Rationale
Speaking is a crucial element in the language learning process, often regarded as the core of acquiring a second language (Egan, 1999) According to Nunan (1999), the success of language learning is evaluated by one's ability to engage in conversation Nevertheless, producing spoken language is frequently viewed as one of the most challenging components of learning a new language (Brown & Yule).
According to Pinter (2006), mastering spoken language is often regarded as the most significant challenge for language learners Consequently, enhancing speaking proficiency has become a vital concern for educators aiming to support their students effectively.
Ethnic minority students in Dien Bien often understand written text but struggle with oral expression, preferring to communicate in their mother tongue They fear making mistakes while speaking English, which hinders their participation in class and limits their speaking practice Consequently, this lack of experience leads to poor speaking skills and low grades in English.
The Chinese proverb, "Teachers open the doors, but you must enter by yourself," highlights the shift towards a learner-centered approach in education, emphasizing the importance of student initiative in the learning process While teachers create valuable opportunities for knowledge acquisition, it is the learners who must actively apply this knowledge to enhance their own success Research by Wenden and Rubin (1987) indicates that students who effectively utilize learning strategies tend to achieve greater success, underscoring the critical role of individual effort in education.
Learning strategies are recognized as a highly effective educational tool that can assist students in overcoming challenges in their language learning journey However, many ethnic minority students tend to overlook the strategies recommended by their teachers or infrequently implement them in their studies.
An old proverb states, “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day; teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime.” In the context of language teaching and learning, this implies that equipping students with effective strategies empowers them to take control of their own learning Therefore, it is essential to encourage the use of language learning strategies throughout the educational process.
There has been a limitation in the number of studies on the second language learning of ethnic minority students in Vietnam Study by Tran Thi Phuong Hoa
Research on ethnic minority students' beliefs about English language learning has been limited, with notable studies including Le Ngoc Oanh's (2009) examination of reading strategies among Kinh and Thai students and Do Thi Anh Thu's (2017) focus on learner autonomy in Vietnam's Northwest region However, there remains a gap in understanding the speaking strategies utilized by ethnic minority students to enhance their speaking skills Motivated by this gap, the author aims to investigate the speaking strategies of successful learners, with the intention of applying these findings to support less successful learners in their speaking development As Rubin (1975) suggests, understanding the practices of successful learners could enable educators to impart these strategies to those who struggle, ultimately improving their learning outcomes.
Objectives of the study
Non-major ethnic minority students often struggle to engage in speaking activities within the classroom To enhance their communicative skills, it is essential to explore the learning strategies employed by both successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority learners This paper aims to identify these strategies and their impact on students' participation and communication abilities.
(1) explore the kinds of language learning strategies for developing
English speaking skill that successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students at Dien Bien teacher training college report that they use
(2) investigate the relationship ( if any) between successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students‘ oral English proficiency and their language learning strategies.
Research questions
To serve the above-mentioned objectives, the following questions will be dealt with:
Successful non-major ethnic minority students at Dien Bien Teacher Training College employ effective language learning strategies to enhance their English speaking skills, including immersive practice, peer collaboration, and regular feedback In contrast, unsuccessful students often rely on passive learning techniques and lack consistent speaking practice, which hinders their progress By analyzing these differing approaches, it becomes clear that active engagement and strategic practice are crucial for developing proficiency in English speaking among non-major ethnic minority students.
2 To what extent is the language learning strategies related to successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students‘ oral English proficiency?
Methods of the study
This study focused on first-year non-major ethnic minority students at Dien Bien Teacher Training College To meet the research objectives, a descriptive survey was conducted, collecting data through questionnaires and student interviews The gathered data were then analyzed and synthesized using both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Scope of the study
This study examines first-year non-major ethnic minority students, categorizing them as successful or unsuccessful based on their speaking skills It focuses on the learning strategies employed by these students to enhance their speaking abilities and investigates the correlation between these strategies and their oral language proficiency.
Significance of the study
This study is valuable for language learners seeking effective strategies to enhance their English speaking skills and achieve success It elucidates the learning strategies employed and demonstrates their effectiveness as essential tools for language acquisition Furthermore, the study discusses significant implications aimed at increasing learners' awareness of speaking strategies, while also encouraging teachers to promote and facilitate the sharing of these strategies among students.
Organization of the study
The study is divided into three main parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion
This study aims to explore the rationale and purpose behind the research, addressing key questions through specific methods within a defined scope It highlights the significance of the findings and outlines the organization of the study The development section is divided into three comprehensive chapters, each contributing to a deeper understanding of the topic.
Chapter 1, Literature review, discusses the theoretical background in the light of which the research matters will be discussed
Chapter 2, Methodology of the research, describes the nuclear method used to investigate the research matters
Chapter 3, Findings and discussions, shows the results of the study and provides answers to the research questions
Part C is the Conclusion which summarizes the overall study and proposes some implications as well as suggests for other related studies
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language learning strategies
This section explores the definition and classification of language learning strategies, highlighting their significance in the language acquisition process Additionally, it briefly clarifies the distinctions between language learning strategies and language use strategies, providing a clear understanding of their unique roles in effective communication.
1.1 1 Definitions of language learning strategies
The concept of language learning strategies has been challenging to define, as noted by Griffiths (2008:83) Over the past few decades, various researchers and scholars have proposed different definitions This thesis specifically examines the definitions provided by Rubin (1975), O'Malley and Chamot (1990), and Oxford (1990).
As a pioneer in this field, Rubin (1975: 43) proposes that ‘the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge’ (cited in Giffiths, 2004:2)
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) define learning strategies as the unique thoughts or behaviors that individuals employ to enhance their understanding, retention, and learning of new information In contrast, Oxford (1990) describes language learning strategies as specific actions taken by learners to facilitate a more efficient, enjoyable, self-directed, and effective learning experience that can be applied in various contexts Both definitions highlight that language learning strategies play a crucial role in helping learners enhance their knowledge and achieve their language objectives.
According to Giffiths (2004), Rubin provides a very broad definition of learning strategies Therefore, Rubin‘s definition is too hard to cover
In O‘M lley nd Ch mot‘s definition, lthough it clearly presents the goals:
‗strategies are to help students achieve comprehension and learning new information‘ (Lan, 2005:17), it does not emphasize on aspects of language learning or solve problems faced in the language learning
Compared to other definitions, the Oxford definition of language learning strategies (LLS) is noted for its comprehensiveness, emphasizing the importance of learning and the effective use of information (Lan, 2005) It highlights how learning is transformed when enhanced by specific strategies, which are designed to assist learners in achieving their language goals Additionally, Ramesh (2009) supports this view, stating that LLS are crucial for improving the language learning process through deliberate actions.
As noted bove, Oxford‘s definition is the most appropriate to guide the current study because it is clear and understandable
1.1.2 Classifications of language learning strategies
In the realm of second or foreign language learning, various classifications of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) exist, particularly those aimed at enhancing speaking skills Notable contributions to this classification include the work of Bialystok (1978) and the research conducted by O'Malley and Chamot.
Bialystok (1978) categorizes language learning strategies into four main types: functional practicing, which involves practical tasks like transactions in a store; monitoring and formal practicing, exemplified by verbal drills in language classes; inferencing, which utilizes both implicit linguistic knowledge and general world knowledge; and a focus on cognitive and metacognitive strategies However, her model lacks consideration of social and affective components, making it less applicable for studies aimed at enhancing speaking skills through language learning strategies.
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) identified three primary strategies for learning: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies Metacognitive strategies involve planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning process, while cognitive strategies encompass techniques like repetition, note-taking, and summarization Social/affective strategies facilitate communication and interaction with others Their classification is grounded in cognitive science theories and has gained acceptance among educators and researchers (Lan, 2005) However, Cohen (1996) critiques this taxonomy for its limited focus, noting that it primarily addresses cognitive and metacognitive strategies, neglecting the depth of social and affective strategies.
A significant limitation in the classification systems proposed by Bialystok, O'Malley, and Chamot is their insufficient focus on affective strategies According to Krashen's affective filter hypothesis (1982), emotional factors are crucial to achieving success in second language acquisition Therefore, the importance of affective strategies in language learning cannot be overlooked.
While existing taxonomies offer initial insights into language learning strategies that can enhance speaking success, their limitations may render them inadequate for this research Therefore, developing a more suitable classification is essential According to Oxford (1990:8), language learning strategies significantly contribute to the development of overall communicative competence For this study, Oxford's strategy classification, which categorizes strategies into two primary types—direct and indirect—has been selected as the framework.
Direct strategies in language learning encompass memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, each serving a distinct purpose Memory strategies aid learners in storing and retrieving essential information for effective communication Cognitive strategies facilitate understanding and production of new language through various methods, making the learning process easier Lastly, compensation strategies empower learners to navigate their limitations in language knowledge, enabling authentic communication.
Indirect strategies in language learning are categorized into metacognitive, affective, and social strategies, all of which significantly enhance the learning experience (Oxford, 1990) Metacognitive strategies focus on organizing and evaluating the learning process, while affective strategies foster self-confidence and help learners manage their emotions, motivations, and attitudes towards language acquisition Additionally, social strategies play a crucial role in facilitating interaction and collaboration among learners, further enriching their educational journey.
‗provide increased interaction and more empathetic understanding, two qualities necessary to reach communicative competence’(Oxford, 1990: 14)
Generally speaking, compared with other categories, Oxford‘s t xonomy is
Ellis (1994) presents perhaps the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies, which is recognized as the most detailed and systematic taxonomy to date (Radwan, 2011) This study focuses on 46 out of the 62 strategies identified in her classification, specifically aimed at enhancing speaking skills Oxford's classification of language learning strategies serves as the foundational model for this research.
1 Placing new words into a context Memory Direct
2 Representing sounds in memory Memory Direct
5 Formally practising with sounds and writing systems
6 Recognizing and using formulas and patterns Cognitive Direct
9 Using resources for receiving and sending messages Cognitive Direct
13 Switching to the mother tongue Compensation Direct
15 Using mime or gesture Compensation Direct
16 Avoiding communication partially or totally Compensation Direct
17 Selecting the topic Compensation Direct
18 Adjusting or approximating the message Compensation Direct
20 Using a circumlocution or synonym Compensation Direct
21 Overviewing and linking with already known material
23 Delaying speech production to focus on listening Metacognitive Indirect
24 Finding out about language learning Metacognitive Indirect
26 Setting goals and objectives Metacognitive Indirect
27 Identifying the purpose of a language task Metacognitive Indirect
28 Planning for a language task Metacognitive Indirect
29 Seeking practice opportunities Metacognitive Indirect
32 Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation
35 Making positive statements Affective Indirect
36 Taking risks wisely Affective Indirect
38 Listening to your body Affective Indirect
40 Writing a language learning diary Affective Indirect
41 Discussing your feelings with someone else Affective Indirect
42 Asking for correction Social Indirect
43 Cooperating with peers Social Indirect
44 Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
45 Developing cultural understanding Social Indirect
46 Be oming w re of others‘ thoughts nd feelings Social Indirect
1.1.3 The differences between language learning strategies and language use strategies
Language learning and use strategies have gained significant attention in foreign language education, as highlighted by Cohen et al (1996) Educators seek effective methods to enhance learners' success in acquiring languages and communicating with native speakers The application of these strategies is recognized as a key factor in promoting language proficiency However, it is crucial to distinguish between language learning strategies and language use strategies This section aims to clarify these differences for better understanding.
This section will first highlight the differences in definitions, followed by an exploration of the distinctions between the classification of language use strategies and the taxonomy of language learning strategies.
Cohen (1996) emphasizes that language learning strategies aim to enhance learners' knowledge of a target language, while language use strategies concentrate on utilizing the language that learners currently possess in their interlanguage This distinction between language learning and language use strategies is clearly articulated by Cohen, providing a valuable framework for understanding their respective roles in language acquisition.
Speaking skill
This section presents speaking skill including definitions, speaking strategies, components of second language speaking competence and speaking approaches
Speaking is the fundamental method of communication, essential for expressing thoughts and ideas Various definitions of speaking have emerged over time, highlighting its significance in effective dialogue.
According to Oxford Advanced Dictionary, speaking is ‘to express or communicate opinions, feelings, ideas, etc, by or as talking’ Chaney and Burk
(1998:13) state that speaking is ‗the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts’ Brown,
Burns and Joyce (1999) define speaking as an interactive process that constructs meaning through the production, reception, and processing of information This definition highlights that speaking serves not only to express our ideas but also to communicate information effectively to others.
Speaking is defined as an oral language skill generated by learners (Biley, 2005), focusing on the ability to communicate and exchange information between individuals (Thornbury, 2005) Brown and Yule (2001) further describe speaking as a means to express needs, such as requests and information Therefore, this study views speaking as the skill of exchanging information and constructing meaning through oral communication.
Person lly spe king, I prefer Brown nd Yule‘s idea presented in their book-
According to Discourse Analysis (1983), speaking serves two primary functions: transactional, which focuses on the transfer of information, and interactional, which emphasizes the maintenance of social relationships (cited in S l h, 2015) The interactional function highlights the importance of speaking in expressing social relations and personal attitudes This productive skill enables individuals to convey their ideas, feelings, and purposes on various topics Given its significant role, speaking is regarded as one of the most essential skills in language learning.
Speaking strategies are essential tools for fostering active and self-directed involvement in developing second language communicative ability (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990; cited in Susie, 2011) Larenas (2011) further defines these strategies as actions and procedures that students utilize to successfully complete oral communicative tasks According to Faerch and Kasper (1983), speaking strategies can be viewed as potentially conscious plans aimed at addressing challenges that arise when trying to achieve specific communicative goals (cited in Brown, 2000).
1.2.3 Components of second language speaking competence
Prominent researchers have developed valuable models of second language speaking competence, notably Canale and Swain (1980) and Hymes (1971) Hymes emphasizes the importance of integrating grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and probabilistic language components to effectively improve speaking skills Meanwhile, Canale and Swain identify four key components of communicative competence: grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence (cited in Abbaspour, 2016:146) However, the terminologies used by these researchers can be abstract and challenging for readers to comprehend.
The author supports Goh & Burns' components of second language speaking competence due to their scientific and logical presentation This model enhances teachers' understanding of what constitutes speaking competence, making it relevant to the current study.
Goh & Burns (2012:53) give three areas of speaking competence which are briefly outlined below:
Mastering a language and its discourse involves understanding its sound patterns, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as recognizing how connected speech is structured to ensure social and pragmatic appropriateness.
Core speaking skills encompass the ability to process speech efficiently to enhance fluency, which includes aspects such as speech rate, chunking, pausing, and the use of formulaic language and discourse markers These skills also involve negotiating speech by building on previous comments, monitoring comprehension, addressing communication breakdowns, and providing feedback Additionally, effective speaking requires managing the flow of conversation through topic initiation, turn-taking, signaling intentions, and properly opening or closing discussions.
Effective communication strategies encompass cognitive techniques to address language limitations, such as circumlocution, paraphrasing, and gestures Additionally, they include metacognitive strategies that involve planning and consciously reflecting on speech delivery Furthermore, interaction strategies like seeking clarification, reformulating, and checking comprehension are essential for enhancing communication effectiveness.
This study is grounded on two approaches that were discussed by Richards in
1990, namely indirect approach and direct one for the aim to determine the approach that is more suitable in teaching speaking
According to Ri h rds (1990), conversational competence is developed through an indirect approach that engages learners in conversational interactions Schmidt (1991) describes this method, prevalent in communicative language teaching (CLT) during the late 1970s and 1980s, as involving lifelike communicative situations such as role plays and problem-solving tasks This approach encourages learners to acquire communicative skills incidentally by focusing on situational meaning CLT emphasizes the importance of fluency and the ability to communicate effectively across various contexts and methods.
The communicative approach to language learning offers several advantages, particularly in fostering opportunities for learners to engage with the target language meaningfully According to Nunan (1991), this approach emphasizes the importance of using the language in authentic contexts Sun and Cheng (2002) highlight that Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) relies on genuine language input, real-life practice, and creative output, all influenced by the situational context In the Vietnamese context, CLT encourages active participation in meaningful interactions for information exchange and problem-solving (Brandl, 2008; Canh, 1999) This method provides learners with ample opportunities to engage in classroom activities and experience English in real-life situations.
Research highlights several weaknesses in the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach Medgyes (1990) notes that this method often leads to confusion and uncertainty among teachers, resulting in conflicts Similarly, Mangubhai et al (2007) found that educators struggle with understanding the meaning and application of CLT Additionally, Canh and Hiep (1999) identified significant limitations in Vietnam, including students' negative attitudes toward communicative activities and teachers' lack of confidence in using CLT methodologies Consequently, teachers face challenges in implementing this approach in English lessons, as they are required to act as facilitators and monitors during learning activities (Littlewood, 1981; Richard, 2006).
Richards (1990) emphasizes a direct approach that involves designing a conversational program centered on specific microskills, strategies, and processes essential for fluent conversation Similarly, Dornyei (1997) highlights that this approach mirrors traditional grammar teaching methods, where new linguistic information is explicitly conveyed and practiced He underscores the significance of grammar instruction in developing effective conversational skills.
The direct approach to language learning enhances learners' awareness of the nature, systems, and patterns in conversations through targeted language input (Dornyei and Thurrell, 1994) According to Roger (2008), this method equips learners with essential skills, including the use of fixed expressions, micro-skills, set phrases, and discourse markers prevalent in spoken discourse As noted by Rivers (1968), the direct method offers an engaging and dynamic way to learn a foreign language, effectively helping students overcome the common inhibitions associated with speaking in a new language, especially during the initial stages of learning.
Relationship between language learning strategy use and language
This section aims to clarify the connection between language learning strategy use and language proficiency by defining proficiency, outlining its various levels, and reviewing research that explores this relationship.
The term ‗profi ien y‘ has been highlighted by Bachman This term refers to
‗knowledge, ompeten e or bility in the use of l ngu ge, irrespe tive of how, where, or under wh t onditions it h s been quired (1990:16)‘
According to various studies, determining language proficiency levels have been based on scores on norm-referenced or criterion-referenced tests (Bremner, 1999; Green & Oxford, 1995; Phillips, 1990), scores decided by teachers (Chamot
Research indicates the importance of assessments in determining the optimal learning level for students According to Brown (1994), effective testing is essential to identify the point at which learners encounter an appropriately challenging class, avoiding levels that are too easy or too difficult Additionally, self-ratings by learners, as noted by Wharton (2000), can further contribute to understanding individual learning needs and preferences.
The relationship between language proficiency and the use of language learning strategies remain controversial among researchers over the decades
Numerous studies have demonstrated a significant connection between the use of language learning strategies and language proficiency Research by Chamot & Küpper (1989), Green & Oxford (1995), Gu & Johnson (1996), Kim (2001), Oxford (2000), and Park (1997) indicates that both the quantity and appropriateness of strategy use are linked to improved language proficiency Overall, it is widely recognized that employing effective language learning strategies positively influences language skills.
Numerous studies indicate that high-proficiency language learners utilize strategies more often than their low-proficiency counterparts (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995; Lee, 2003; Griffiths, 2006; Yang, 2007; Gavriilidou and Papanis, 2010) This suggests a clear linear relationship between the use of language learning strategies and overall proficiency.
Some researchers argue that language learning strategies (LLSs) do not significantly impact language proficiency McIntyre (1994) suggests that proficiency may influence strategy selection, or that the choice of strategies merely reflects a learner's proficiency level (Bremner, 1999:494) Additionally, Skehan (1989) and Rees-Miller (1993) note that while a correlation exists between LLSs and proficiency, this does not imply a direct causal relationship (Bremner, 1999:494).
Whatever the argument, the majority of studies point out that LLSs and language proficiency is strongly positive relationship.
Language Learning Strategies and English Majors
Research on learning strategy use among English majors has been limited, with notable contributions from Liu (2004), Chuin & Kaur (2015), and Buainain (2010) These studies provide valuable insights into the strategies employed by students in this field.
Liu (2004) EFL Proficiency, Gender and Language Learning Strategy Use among a Group of Chinese Technological Institute English Majors
Purposes of the study - To investigate the frequency of EFL learning strategy use
- To examine the relationships of two affecting factors: gender and language proficiency
Participants Technological Institute English Majors in China
Methods of Data Collection Questionnaire
Methods of Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, independent sample T-test
Results 1 Chinese technological Institute English Majors were medium strategy users
2 Learners with better EFL proficiency reported using the overall strategy and each of the six categories of strategy significantly more frequently than learners with lower EFL proficiency did
3 Significant gender differences among Overall strategy use, Memory strategies and Affective strategies with females surpassing males in each case
Buainain (2010) Language Learning Strategies Employed by English Majors at Qatar University: Questions and Queries
Purposes of the study - To discuss the type and frequency of language learning strategies used by Qatar University English majors Participants English major students at Qatar University
Methods of Data Collection Questionnaire
Methods of Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, MANOVA
Results 1 They preferred to use metacognitive strategies the most, whereas they showed the least use of affective strategies
2 In general, the results indicate that Level and Proficiency have differences on the use of some strategies
Chuin & Kaur (2015) Type of Language learning strategies used by tertiary English majors
Purposes of the study - To investigate the types of language learning strategies
- To ex mine the English m jor students‘ per eptions of using language learning strategies while learning English
Participants English majors in University Sains in Malaysia
Methods of Data Collection Questionnaire
Methods of Data Analysis Descriptive statistics, SPSS
Results 1 The English majors used more indirect strategies than direct strategies They were reported to use metacognitive strategies the most The least preferred strategies among the English majors were memory strategies
2 Language learning strategies did not always develop language competency
This study investigates the learning strategies utilized by non-major students at Dien Bien Teacher Training College to enhance their speaking skills in English It builds on previous research that focused on English major students and their frequency of strategy use in language learning.
Previous studies
This section states an overview of previous studies including language learning strategies and speaking strategies
1.5.1 Previous studies on language learning strategies
Gerami and Baighlou (2011) conducted a remarkable study on the application of language learning strategies by successful and unsuccessful Iranian EFL students The participants attending this study were 200 male (73) and female
(127) EFL learners The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL; Oxford,
A study conducted in 1990 revealed that successful English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students employed a broader array of learning strategies compared to their unsuccessful counterparts The findings indicated that successful learners utilized overall strategies significantly more frequently, with a strong preference for metacognitive and compensation strategies In contrast, unsuccessful students demonstrated a notably lower usage of these effective strategies.
Yang (2007) examined how ethnicity and language proficiency impact the use of language learning strategies among junior college students, utilizing the Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) to gather data from 451 participants The study found significant differences in strategy usage between aboriginal and non-aboriginal students, as well as among students with varying levels of English proficiency—high, intermediate, and low Results indicated that ethnicity significantly influenced the selection of language learning strategies, while more proficient students tended to employ strategies more frequently across all six categories compared to their less proficient peers.
The study identified the most and least favored learning strategies among different ethnic and proficiency groups It was found that students predominantly utilized compensation strategies, followed by social, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies, with memory strategies being the least frequently employed.
1.5.2 Previous studies on speaking strategies
A study by Gani, Fajrina, and Hanifa (2015) investigated the learning strategies for developing speaking skills among high and low performance students in Indonesian high schools Utilizing a questionnaire based on Oxford's (1990) framework and interviews for data collection, the findings revealed that high-performing students employed a balanced range of strategies, including memory, cognitive, compensatory, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies, to enhance their speaking skills In contrast, low-performing students primarily relied on compensation and social strategies, neglecting memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective approaches in their speaking skill development.
Ardiansyah ( 2015) investigated language learning strategies of speaking skills used by successful and unsuccessful students at semester III English
Department of IAIN Sultan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi The number of participant was
64 The questionnaires b sed on Oxford‘s SILL(1990) Speaking test, interview and observation were means of collecting data The findings indicated that the language learning strategies of speaking used by successful students were cognitive, compensation, metacognitive and social while unsuccessful students used memory, metacognitive, and affective strategies in their speaking
In a study conducted by Susie (2011), the language learning strategies utilized by university students to enhance their speaking skills were examined, focusing on the reasons behind their choices The research involved six eighth-semester students from a university in Bandung, utilizing a questionnaire based on Oxford's (1990) model and interviews for data collection The analysis of questionnaire data employed the Likert scale, while interview data were analyzed using Kvale’s approach Findings indicated that both high and low achievers predominantly used meta-cognitive strategies for improving their speaking skills, whereas middle achievers favored affective strategies Notably, high achievers demonstrated a broader range of effective language learning strategies, and participants consciously employed these strategies to facilitate their progress in developing English speaking skills.
With the previous studies mentioned above, subject selection and data collection methods are commented as follows:
The studies focus on learners from various colleges, universities, and high schools who are acquiring English as a second or foreign language Participants are typically categorized into two groups for comparative analysis: successful versus unsuccessful learners, high versus low achievers, and proficient versus less proficient speakers.
Secondly, questionnaire, interview and observation were primary methods of collecting data
According to Cohen et al (2007), interviews serve as a versatile data collection tool that utilizes multiple sensory channels, including verbal and non-verbal communication However, they also acknowledge that interviews can be susceptible to subjectivity and bias from the interviewer.
The Oxford questionnaire (1990) has been extensively utilized by researchers to investigate learners' language learning strategies (LLSs) Dornyie (2003) emphasizes its unprecedented efficiency in saving research time, effort, and financial resources Supporting this viewpoint, Makey and Gass (2005) argue that questionnaires are more practical and economical than interviews, allowing for the collection of comparable data from multiple respondents However, a notable limitation of this method is the researcher's inability to probe deeper into responses, as highlighted by Brown et al (2015).
The observation method offers an impartial and objective perspective in research, as noted by Cohen (2011:78), allowing for a more comprehensive understanding beyond learner-provided data However, it has notable drawbacks, including its inability to capture internal mental processes such as reasoning or self-talk, as highlighted by Cohen (2011:77) Additionally, this method may face challenges in providing detailed descriptions of these internal strategies.
Researchers tend to focus their data collection on students who are more vocal during class, which can restrict the findings to a specific group of language learners, particularly the outspoken or extroverted individuals (Cohen, 2011:77).
Cohen and Scott (1996) contend that there is no flawless research method, while Robson (2002: 161) emphasizes that the choice of data collection methods is influenced by the research's primary objectives Acknowledging the pros and cons of various approaches, the author of this thesis must strategically leverage the strengths of the selected methods for effective data collection.
Research on speaking strategies has been conducted globally, yet studies focusing on learning strategies among ethnic minority students remain limited Notable examples include Zou's (2017) investigation into English vocabulary learning strategies among ethnic minority students at Leshan Normal University in Sichuan, China, and Dung's (2017) exploration of the relationship between language learning strategies and learning styles of ethnic students at Thai Nguyen University in Vietnam.
Summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive literature review on language learning strategies, focusing on Oxford's definition and taxonomy to investigate speaking strategies among ethnic minority students It clarifies the distinction between language learning strategies and language use strategies to eliminate confusion in exploring speaking strategies Additionally, it offers a detailed overview of the concept of 'speaking,' including speaking strategies, components of speaking competence, and various speaking approaches The chapter also briefly reviews previous studies related to language learning strategies and English majors, aiming to identify effective data collection methods for the current research and facilitate comparison with existing findings The next chapter will outline the research methodology.
METHODOLOGY
Research questions
This study investigates the language learning strategies employed by non-major ethnic minority students to enhance their speaking skills and examines the correlation between their oral English proficiency and these strategies Specifically, the research addresses key questions related to the types of strategies utilized and their impact on language acquisition.
1 What kinds of language learning strategies do successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students at Dien Bien teacher training college report that they use to develop English speaking skill?
2 To what extent is the language learning strategies related to successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students‘ oral English proficiency?
Research method: Survey
In this section, the following aspects are covered:
4 Steps in carrying out a survey
7 The outcomes of the pilot study
Survey research has become a significant endeavor in both academia and various professional fields, as noted by Kalton (1983) Nunan (1992) highlights its extensive application in social inquiries, covering areas such as politics, sociology, education, and linguistics Additionally, Kasunic (2005) emphasizes that surveys enable researchers to generalize the beliefs and opinions of larger populations by examining a representative subset.
Survey research is a valuable method for gathering information about population groups to understand their characteristics, opinions, attitudes, and experiences (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005) According to Cnh, the researcher's lecturer, this approach can effectively describe, explore, or explain various aspects such as physical traits, behaviors, and attitudes Consequently, survey research provides researchers with insights into participants' thoughts and opinions regarding language learning strategies aimed at enhancing speaking skills.
After years of teaching, I've observed that many ethnic minority students are eager to improve their English speaking skills, yet they encounter significant challenges This survey study aims to identify effective learning strategies that can enhance their English speaking abilities.
2.2.2 Types of survey research: Descriptive survey
Kerlinger (1986) has identified some specific types of survey studies, including descriptive, exploratory and explanatory Descriptive survey has been described as indispensable in the early stages of studying a phenomenon (Dubin,
A descriptive study aims to analyze and depict the distribution of a phenomenon within a population, ultimately uncovering significant events This approach is essential for developing the units that form the basis of various theories, as highlighted by Malhotra and Grover (1998).
Exploratory research focuses on examining relationships and patterns without predefined models, making it the most suitable approach for this study In contrast, explanatory research aims to identify causal relationships among variables Surveys, as a widely utilized descriptive method in educational research (Cohen and Manion, 1985), effectively facilitate this exploratory investigation.
2.2.3 Survey research designs: Cross-sectional design
Research design is fundamentally a strategic framework aimed at addressing specific research questions or problems (Kerlinger, 1986) It serves to deliver the most valid and accurate responses possible (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006) This design outlines the methodologies for conducting the study, detailing aspects such as the timing, sources, and conditions under which data is collected.
Survey design is a crucial concept that involves various data collection methods to help educators and researchers investigate specific constructs by posing questions to a sample population This approach aims to gather descriptive data that can be generalized to the larger population (Griffee, 2012:52) There are two primary types of survey designs: longitudinal and cross-sectional, each serving distinct purposes in research.
Longitudinal studies are effective for examining phenomena that evolve over time by collecting data from the same organization and respondents at various intervals While these designs can be challenging to implement, they significantly increase the reliability of the findings.
A cross-sectional study is a widely used research design that involves collecting data from a sample at a specific point in time to represent the larger population According to Cohen et al (2007), this method provides a "snapshot" of the population at that moment, allowing researchers to analyze various characteristics and trends effectively.
Longitudinal designs present several challenges, primarily their time-consuming and costly nature, as researchers must wait for growth data to accumulate (Cohen et al., 2007:216) Additionally, securing participant involvement can be problematic due to the need for repeated contact over time (Cohen et al., 2007:219).
Cross-sectional designs offer several advantages over longitudinal designs, including lower costs and reduced susceptibility to control effects (Cohen et al., 2007:217) Additionally, they enable researchers to obtain findings more rapidly and tend to garner greater cooperation from respondents.
Highly aware of the merits and features of cross-sectional design mentioned above, this design is appropriate for the purpose of this study
2.2.4 Steps in carrying out a survey: 7 steps
Conducting a survey involves several essential steps as outlined by various researchers Nunan (1992) identifies eight key steps: defining objectives, identifying the target population, conducting a literature review, determining the sample, selecting survey instruments, designing survey procedures, and establishing reporting methods Brown (2001) simplifies this into six steps, which include planning the survey, developing the instrument, gathering data, and analyzing it both statistically and qualitatively before reporting the results Kasunic (2005) presents a seven-step process that emphasizes identifying research objectives, characterizing the target audience, designing the sampling plan, crafting the questionnaire, pilot testing it, distributing the questionnaire, and analyzing the results The current study applied Kasunic’s steps, particularly focusing on the pilot testing of the questionnaire, as highlighted by Griffee (2012), who stresses the importance of piloting to ensure that respondents accurately interpret the questions.
Table 1- Seven-stage survey research process (Kasunic, 2005:7)
This current study fully follows Kasunic's seven steps as follows:
Step 1: identify the research objective
This study aims at exploring the types of language learning strategies used by ethnic minority students for developing their oral performance by seeking two the following questions:
1 What kinds of language learning strategies do successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students at Dien Bien teacher training college report that they use to develop English speaking skill?
2 To what extent is the language learning strategies related to successful and unsuccessful non-major ethnic minority students‘ oral English proficiency?
Step 2: identify and characterize the target audience
Selecting target audience depends on the problem the investigators are trying to understand and who can provide that information to the investigators
The study involved 36 ethnic minority students from K19MN1, aged 18 to 21, with 3 to 7 years of second language learning experience Participants were from various ethnic backgrounds and districts and were categorized into two main groups: 16 successful students and 20 unsuccessful students The successful group was further divided into two subgroups, consisting of 9 satisfactorily successful learners and 7 highly successful learners, based on their speaking test scores.
Step 3:design the sampling plan
In this phase, the researcher focused on identifying the appropriate sample type and size, ultimately selecting a convenience sample of 36 participants The details of the sampling process are thoroughly outlined in the subsequent section.
Step 4: Design and write the questionnaire
The questionnaire was designed and written after the research objectives were defined and the target audience was identified and characterized (Kasunic, 2005: 33)
In this particular study, the questionnaire of SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) which was developed by Rebecca Oxford (1989) was adapted
Of the 50 items in the Oxford‘s SILL, 34 items were hosen nd d pted
Step 5: pilot test the questionnaire
Setting of the study
A study was conducted at a teacher training college with a diverse student body representing various ethnic minorities During the 2016-2017 academic year, the college comprised eight classes, enrolling 280 first-year students across the Faculty of Social Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, and Faculty of Primary and Early Childhood Education.
In terms of the official course material, New English File published by Oxford has been chosen for the first –year students This document is composed of
The course comprises 34 lessons, each divided into six essential components: Grammar, Vocabulary, Pronunciation, Speaking, Listening, and Reading In the Speaking section, learners engage in various activities, including communication tasks, role-plays, and discussions on diverse topics, enhancing their conversational skills.
Ethnicity refers to a large group of people connected by shared customs, manners, and distinctive features, originating from the Greek word 'ethnos' (Cornell and Hartmann, 2007) Additionally, it is characterized as a distinct collective group within a larger society, possessing a culture that differs from the mainstream (Wan and Vanderwerf, 2009) Understanding these definitions is crucial when discussing ethnic minority students.
Vietnam is home to 53 ethnic minority groups, primarily residing in the underdeveloped Northwestern region This area faces significant challenges in education, particularly regarding the effectiveness of English language learning among these communities Educators are increasingly concerned about how to enhance the learning outcomes for these students Bui Thi Kim Tuyen (2014) highlights that the annual educational policy in Vietnam prioritizes improvements for minority group students (Vietnam MOET, 2012).
Access to quality education is crucial for the development and poverty alleviation of minority groups, as it supports the preservation of their cultures, languages, and identities Therefore, enhancing educational opportunities for ethnic minority students in Vietnam is vital for reducing poverty within these communities.
Ethnic minorities face significant barriers to education, leading to lower academic achievements, as noted by the World Bank (2010) Many ethnic minority students must work as laborers after school to support their families, leaving them with insufficient time for homework Additionally, they often travel long distances to school, which diminishes their energy and study time (Dang, 2010) Limited parental knowledge and resources further hinder their academic support, as many families lack access to essential information sources like television, the internet, and newspapers Furthermore, teachers frequently disregard the cultural backgrounds and living contexts of their students, relying solely on textbook guidance, which can create confusion when students encounter unfamiliar concepts Consequently, these factors contribute to the poor academic performance of ethnic minority students To address this issue, it is crucial to explore strategies that can help these students overcome their challenges and achieve success in their education.
While many learners recognize the significance of English, only a few are genuinely motivated to enhance their speaking skills and actively engage with effective learning strategies Conversely, a substantial number of students show interest in English primarily during exam periods, highlighting their limited awareness of the importance of strategic learning in language acquisition.
The teaching staff consists of eight English teachers with varying educational qualifications, including one doctoral degree, two master's degrees, and five bachelor's degrees Many of these educators bring extensive teaching experience and a wealth of inspiration to their roles Most teachers utilize a learner-centered approach when teaching speaking skills.
Survey research is an effective method for collecting extensive data from diverse populations, especially when other research methods are impractical (Mertler & Charles, 2008; Best & Kahn, 2003; O'Sullivan, Rassel, & Berner, 2003; Rubin & Babbie, 2008) Contrary to the belief that surveys are unsuitable for small-scale studies, Cohen et al (2007) assert that they can indeed be conducted on a smaller scale Brewer (2009) emphasizes the significance of smaller-scale surveys, noting their value in research designs A notable example is the study by Bimrose and Bayne (1995), which successfully utilized a survey with just 28 participants Consequently, this study adopts a small-scale survey approach.
This research involved thirty-six students, categorized into two main groups: successful and unsuccessful learners The successful group was further divided into two subgroups: satisfactorily successful and successful learners All participants were in the same class, hailing from various districts, and their ages ranged from 18 to 21 years Additionally, they possessed between 3 to 7 years of experience in learning a second language.
The subject selection for the study was based on scores from an oral examination modeled after the Vstep speaking test format, which consists of three parts: Social Interaction, Solution Discussion, and Topic Development In the first part, students respond to three questions related to weather The second part presents a transportation scenario where students must choose between two options and justify their choice Finally, in part three, students discuss personal topics with three suggested points.
The students got from 2 to 4 were onsidered s ‗unsu essful students‘, those who quired 5 nd 6 were identified s ‗satisfactorily successful students‘ and students were successful when they got 7 and 8
The study was conducted in the second semester of the first-year students, allowing them ample opportunity to acclimate to college life and gain valuable experiences in their new learning environment.
2.5 Data collection instruments: Questionnaire & Interview
According to Johnson (1991), deciding means of collecting data is an important step in conducting a survey research Johnson (1991:115) affirms that
Observing oral language is rarely used as a data-collection method in L2 educational research due to its time-consuming nature According to Nunan (1992:142), survey data is typically gathered through questionnaires, interviews, or a combination of both In this study, data were collected using questionnaires and interviews to ensure comprehensive insights.
The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), developed by Oxford in 1989, was adapted for this thesis According to Bremner (1999), Oxford's SILL (Version 7.0) is regarded as the most widely used and influential tool for assessing language learning strategy use to date.
The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) has demonstrated exceptional validity and reliability, as confirmed by Oxford and Green (1995) The reliability of SILL, measured using Cronbach's alpha, ranges from 93 to 98, indicating a strong consistency in results In terms of validity, Oxford (1996) highlights three key aspects: construct validity, which assesses how effectively the theoretical construct is measured; criterion-related validity, which examines the correlation between SILL scores and language performance; and content validity, which evaluates the appropriateness of the inventory's content As a result, the overall validity of SILL is regarded as "very high" (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995).
Data collection instruments: Questionnaire & Interview
According to Johnson (1991), deciding means of collecting data is an important step in conducting a survey research Johnson (1991:115) affirms that
Observing oral language is rarely used in L2 educational research due to its time-consuming nature According to Nunan (1992:142), survey data is typically gathered through questionnaires, interviews, or a combination of both methods Consequently, the data for this study were collected using questionnaires and interviews.
The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), developed by Oxford in 1989, was adapted for this thesis According to Bremner (1999), Oxford's SILL (Version 7.0) is regarded as the most widely-used and influential tool for assessing language learning strategy use to date.
The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) has demonstrated exceptional validity and reliability, with reliability scores ranging from 93 to 98, as noted by Green and Oxford (1995) Oxford (1996) identifies three types of validity: construct validity, which assesses how effectively the theoretical construct is measured; criterion-related validity, which examines the correlation between SILL results and language performance; and content validity, which evaluates the appropriateness of the inventory's content Consequently, the overall validity of SILL is regarded as "very high" (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995).
The questionnaire consisted of two sections: Section A focused on gathering respondents' background information, while Section B asked participants to provide their insights on language learning strategies To ensure clarity and comprehension, the questionnaire was written in Vietnamese, as Dornyei and Taguchi (2010: 49) emphasized that "the quality of the obtained data will increase if the questionnaire is presented in the respondents' own mother tongue."
Out of the 50 items in Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), 34 were selected due to the influence of culture and learning environments on language learning strategies, as well as the challenges ethnic minority students face in understanding some strategies The reliability of these 34 items was assessed using Cronbach's Alpha, resulting in a final questionnaire comprising 28 items These items are categorized into six groups: Memory (statements 1-3), Cognitive (statements 4-12), Compensation (statements 13-15), Metacognitive (statements 16-21), Affective (statements 22-25), and Social strategies (statements 26-28).
Memory strategies included 3 items related to remembering and retrieving new information Learners pay special attention to rhythm, grammar, word order, pronun i tion, stru ture to enh n e listeners‘ ttention
Cognitive Strategies involved 9 items about understanding and producing the language They help learners understand and apply the language in various ways such as analysing, summing and summarizing
Compensation strategies in communication involve three key techniques that help speakers convey their message despite limited language knowledge To maintain engagement with listeners and prevent misunderstandings, speakers often utilize gestures, make educated guesses, and employ synonyms or their native language, such as Vietnamese, to effectively express their intended meaning.
Metacognitive strategies play a crucial role in coordinating the learning process, encompassing six key components These strategies empower learners to effectively manage their time and plan their studies, while also guiding English learners in identifying their learning objectives and assessing their progress.
Affective strategies consisted of 4 items These items were concerned about regulating emotions Affective strategies help the learners control their emotions, motivation and attitude when they speak English
Social strategies for enhancing speaking skills involve three key components Students can significantly improve their English-speaking abilities by collaborating with peers both in and outside of the classroom Engaging with others makes it easier to learn, as students can ask questions and seek assistance when needed.
Group of strategies No of items
Memory strategies 3 for memorizing more effectively
Cognitive strategies 9 for mental processing of information
Compensation strategies 3 for making up for limited knowledge
Metacognitive strategies 6 for pl nning, monitoring nd ev lu ting one‘s learning Affective strategies 4 for regul ting one‘s emotions
Social strategies 3 for cooperating with others
The questionnaire, designed to assess strategy usage among learners, took approximately 30 minutes to complete It utilized a five-point Likert scale to categorize responses, ranging from "always used" (4.5-5.0) to "never used" (0.0-1.4) The evaluation criteria for frequency of strategy use were defined as high use (3.5-5.0), medium use (2.4-3.4), and low use (1.0-2.4), based on the framework proposed by Oxford (1990:300).
2.5.2 Interview (for interview questions see Appendix 13)
Interviews were conducted with eight students, including two successful, five satisfactorily successful, and one unsuccessful, to collect qualitative data and gain deeper insights for the first research question According to Mackey and Gass (2005:173), interviews provide researchers with valuable information.
‗investig te phenomen th t re not dire tly observ ble‘ Moreover, the interview is one of the ways to assess language learning strategies (Cohen, 2011)
Interviews can be categorized into three types: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured (McDonough, 2001) For this study, a semi-structured interview was selected due to its ability to provide rich data (Gillham, 2001) and its inherent flexibility Dowsett (1986) emphasized that interviews yield valuable information, making them ideal for exploring language learning strategies in speaking among students at various levels The study aimed to gather diverse opinions, perceptions, attitudes, and comments from participants, underscoring the necessity of employing semi-structured interviews to achieve comprehensive insights.
Prior to the interview, a set of six carefully crafted open-ended questions was designed to ensure consistency and gain a deeper understanding of students' learning strategies Following Measor's (1985) guidance on building rapport, the first question asked participants for their names or nicknames, which helped them feel more relaxed and confident during the interview The subsequent questions explored various aspects: the second question focused on students' perceptions of the importance of speaking in their studies and future careers, while the third examined their attitudes towards classroom activities The fourth question investigated the speaking strategies students employed at home, and the fifth sought to determine the number of hours they dedicated to studying English Finally, the sixth question aimed to uncover reasons for exceptional cases and identify frequently used strategies to enhance speaking skills Notably, one exceptional case revealed a student with high-level speaking strategies but poor test scores, while another case highlighted five students who achieved satisfactory success.
2 successful students who employed learning strategies at low level but they got high marks in the exam A summary of the interview questions are shown in the table below
2 students‘ per eption on the import n e of spe king
3 students‘ ttitude tow rds tivities in l ss
4 students‘ spe king str tegies use t home
6 students‘ re sons for ex eption l situ tions and students‘ frequent learning strategies use for improving speaking skills
The interviews were conducted in Vietnamese to accommodate students' limited confidence in English, fostering clear communication and a relaxed environment Each interview lasted approximately 10 minutes, contributing to a total duration of around 80 minutes for all interviews.
The interviews were carried out in sitting side-by-side because Walker
In 1985, it was suggested that sitting side-by-side during interviews can lead to more productive outcomes compared to face-to-face seating This arrangement fosters a cooperative atmosphere rather than a confrontational one, which can enhance the investigator's ability to gain deeper insights into students' language learning strategies for developing speaking skills (Nun, 1992:152).
In order to re ord p rti ip nts‘ responses, there re two w ys in luding note- taking and tape-recording Each type has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Table 5: Strengths and weaknesses of tape-recording and note-taking
Walker (1985) highlights that note-taking serves to reconstruct interviews at a later time However, in this study, all interviews were conducted in a single day within a classroom environment, prompting the researcher to opt for tape recording as a more effective method.
Data collection procedure
The steps of data collection could be carried out as follows:
2 Explaining the purpose and procedures of the questionnaire with the hope of obtaining honest results
3 Delivering the questionnaire to 36 subjects and asking them to truthfully complete it about 30 minutes
4 Analyzing and discussing data gathered from the questionnaire to find out the answers for two research questions and the exceptional situations
5 Interviewing and tape-recording all the interviews with those 8 students and the teacher Then the tape would be played for the interviewees to add extra information if they desired
6 Presenting the collected data from the interviews, analyzing and discussing the finding
Data analytical framework
A questionnaire and interviews were conducted to address the initial research question, focusing on the learning strategies employed by groups categorized as 'successful' and 'satisfactorily successful.'
The study focuses on successful students at Dien Bien Teacher Training College, utilizing data gathered from questionnaires analyzed through SPSS statistics Key metrics such as mean scores, standard deviations, and frequencies will be calculated and compared across all variables Additionally, interviews will be conducted to complement the questionnaire results and explore the reasons behind students' learning strategy choices The insights gained from these interviews will play a crucial role in the qualitative data collection process.
In order to answer for the second research question, le rners‘ s ores and their language strategy use will be contrasted, analyzed, and discussed.
Data analysis procedure
This research aimed to explore the language learning strategies employed by non-major ethnic minority students to enhance their English speaking skills and to examine the correlation between these strategies and their oral language proficiency Utilizing a survey study design, data were collected through questionnaires and student interviews, which were then analyzed and synthesized both qualitatively and quantitatively to draw meaningful conclusions.
Qu ntit tive d t provided the inform tion bout the p rti ip nts‘ use of learning strategies The researcher used Statistical Package for the Social Science
Kinds of language learning strategies
Relationship between oral English proficiency and LLSs
Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 20.0 to evaluate the frequency of learning strategy usage among three student groups: 'successful,' 'satisfactorily successful,' and 'unsuccessful.' Responses to a questionnaire were categorized based on a 5-point scale, with ratings ranging from 'always used' (4.5-5.0) to 'never used' (0.0-1.4) The degree of learning strategy utilization was classified into high use (3.5-5.0), medium use (2.4-3.4), and low use (1.0-2.4), following the criteria established by Oxford (1990).
The data gathered in the form of interviews transcripts were discussed, analyzed and interpreted to provide a deeper insight into the research issue.
Summary
This chapter outlines the research methodology used to investigate speaking strategies in detail It begins by presenting the research questions, followed by a clear explanation of the survey research, which serves as the primary method for this study.
Interviews transcripts compare contrast analyze discuss analyze interpret
The study's findings were presented, detailing the setting and specifically describing the participants involved The rationale for selecting two data collection instruments was explained Additionally, the chapter covered the data collection procedure, the analytical framework, and the data analysis process The following chapter will provide a report on the data analysis results.