính sách xã hội (NHCSXH) Đối tượng cho vay Lãi suất
- Cho vay hộ nghèo 7,8%/năm
- Cho vay hộ nghèo tại 62 huyện nghèo theo Nghị quyết 30a của
- Cho vay học sinh, sinh viên có hoàn cảnh khó khăn 6%/năm
3 Các đối tượng cần vay vốn để giải quyết việc làm:
Appendix 8 – Materials of house floors in KrongPa villagers’ houses (respondents, %)
Number of rooms Percentage of respondents
- Cho vay học sinh, sinh viên có hoàn cảnh khó khăn 6%/năm
3 Các đối tượng cần vay vốn để giải quyết việc làm:
- Cho vay cơ sở sản xuất kinh doanh của thương binh, người tàn tật 3,9%/năm
- Cho vay thương binh, người tàn tật 6%/năm
- Cho vay các đối tượng khác 7,8%/năm
4 Các đối tượng chính sách đi lao động có thời hạn ở nước ngoài:
- Cho vay người lao động thuộc các hộ nghèo và người dân tộc thiểu số thuộc 62 huyện nghèo theo Nghị quyết 30a của Chính phủ ngày 27/12/2008
- Cho vay các đối tượng còn lại thuộc 62 huyện nghèo theo Nghị quyết 30a của Chính phủ ngày 27/12/2008 7,8%/năm
- Cho vay xuất khẩu lao động 7,8%/năm
5 Các đối tượng khác theo Quyết định của Chính phủ:
- Cho vay mua nhà trả chậm đồng bằng sông Cửu Long 3%/năm
- Cho vay nước sạch và vệ sinh môi trường nông thôn 10,8%/năm
- Cho vay hộ gia đình sản xuất kinh doanh vùng khó khăn 10,8%/năm
- Cho vay hộ dân tộc thiểu số đặc biệt khó khăn 0%/năm
- Cho vay hộ dân tộc thiểu số di dân định canh, định cư (7,8%/năm hoặc
- Cho vay cơ sở sản xuất kinh doanh, dịch vụ sử dụng lao động sau cai nghiện ma túy 7,8%/năm
- Cho vay phát triển lâm nghiệp 7,8%/năm
- Cho vay doanh nghiệp nhỏ và vừa 10,8%/năm
- Cho vay hỗ trợ hộ nghèo làm nhà ở 3%/năm
- Cho vay lao động mất việc làm do suy giảm kinh tế (7,8%/năm hoặc
Appendix 9 – Materials of house walls in KrongPa villagers’ houses (respondents, %)
Wall material Percentage of respondents
Appendix 10 – Materials of house roofs in KrongPa villagers’ houses (respondents, %)
Roof material Percentage of respondents
Appendix 11 – Electricity in KrongPa villagers’ houses (respondents, %)
Total Government Net Neighbor net
Appendix 12 – Where KrongPa villagers get water (respondent, %)
Water source Percentage of respondents
UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS OF HOCHIMINH CITY THE FULBRIGHT ECONOMICS TEACHING PROGRAM
Investigation about employment of rural women Krong Pa village – Son Hoa District – Phu Yen Province
What is your relationship with the household?
If you are from other village (compare with place of birth), when did you move to here?
1.7 Why did you move to here? (open question)
1.8 Where did you live before moving here?
What was your job before moving here?
(1 st job, 2 nd job, 3 rd job)
2.1 How many people in your family?
2.2 How many children do you have?
2.4 Education level of your children?
2.5 Your children still in school?
1=Yes 2=No 2.6 Why are your children not in school?
1=Yes 2=No 2.8 What are their jobs?
Live with any other person? Family?
Relationship? Do they work? What is their job?
2.10 Ask to get contact to the children if they work off the village?
2.11 What is your husband’s job? (OQ)
2.12 Did you have any children who have died? What year and how old? Why?
2.13 Is anyone in household disabled? Who?
2.14 Does anyone in household receive a pension? Who?
2.15 What is the distance from your house to market?
2.16 What is the distance from your house to school?
Have you ever go to school?
1=Never 2ing in school 3=Stop
What is your highest degree?
1: Primary school Graduation 2: Secondary school Graduation 3: High school Graduation 4: Intermediate Graduation 7: College Graduation 8: University Graduation 9: Others (details)
Why did you drop school? (if respondent has not finished the high school)
1=The school is far 2=Not enough money 3=Have to work for living 4=To pay debt
5el not suitable to school 6=The family do not encourage 7=Get married soon
3.4 Did your family encourage your study before?
Who do not encourage you to school in your family?
1=Parents (dad/mom/both) 2=Husband
If you have a chance to get back to school? Will you take that?
3.7 Why do you want to get back to school?
Have you ever taken any course to improve your skill?
If you have a course to improve skill?
3.12 Why do you want to get a skill training course? (OQ)
What time can you study?
Does your family encourage your study now?
1=Yes 2=No 3.15 Who encourages your study now?
Why not before but now? (just for respondent answer 2 in Q.3.4 and 1 in
When was your last sick?
00=Less than 1 months 01=1 – 2 months ago 11 – 12 months ago 12 months age
4.2 How was your sick? (OQ)
4.3 How much is your medical expenses per month? (the amount of money)
4.4 Do your sick influence on your work?
How do you deal with your sick?
1=take the bill in medical shop 2=see the village doctor
3=go to the local health house 4=go to hospital
Who did pay for your medical bill?
1ily 2=Yourself 3=Government (health insurance)
4.7 Do you have health insurance?
What kind of your health insurance?
1=For the poor 2=For the nearly poor 3=For the policy subjects 4=compulsory health insurance 5=voluntary health insurance
5.1 Do you work on family farm? What crops do you farm?
5.2 What is your main job?
5.3 Hours per week each job/Hours per day/Days per month?
5.4 How long do you take that job? (OQ)
How can you get information about that job?
1=friends 2=Neighbor 3ily 4=Local Government 5=TV ads 6=others
Was it necessary to pay someone to get that job?
5.7 What requirements does the job need?
5.8 How many people work at this place?
5.9 What is your income per day for each job?
How do you get your daily meal?
1=By yourself 2=by the employer
3=by family 4=by meal shop 5=others
Why do you get that job instead of farming? (for respondent job is not farming)
5.12 How many times do you change your jobs?
5.13 What job helped you earn most?
5.14 When did you earn most?
5.15 Why did you lose that job?
5.16 Who watches your children when you are at work? Do you have to pay them?
For those who left the village?
5.17 Why did you left your village? (OQ)
5.18 How long did you left your village?
5.19 Where do you live now? (OQ)
5.20 Who do you live with now? (OQ)
How did you support your job now at the beginning?
5.22 Did you pay all your debt now?
Did you have enough money to pay debt regularly?
5.24 How much have you borrowed? Where have you borrowed?
How can you get this present job?
1=friends 2=Neighbors 3ily 4=Government 5=TV ads
6=University/college 7=Jobs ads 8=Old colleagues
How is your job environment? (OQ: details) 1=Very Good 2=Good 3d 4=Very Bad
Who did support for your leaving village in your family?
5.28 Did you send money to help family?
1=Yes 2=No 5.29 How much do you often send?
5.30 How often do you often send?
During the past week, how many times have you eaten?
1=Tofu 2=Meat (pork/beef) 3=Eggs 4=Chickens
5=Fish 6=Milk/Yoghurt 7=Fruit 8er/wine
6.2 How can you get that food? Which from market? Which from your own farm?
6.3 How much is your daily meal?
6.4 How often do you have meat/seafood in your meal?
6.5 How can you get that meat/seafood?
6.6 Do your children have milk in their meal?
6.7 How often do your children have their milk?
Where do you get milk from?
1=From market 2=From your own farm
6.9 Do you often drink wine? Is that a habit?
6.10 How much do you spend on wine per month?
What is the highest degree of your oldest child? Why?
1: Primary school Graduation 2: Secondary school Graduation 3: High school Graduation 4: Intermediate Graduation 5: College Graduation 6: University Graduation 7: Others (details)
What is the highest degree of your youngest child? Why?
1: Primary school Graduation 2: Secondary school Graduation 3: High school Graduation 4: Intermediate Graduation 5: College Graduation 6: University Graduation 7: Others (details)
7.3 Did your children drop school?
Why did your children drop school?
1=not enough money 2=they do not like school 3=they have to work for family living 4=the school is so far
VIII CLOTHES TO WEAR OUTSIDE THE
8.1 Do your children have enough warm clothes for the winter? How about you?
How can your children get the winter coat?
1=You bought 2=From the others as a gift 3=From charity
8.3 How many winter coats does your each child have?
How can you your children get the uniform?
1=You bought 2=From the others as a gift 3=From charity
8.5 How many uniforms does your each child have?
Do your children have new clothes in the Tet holiday?
1=Yes 2=No 8.7 How many suits each child has?
Do you have enough money to spend on yourself and family?
Do you get credit from Bank/government/others?
1=Yes 2=No 9.4 Amount? Rate? Due date? Where?
9.5 Why do not you go to the bank?
Do you know anyone the bank has help with farm-work or funding a shop?
1=Yes 2=No 9.7 If yes, who?
9.8 If yes, how can they get that?
Is your farm/shop-work wholly funded by you or with other persons
1=By yourself 2=with other persons
9.10 Do you have enough money to pay debt regularly? (pay per day/week/month) 9.11 Do you have enough information regarding poverty alleviation? (just for respondent answer no in Q.9.1) 1=Strongly agree
10.1 How many rooms are there in your house?
How many people are there in your house?
10.3 What is your floor material?
10.4 What is your wall material?
10.5 What is your Roof material?
10.6 Do you have electricity? How?
10.7 How often do you have electricity?
10.8 Do you have piped water? Why? Why not? Where is water from?
11.2 Do you have telephone (fixed line?)
11.3 Do you have Mobile phone?
11.5 Do you have bicycle/motorbike? How many?
11.6 Do you have air conditioner?
12.1 Does your family have farm land?
1=Yes 2=No 12.2 What is your farm land size?
How can you get that farm land?
1=From legacy 2=Self-Buy 3=Rent 4=Other 12.4 Do you self-farm or farm for rent?
12.5 What do you have in your farm?
12.6 What animals do you raise? (pig, chicken, duck, buffalo, fish pond, others) 12.7 How many animals do you have?