INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem
As a lecturer at an English-major university, the researcher has taught various English skills courses and encountered diverse teaching situations and student dynamics Through classroom self-observation, informal student interviews, and evaluations of lesson journals, she identified key issues in her reading class: a lack of student motivation to participate in activities and varying levels of engagement among students These discrepancies prompted her to investigate the situation more systematically to understand the underlying causes of student disinterest and involvement.
The researcher has identified several key factors influencing student motivation, including beliefs, affective state, aptitude, personality, age, and learning styles (To and Nguyen, 2009) While all these elements are significant, the focus of this study will be exclusively on learning styles in relation to motivation, driven by the researcher’s interest and the challenges of examining multiple factors simultaneously.
Since the 1970s, educational researchers have increasingly focused on learning style theory, particularly following the decline of behaviorism in the 1980s This shift led to a greater acknowledgment of individual learning preferences as significant factors in student learning Key studies from this period, such as Cafferty's investigation into the alignment of cognitive styles between teachers and students, Dunn's exploration of self-identified learning styles, and Willing's research on learning strategies, revealed crucial insights Findings indicated that learners possess distinct preferred learning styles that influence their responses to various in-class activities, and that teachers' adaptations to these styles can enhance student motivation.
Learning styles significantly influence student motivation, prompting educators to adapt their teaching methods to accommodate these differences Researchers debate whether teachers should align their styles with students' learning preferences or encourage them to engage with diverse approaches Recently, the differentiated instruction approach has gained traction in education, as highlighted by Tomlinson (2001), who emphasizes the importance of preparing varied activities to address students' unique learning needs While empirical evidence on the effectiveness of differentiated instruction remains limited, many teachers worldwide have reported positive experiences when implementing this strategy in diverse educational settings.
The researcher initiated an action research project titled “The Effects of Teacher’s Differentiated Instructions Based on Students’ Learning Styles on Their Motivation” to address specific classroom challenges While existing studies suggest various effective solutions, they may not be applicable to her unique situation Action research is chosen for its focus on practical problem-solving rather than theoretical exploration Upon completion, this study aims to fill a gap in research within Vietnam and provide valuable insights for other educators facing similar classroom issues.
Aims, objectives and research questions of the research
a Aims and objectives of the research
This study investigates the connection between learning styles, differentiated instruction, and academic motivation within higher education classrooms The action research project aims to address the issue of low student motivation, which may be contributing to poor academic performance at the university level.
In the light of that general aim, some specific objectives are drawn up to outline the actual directions of the study as follows:
1) To identify the given class‟s learning styles and current level of academic motivation;
2) To project and implement some instructional differentiations upon the students‟ different learning modalities aiming to improve their academic motivation;
3) To evaluate the impact of the psycho-pedagogical intervention on the students‟ motivation level b Research questions
In brief, the objectives of the research could be specified into these research questions:
1) What are the students‟ learning styles and their current level of motivation? (Identifying the problem)
2) To what extent does the new intervention cater for the students‟ learning styles?
3) How does differentiated instruction approach affect the students‟ motivation level in terms of their motivational intensity, lecturer evaluation and English learning desire?
Significance of the research
This action research aims to identify solutions for the researcher’s class, addressing the issue of students' lack of motivation in learning English as a foreign language If differentiated instruction proves effective, it could serve as a valuable strategy to enhance student motivation, benefiting not only the researcher but also other educators facing similar challenges Furthermore, the comprehensive literature review and reliable research methods employed in this study may provide a foundational reference for other researchers and teachers, offering insights into learning styles, differentiated instruction, and motivation in the classroom.
This action research aims to enhance students' awareness of their diverse learning styles, as many are unaware of their own preferences Often, students admire their more advanced peers and attempt to mimic their learning methods, hoping to improve their academic performance However, this can lead to failure if the adopted styles do not align with their natural learning preferences, resulting in diminished confidence and motivation In this study, after conducting and analyzing learning style and motivation surveys, the findings will be shared with students to benefit their educational journey If the researcher’s hypothesis about differentiated instruction based on learning styles proves correct, it is expected that students' motivation will significantly increase.
While this paper's single action research may limit its generalizability and impact on existing literature, it highlights the need for further studies to persuade policymakers and school administrators to reconsider methodologies and syllabi If additional action research yields consistent findings, it could lead to significant positive changes in educational practices.
Scope of the research
Action research enables teachers to address specific challenges within their classrooms, such as classroom management, instructional strategies, material usage, or enhancing student learning (Ferrance, 2000, p 3) This approach can be conducted individually or collaboratively among a small group of teachers focusing on common issues across their classrooms, with or without the support of principals or educational authorities.
To enhance the potential impacts of educational initiatives, it is essential to consider school-wide and district-wide action research alongside other approaches Each of these four types of research varies in focus, available support, potential impact, and side effects, highlighting the importance of tailored strategies in educational settings.
Elliott (1991, cited in Water-Adams, 2006) argues that the most effective and emancipatory action research is collaborative, as it allows practitioners to collectively explore and confront the limitations of their professional experiences In contrast, individual action research often faces criticism for its shortcomings in validity, generalization, and replicability.
Ferrance, in her booklet from the Brown University series “Themes in Education,” emphasized that each type of action research has unique impacts and potential side effects To prevent disagreements that could delay or jeopardize the research process, the researcher opted to conduct an individual action research study to address issues within her own classroom This approach allows her to refine the methods before sharing them with fellow teachers facing similar challenges and ultimately presenting her findings to school administrators for broader application.
The researcher conducted an individual action research study exclusively with her second-year reading class to ensure a rigorous and thorough investigation This focused approach allowed for careful data collection and analysis, leading to more accurate findings.
Organization of the research
The study and findings are intended to be shown and discussed in the following chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction, which provides a broad view of the whole research by presenting the current problem, mentioning aims and objectives of the paper, and indicating the significance as well as the scope of the study
Chapter 2: Literature Review, which is supposed to provide theoretical background on the issue of foreign language learning styles and motivation, discuss the key concepts, identify the research gap and review the related studies in the history both in Vietnam and in the world
Chapter 3: Methodology, which informs readers of the participants, the chosen instruments, procedures of data collection and analysis
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion, which presents the description an interpretation of the collected data in light of research questions
Chapter 5: Conclusion which summarizes the major findings discovered by the research and written up in the previous chapter (chap 4) Moreover, it suggests some pedagogical implication for teachers who share the same problem as the researcher The limitations and suggestions for future studies are also discussed in this last chapter.
LITERATURE REVIEW8 1 Key concepts
Learning styles
The study of individual differences has evolved significantly since before the 1970s, when it was primarily equated with ability differences measured by standard intelligence tests Advances in psychology during the 1970s prompted researchers to broaden this concept to encompass various factors, including learning styles, interests, motivations, genders, and ages Among these, learning styles have gained particular attention, becoming a prominent area of research that has persisted for nearly fifty years.
In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of researchers exploring learning styles across various fields, including management, vocational training, and particularly education at different levels While this surge in research may not definitively prove the emergence of learning styles, it highlights their relevance and application in diverse domains beyond psychology.
Extensive research on learning styles has led to a variety of definitions, theoretical frameworks, models, and measurement tools (Cassidy, 2004) While this diversity underscores the theory's significance in education and offers valuable resources for researchers, it also presents challenges related to ambiguity, conflicting results, and the selection of appropriate measurement instruments.
Novices often find the terms “learning styles,” “cognitive styles,” and “learning strategies” confusing, as they are frequently used interchangeably in research with minimal distinction However, it is essential to differentiate these concepts for specific purposes According to Allport (1937, in Cassidy, 2004) and Riding & Cheema (1991, in Cassidy, 2004), an individual's learning style reflects how their cognitive style is applied in educational contexts, highlighting the significance of cognitive style as a key component of learning style Meanwhile, “learning strategy” refers to the methods employed to facilitate the learning process.
“learning style” share a lot in common, except that the latter is adapted more automatically to handle different learning tasks
Dunn and Dunn (1983) emphasize that while everyone possesses unique strengths, these strengths can vary significantly among individuals, highlighting the importance of recognizing diverse learning styles.
Since the introduction of the term "learning style" in the 1970s, scholars and researchers have made extensive efforts to define it, resulting in a variety of interpretations and definitions surrounding the concept of learning styles.
Among the multitude of trees, one oak stands out and deserves special attention Keefe's definition from 1979 has been widely referenced in various studies on learning styles, including works by Reid (1987), Willing (1988), and Coffield (2004).
Learning styles are stable indicators of cognitive, emotional, and physiological behaviors that influence how individuals perceive and engage with their learning environment These styles represent consistent patterns of functioning that reveal the underlying factors driving learning behaviors.
Three components of learning styles referred to in the definition could be presented as follows:
The sensory channels (one or more senses) individuals rely on to perceive, understand, organize and retain knowledge (Dunn and Dunn, 1979; R Dunn, 1983; Reid, 1987)
Primary importance in shaping the way information is sought, and the way it is processed (Swassing, 1979)
Determine the state of the entire organism, the senses and the nervous system (Dunn and Dunn, 1979a)
Affective factors (i.e anxiety) influencing the person‟s level of achievement (Naiman et al 1975)
The Keefe‟s idea of these components were shared by Dunn, Dunn and Price
(1978, acknowledged in Willing, 1988, p 56) and even specified more into 18 identified learning style elements
This study adheres to Keefe's (1979) definition of learning style, specifically emphasizing sensory channels and perceptual learning preferences as key components of learning style differences Additionally, it will explore various learning style theories, models, and measurement techniques.
The study of learning styles has garnered significant attention from researchers globally This review will focus on the most prominent learning style models and instruments discussed in major review papers, while excluding lesser-known models that merely adapt key constructs for small-scale samples or introduce new terminology for existing concepts.
In the review entitled “Learning Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 learning” by Coffield et al (2004), 71 learning models which had been developed for the last 40-
50 years were listed Among them, the reviewers identified 13 major models mostly basing on their popularity
This paper focuses on prominent learning models, specifically highlighting David Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI) and Dunn, Dunn, and Price's LSI, which are the most recognized in the UK and US, respectively Additionally, Joy Reid's 1987 model is reviewed due to its relevance to the researcher's subsequent use of his self-report questionnaire.
David Kolb’s learning styles model
David Kolb (1984) characterized learning styles as personal preferences that highlight the four fundamental learning theories: Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE) These theories are categorized into two approaches: the experience-grasping approach, which includes CE and AC, and the experience-transforming approach.
The four fundamental types of learning styles are determined by the balance of experience-grasping and experience-transforming factors within an individual.
Learning style Dominant factors Characteristic features
Converger AC (thinking) and AE
Practical applications of ideas and deductive reasoning
CE (feeling) and RO (watching)
Imaginative and good at coming up with ideas
Seeing things from different perspectives
Assimilator AC (thinking) and RO
Capable of creating theoretical model with inductive reasoning
Accommodator CE (feeling) and AE
Actively engaging with the world and actually doing things instead of merely reading about or studying them
Table 1 Kolb’s model of learning styles
Figure 1 Kolb’s model of learning styles
Dunn and Dunn’s VAK/ VAKT models
Rita Dunn and Kenneth Dunn have spent more than 35 years devoting on the studies concerning the learning styles (identification, instruments and assessment of learning styles, etc.)
Dunn, Dunn, and Price (1978, cited in Willing, 1988) identified perceptual strengths as a key component of their learning style model, which includes 18 distinct elements This model categorizes learning preferences into three main types: visual learners who prefer images and diagrams, auditory learners who favor listening to lectures and music, and kinesthetic learners who engage through hands-on activities Widely adopted in the American education system, this framework is often referred to as VAK, and sometimes VAKT, which incorporates tactile learning preferences such as note-taking and model building (Coffield et al., 2004).
Dunn's theory posits that individuals possess one or two dominant learning styles that serve as filters, allowing them to effectively absorb information in a manner that aligns with their preferred way of learning.
Dominant learning style Description/ characteristics
- Mind sometimes strays during verbal activities
- Observes, rather than talks or acts; may be quiet by nature
- Organized in approach to tasks
- Memorizes by creating mental images
- Easily put off by visual distractions
- May focus on the „big picture‟ and use advanced planning
- Whispers to self while reading, may hum or sing while working
- Likes to be read to
- May be particular about the exact choice of words
- Memorizes by steps in a sequence
- May have difficulty with written instructions
- May assess people by the sound of their voice
- Enjoys music and the sounds of words
- Can remember – and often mimic – speech by picking up rhythm of the sentence
- May need time to think (i.e discuss it with myself)
- May assess a situation on „how it sounds‟ to them
- In motion most of the time/ fidgety
- Outgoing by nature; expresses emotions by physical means
- Likes to solve problems by physically working through them
- Very good body control, good timing and reflexes
- May need time to think (i.e process the actions involved)
- Will try new things – likes to get involved
- Remembers what they have done rather than seen/ heard
- May assess people and situation by what “feels right”
- Plays games, simulations and role-playing
- Favors dance-related activities such as folk dances, singing, rhythmic movements, creative dance
T: tactile - Uses their hands, likes to use gestures and touch people while talking to them
- Loves art-related activities such as drawing, painting, and sculpting
- Makes diagrams, mind maps, webs
- Taps pencil or foot/ fiddles with objects while studying
Table 2 Dunn and Dunn’s learning style theory (VAKT)
(Source: Authors; Adapted from Coffield et al., 2004; Dunn & Griggs, 2003; Dunn,
2001; Dunn, 2003, cited in Penger & Tekavcic, 2009, p 6)
Joy Reid was one of the well-known researchers who had spent quite a lot of time and effort studying learning styles, especially perceptual strengths
Differentiated instruction
a Definition of differentiated instruction approach
Instruction differentiation theory is grounded in the understanding that students have diverse needs, necessitating a variety of tailored instructional methods To ensure equitable success in the classroom, educators must offer multiple learning options for all students This approach is further supported by significant findings from brain research, reinforcing what many experienced teachers have long believed about the importance of differentiated instruction.
No two children are alike
No two children learn in the identical way
An enriched environment for one student is not necessarily enriched for another
In the classroom we should teach children to think for themselves http://www.ascd.org
Differentiated instruction, as defined by Tomlinson (2000), involves tailoring teaching methods to meet the individual needs of students This approach requires teachers to vary content, processes, products, or the learning environment to engage all students effectively By maximizing flexibility and material access, differentiated instruction aims to enhance the learning experience and success for every student in diverse classrooms Ultimately, it provides multiple options for students to absorb information, understand concepts, and express their learning (Tomlinson, 2001).
Differentiating instruction means teachers‟ “adjusting the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum” (Hall, Strangman & Meyer, 2003)
Differentiated instruction involves acknowledging the diverse backgrounds, readiness levels, learning preferences, and interests of students, and responding accordingly This teaching approach aims to accommodate students with varying abilities within the same classroom, ensuring that each learner's growth and individual success are prioritized By meeting students at their current level and supporting their unique learning journeys, differentiated instruction fosters an inclusive and effective educational environment.
Figure 2 Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and
Implementing Differentiated Instruction b Components of differentiated instruction
Tomlinson (2000) clearly drew up a differentiation guideline indicating that there were three elements in the curriculum which could be differentiated to benefit students in diverse classroom
Teachers can differentiate at least three classroom elements based on student readiness, interest, or learning profile:
– what the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to the information
Several elements and materials (acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills) are used to support instructional content
Tasks and objectives to learning goals need aligning
Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven and should be adjusted in complexity level to suit diverse learners
– activities in which the student engages in order to make sense of or master the content
Flexible grouping is consistently used
Classroom management benefits students and teachers
– culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse, apply, and extend what he or she has learned in a unit
Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential
Students are active and responsible explorers
Expectations and requirements for student responses should be varied
Table 4 Three classroom elements for differentiation
(Tomlinson, 2000) c Features of differentiated instruction
Tomlinson (2001) showed 7 key features of differentiated instruction as follows:
Effective differentiated instruction requires proactive planning by teachers to accommodate the diverse needs of their students By anticipating the varying learning styles and abilities within the classroom, educators can develop multiple strategies to facilitate understanding and expression of knowledge This thoughtful preparation enables teachers to actively engage with all learners, rather than merely responding to challenges as they arise, which is often seen in undifferentiated classrooms.
Differentiated instruction emphasizes qualitative adjustments over quantitative ones in the learning process While some believe that it involves assigning more work to advanced students and less to those who struggle, Tomlinson (2001) argues that simply changing the volume of assignments does not significantly enhance learning Instead, it is the modification of the nature of assignments that truly impacts student engagement and understanding.
Differentiated instruction, paired with ongoing assessments, is essential for effective teaching By engaging in informal conversations, facilitating class discussions, and observing student work, educators can gauge individual progress and identify effective strategies tailored to each learner's unique potential and talents.
“Differentiated instruction provides multiple approaches to content, process and product”
Differentiated instruction is centered around the needs of students, ensuring that lessons are engaging, relevant, and interesting for everyone Since students have varying levels of prior knowledge and understanding, a single approach to teaching may not resonate with all learners By offering multiple pathways to achieve lesson objectives, differentiated instruction effectively addresses these differences, enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.
“Differentiated instruction is a blend of whole-class, group and individual instruction.”
Differentiated instruction is a dynamic process that evolves as teachers strive to create optimal learning experiences tailored to their students' needs As time progresses, the initial learning match may become less effective, prompting educators to make necessary adjustments to ensure continued success in student engagement and understanding.
Figure 3: The Flow of Instruction in a Differentiated Classroom d Differentiated instruction strategies
In "How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms," Carol Tomlinson (2001) outlines 17 essential strategies for teachers to effectively implement differentiated instruction She emphasizes that there is no one-size-fits-all approach, as the essence of differentiation lies in accommodating diverse student needs The success of differentiated instruction relies on understanding various factors, including students' learning styles, personalities, and individual learning profiles.
Here are 17 “megastrategies” which can be used to successfully differentiate instructions to make learning fit students better:
To effectively differentiate instruction based on student readiness, interest, and learning profiles, it is essential to establish a clear rationale that can be communicated to students and their parents This rationale will help them understand the evolving educational landscape, encouraging acceptance rather than resistance, and fostering collaboration in the new learning approaches.
Start differentiating instruction at a pace that feels comfortable for you The speed at which differentiation is implemented should depend on the teacher's readiness, benefiting both students and educators Begin with the areas where teachers feel most confident and enjoy working, as this fosters a positive learning environment.
To enhance student success, it's essential to implement time-differentiated activities that cater to varying attention spans Advanced students typically maintain focus for longer periods compared to their struggling peers Therefore, in a differentiated classroom, it's crucial to allocate shorter time frames for class activities that align with the attention spans of both advanced and struggling students.
Incorporating "anchor activities" in the classroom allows teachers to better focus on their students' needs Advanced students often complete tasks more quickly, leading to downtime By preparing engaging and appropriate anchor activities, teachers can effectively manage this dead time, providing meaningful work for faster learners while dedicating their attention to those who require additional support This approach not only enhances classroom efficiency but also fosters a more productive learning environment for all students.
To ensure effective instruction delivery, it's important to present directions carefully to avoid confusion and maintain student attention Instead of providing multiple instructions to the entire class simultaneously, consider utilizing alternative methods such as tape-recorded directions, task cards, or assignment sheets These strategies can enhance clarity and improve the overall learning experience.
“Assign students into groups or seating areas smoothly.”
“Have a “home base” for students.”
Ensure that students have a strategy in place for seeking assistance while you are occupied with another student or group Advanced students can serve as consultants, offering support in proofreading, locating answers, and providing additional details to their peers.
“Make a plan for students to turn in work.”
“Teach students to rearrange the furniture.”
“Have a plan for quick finisher.”
“Make a plan for calling a halt.”
“Give your students as much responsibility as possible.”
Figure 4: Low-prep vs high-prep differentiation e Teacher’s role in a differentiated class
Learning motivation in ESL/EFL context
Motivation is a crucial factor for teachers when striving to meet lesson and course objectives Various elements, such as material complexity, instructional methods, and learning resources, can hinder student success Additionally, low motivation often manifests in observable behaviors, including students slumping in their seats, disengaging from discussions, or falling asleep in class According to Tucker et al (2002), motivation has a direct impact on academic achievement, while other factors primarily influence learners indirectly through their motivation levels.
Motivation is a critical factor in learning a second or foreign language, as highlighted by Dürnyei (1994), who identified it as a key determinant of success Students lacking sufficient motivation often struggle academically and face challenges in their studies The initial exploration of motivation in language learning was conducted by Canadian psychologists Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, who established rigorous research methodologies and standardized assessment techniques, significantly advancing the field of L2 motivation research However, Gardner's motivation framework has faced criticism for being overly influential.
The concept of "dominance" in research often leads to the neglect of other important ideas Dürnyei highlighted that Gardner's Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) encompasses a broad range of social factors, rather than concentrating solely on academic motivation, although it does include educational elements with questions related to classroom motivation.
Academic motivation refers to a student's desire to engage with academic subjects, characterized by their approach, persistence, and interest levels, especially when their abilities are measured against performance standards It is considered a specific aspect of effectance motivation, which is the inherent need to succeed and effectively navigate one's environment.
This study adopts Wlodwoski's (1985, p 2, cited by Root, 1999) comprehensive definition of motivation, which encompasses the processes that (a) initiate and stimulate behavior, (b) provide direction or purpose to that behavior, (c) enable the persistence of behavior, and (d) influence the selection or preference for specific behaviors.
Gardner and Lambert (1972) mentioned the following factors which are rather related to motivation that will attempt to relate the second language ability to these two functions
1 Integrative motivation, defined as the desire to be a part of recognized or important members of the community or that society that speak the second language It is based on interest in learning the second language because of their need to learn about, associate or socialize with the people who use it or because of purpose or intention to participate or integrate in the second language using the same language in that community; but sometimes it involves emotion or affective factors a great deal (Saville-Troike, 2006, p 86)
2 Instrumental motivation involves the concepts of purely practical value in learning the second language in order to increase learners‟ careers or business opportunities, giving them more prestige and power, accessing scientific and technical information, or just passing a course of their study in school (Saville- Troike, 2006, p 86)
Furthermore, the motivation is further classified into two main categories as the following:
1) Extrinsic motivation refers to a desire to get a reward and avoid punishment
Extrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in encouraging learners to engage in educational activities, as highlighted by Arnold (2000, p 14) This motivation often stems from external factors such as homework, grades, or the desire to satisfy teachers Furthermore, both integrative and instrumental motivations fall under the category of extrinsic motivation, as noted by Harmer (1991, p 4).
Extrinsic motivation relies on external factors like rewards and punishments, which can negatively impact students' learning experiences When students are driven by the desire for rewards or fear of punishment, their engagement may be high, but this motivation is often superficial If rewards are removed or if there are no consequences, students may lose interest in attending classes and learning Ultimately, this reliance on external incentives can hinder genuine learning and long-term commitment to education.
2) Intrinsic motivation refers to learning itself having its own reward (Arnold,
Intrinsic motivation is characterized by learners' voluntary desire to engage in learning activities they deem valuable, independent of external rewards When students are intrinsically motivated, they possess an internal drive to learn, which fosters a positive educational experience without negative repercussions This innate motivation encourages students to pursue knowledge based on personal interest rather than external incentives According to Lightbown and Spada (1999), teachers have limited influence on students' intrinsic motivation due to diverse backgrounds; thus, creating a supportive classroom environment is essential for fostering motivation.
Motivation is a complex and dynamic concept that can be challenging for researchers to define without oversimplifying it Over the past few decades, significant efforts have been made to establish various motivation constructs One notable example is Gardner's integrative-instrumental system, which has gained popularity for its comprehensive approach to understanding motivation.
“simplicity and intuitively convincing character” Nevertheless, this construct is
Dürnyei (1994) criticized Gardner's construct for being "too static and restricted," prompting further research to enhance it by incorporating additional elements such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, intellectual curiosity, and self-confidence These studies also considered various learning situation-specific factors, including classroom events, climate, group cohesion, teaching materials, and feedback Building on Gardner's framework and these expanded components, Dürnyei has synthesized them into a cohesive model comprising three main components.
Figure 5: Components of foreign language learning motivation
Related studies
2.1 Evidence of effectiveness of differentiated instruction as a classroom practice
Research by Hall, Strangman, and Meyer (2003) highlights a significant lack of empirical studies validating the theory of differentiated instruction, indicating a notable gap in the literature that necessitates further investigation While the overarching concept of differentiated instruction lacks comprehensive empirical support, its individual components—such as readiness, effective management procedures, and student grouping—have been extensively researched and validated since the mid-1980s For instance, the concept of "readiness," which posits that instructional content should challenge learners just beyond their current mastery level, is rooted in the foundational theories of Lev Vygotsky (1978) This suggests that while the theory itself is still emerging, its core elements are well-established in educational research.
2003) and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the range at which learning takes place, by Fisher et al (1980, in Tomlinson, 2000)
Despite limited empirical research, numerous testimonials and classroom examples highlight the effectiveness of differentiated instruction Tomlinson (2000) noted promising results from implementing a comprehensive differentiation model, initially aimed at gifted learners struggling with content acquisition Due to its "excellent potential to positively impact learning" (Hall et al., 2003) and the diverse nature of modern classrooms, this approach has been adapted for students of all abilities Over the years, a wealth of resources has emerged online, offering advice and lesson examples for educators For instance, research by Lewiss and Batts (as cited in Tukbure, 2011) demonstrated that a five-year differentiated instruction program increased promotion rates from 79% to 94.8% following end-of-year summative assessments, indicating significant improvements in student performance.
A significant challenge in adopting differentiated instruction is teachers' lack of familiarity with the concept, as they are more accustomed to traditional, one-size-fits-all teaching methods from their years of experience This difficulty in envisioning what a differentiated classroom entails can create a "differentiating phobia," causing educators to hesitate or avoid implementing this innovative approach in their teaching practices (Tomlinson, 2001).
Brandt (1998) explained the link between the conditions in which people learn best and differentiation Apparently, the link indicates the rationale for differentiated classroom as follows:
Figure 6: The rationale behind differentiated classes
2.2 Differentiated instruction and learning style
Differentiated instruction is closely linked to learning styles, which serve as a motivational factor for effective teaching Learning style theory emphasizes that each learner is unique, possessing distinct abilities, interests, and needs Extensive research has shown that students engage in a meaning-making process in the classroom, influenced by their prior knowledge, interests, and preferred learning methods (National Research Council, 1990, in Tomlinson, 2001).
While state-designed curricula aim for uniformity, the diverse methodologies employed in classrooms must be customized to meet individual student preferences, ensuring that all learners can succeed and thrive in an optimal learning environment Differentiated instruction serves as an effective strategy to address varying learning styles among students The inherent diversity within classrooms necessitates this instructional differentiation Tulbure (2011) identifies three theoretical and methodological foundations that support the choice to tailor instruction based on learners' unique learning styles.
Consequently to a meta-analysis performed by Sullivan [apud 15], it was established that a flexible instruction, differentiated upon learning styles, leads to an improvement of the level of academic achievement;
Recent studies in the field of learning psychology revealed the fact that adults are individuals whose learning style and rhythm is stabilized
[12], an aspect that implies respect for and capitalization of inter- individual differences within the frame of higher education;
The experimental intervention took place during the Pedagogy seminars, aligning with the curriculum for pedagogic disciplines studied by second-year students This approach emphasizes the importance of differentiating instruction based on students' learning styles, which facilitates the achievement of educational goals and ensures adherence to the curriculum content.
Differentiating instruction, a practice utilized for gifted and talented students for over two decades, has become a widely recognized teaching strategy to cater to diverse learning styles and enhance student engagement The concept of "learning style" is frequently referenced in differentiation literature For instance, Tomlinson (2001) highlights that a student with kinesthetic strengths and reading challenges may better understand a story through pantomime while listening to it read aloud, before reading it independently This approach provides various avenues for students to engage with content, accommodating their unique learning preferences.
Learning styles differ among students and can change over time, making differentiated instruction essential in the classroom Instead of creating unique tasks for each student, teachers should provide three to four engaging options that cater to diverse learning needs This approach contrasts with the individualized instruction model of the 1970s, which placed an overwhelming burden on teachers to tailor lessons for each student Differentiated instruction emphasizes meaningful learning and powerful ideas, allowing teachers to work with the entire class, in small groups, or with individual students as needed (Tomlinson, 2001).
To effectively prepare for instruction, teachers should utilize a reliable learning style inventory to identify students' individual learning preferences By understanding each student's strengths and weaknesses, educators can tailor their instruction to include diverse performance indicators, allowing students to engage with the material in ways that best suit their needs While the core curriculum concepts remain consistent for all learners, the complexity of content, activities, and assessments should be adjusted to ensure that every student is appropriately challenged without feeling overwhelmed.
Differentiated instruction offers four strategies to achieve teaching goals, one of which involves adapting the learning environment and accommodating diverse learning styles Although theories on learning styles by Dunn and Dunn, David Kolb, and Howard Gardner may not always align, they collectively enhance the learning experience This instructional approach aims to provide students with a variety of instructional methods, allowing them to thrive in their preferred learning environments while also encouraging exploration of different styles for a more comprehensive educational development.
Figure 7: Range of activities in a differentiated classroom
2.3 Differentiated instruction and ESL/ EFL motivation (In the world and in Vietnam)
Enhancing academic motivation can be achieved through various strategies, particularly by offering students choices in class activities that foster a sense of autonomy This highlights the connection between differentiated instruction and increased motivation By implementing a differentiated approach in the classroom, educators can provide a diverse array of activities that cater to individual learning preferences, allowing students to engage more effectively and find learning experiences that resonate with them As noted by Tomlinson (2001), this tailored approach helps students feel more motivated to attend class and participate actively in their education.
Research by Tulbure (2011) highlights the significant correlation between learning styles, differentiation, and intrinsic motivation The study reveals that tailoring instructional methods to align with students' learning styles enhances their intrinsic academic motivation and overall achievement.
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The study focused on a class of 26 second-year university students, primarily aged 19 to 21, with a significant female majority of 89% The students hail from diverse backgrounds: 23% from urban areas, 57.7% from rural regions, 11.5% from coastal areas, and 7.7% from mountainous regions Despite following the same national curriculum, educational quality varies greatly across these areas, affecting students' abilities, English proficiency, learning styles, and motivation Notably, students from less developed regions tend to excel in grammar due to a prevalent grammar-translation approach, while those from urban settings benefit from more exposure to communicative methods and additional classes with foreign instructors.
Well-equipped urban classrooms enable teachers to diversify learning methods, allowing city students to become more adaptable and flexible compared to their peers from remote areas.
1.2 Description of the major and course
The university offers a diverse range of major courses, with English language teacher education being one of the primary options To earn a Bachelor of Arts degree in English language teaching, students must complete a series of required courses over four years The first two years focus on enhancing English proficiency through skill-based courses in speaking, reading, listening, and writing In the final two years, students engage in courses on English teaching methodology, alongside theoretical subjects like research methodology, critical thinking, and translation, culminating in a practicum at selected high schools.
In the second year, students are required to complete three concurrent courses: 3A (English for Social Purposes), 3B (English for Academic Purposes), and 3C (Test-Taking Skills) during the first semester These courses build on the foundational knowledge gained in the first year, specifically from 1A, 1B, and 1C in the first semester, followed by 2A, 2B, and 2C in the second semester The subsequent courses in the sequence are 4A, 4B, and 4C This research focuses specifically on course 3A, providing a detailed examination of its content and objectives.
This course aims to help students achieve a B2+ level on the CEFR scale or a Band 6.5 on the IELTS exam by focusing on the sustainable development of integrated language skills: Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing Utilizing competence-based and task-based teaching approaches, the course offers diverse practice tasks to enhance students' communicative language competence Additionally, students will be guided in developing effective learning strategies to meet their targeted CEFR level.
- Lecturers in Division 2, ULIS, VNU (complied & edited) (2013) Reading Supplementary Materials
1.3 Description and reflection of the teacher (the researcher)
My passion for English language was so great that I did not have to think much before selecting my university After four years studying here, I graduated in
Since earning my Distinction degree in a fast-track program in 2011, I have embarked on a teaching career at this university, accumulating two years of experience, including a year during my studies As a novice teacher, I face challenges in classroom management, but I benefit greatly from the support of experienced colleagues and insights from renowned researchers and educators globally This guidance has contributed to my daily progress in teaching, positively impacting my students' motivation and academic success.
The investigated class was a mixed-ability group, where a minority of students demonstrated strong motivation and diligence in their studies In contrast, the majority of the class exhibited passivity in their learning, despite their desire to achieve academic success.
Class problem from the teacher‟s perspective
When I first came in this class, it was quite easy to see that these students had serious difficulty in understanding what I am talking to them in English, and even some of them could not use English to communicate at all When I asked one of them several simple familiar questions such as could you tell me something special about you, the student was so confused that she had to seek translating support from the others sitting around This appeared quite surprising to me because these students had finished their first year They were supposed to master English as a communicative tool, at least in daily life context In the second week, when I started teaching the first unit according to the syllabus, it was even more problematic because most of them (except some students counted on one hand) were hardly involved in the lesson When I asked them elicit questions related to the lesson, they either looked down and stuck their eyes on the table or simply looked at nowhere I admitted it was a trauma which really made me think to look for reasons and then solutions to the problems
At first, I formed some hypotheses about the causes of the problem:
Their low level of English proficiency which leads to a serious lack of confidence may prevent them from proactively participating in class activities;
Their lack of motivation which is caused by their not-accommodated different learning styles may discourage them to achieve success in classroom
The initial hypotheses prompted me to initiate action research aimed at testing the underlying theories of the issues at hand Upon reviewing their study records from the first year, I was able to confirm the first hypothesis.
Figure 8: The proportions of the students by their study record in the first year
The pie chart illustrates the distribution of students' academic performance at the end of their freshman year, revealing that a significant 85% achieved a GPA below 3.0 Alarmingly, more than one-third of these students recorded GPAs between 1.0 and 2.0 by the conclusion of the second semester.
I conducted a motivation survey to assess the students' interest in learning, revealing a significant lack of motivation among both advanced and struggling students The findings will be discussed in the following section Additionally, a learning style survey was administered to identify potential reasons for the observed motivation deficit.
Action research
According to Mackey and Gass (2005), “an all-encompassing definition of action research” seems not to exist In fact, action research, also known as
“collaborative research” or “practitioner research” or “teacher-initiated research,” can be defined and undertaken in many different ways in the field
Classroom research is often conducted by external researchers focused on theory construction and testing, which tends to overlook the insights of teachers In contrast, research that addresses classroom issues should stem from the actual problems and concerns teachers face Action research, conducted by practitioners, aims to identify solutions to these pressing classroom challenges.
Action research is considered the most effective method for identifying solutions tailored to specific contexts While findings from other researchers may demonstrate effectiveness, they are not universally applicable Therefore, it is essential for teachers to engage in action research alongside their teaching practices (Waters-Adams, 2006).
“Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research
It is based on the following assumptions:
- Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves
- Teachers and principals become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess their own work and then consider ways of working differently
- Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively
- Working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development”
According to Ferrance (2000), action research is distinct from traditional research as it is not merely a "library project" or a method for problem-solving Instead, it is a cyclical process aimed at identifying real educational issues, collecting relevant data, reflecting on the findings, and determining a course of action The primary objective of action research is to enhance educational environments, ultimately benefiting students.
The researcher recognized action research as an effective approach to address classroom challenges, prioritizing practical solutions over the generalized findings derived from other educators' experiences in different teaching contexts.
Research instruments
The adaptation of motivation and learning style questionnaire
According to Dürnyei (2003), questionnaires are a widely utilized method for data collection in both quantitative and qualitative research due to their straightforward construction and efficiency A well-crafted questionnaire can significantly save researchers time, money, and effort while effectively gathering substantial information in under an hour and in a systematic way.
According to Dürnyei's book on questionnaires, they can be categorized into three types based on the respondent: factual, behavioral, and attitudinal In this research, the questionnaire utilized was of the attitudinal type, focusing specifically on identifying the learning preferences of student participants by assessing their interests in particular activities.
While questionnaires are widely used, a common misconception exists that anyone can create an effective one, as noted by Oppenheim (1992, cited in Dửrnyei, 2003) This belief often confuses everyday questions with the structured design required for a proper research questionnaire In reality, not everyone possesses the skills to craft a well-designed questionnaire that accurately captures the necessary information A poorly constructed questionnaire can significantly undermine even the most engaging research topic.
2003) For these reasons, the researcher decided not to design a questionnaire by herself, but adapting existing ones whose validity and reliability have been already proved over time a Learning style inventory
The researcher decided to adapt Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ) developed by Reid (1984) as the measuring instrument of students‟ learning styles, particularly for learners of foreign language
The survey's validity was confirmed using the split-half method, initially comprising 10 statements on learning styles, which were later refined to 5 after a correlation analysis According to Sabeh et al (2011), Reid's PLSPQ has been extensively utilized in various studies, ensuring its established validity and reliability This "user-friendly" PLSPQ features 30 randomly ordered statements that participants respond to using a 5-point Likert scale.
“strong disagree to strongly agree” Some questions were repeated to increase the internal consistency of the questionnaire after being paraphrased a bit
The PLSPQ was chosen as the research instrument due to its relevance, but modifications were necessary to enhance clarity and prevent misunderstandings Specifically, question 15 was replaced, question 16 was translated, and question 17 was exemplified to eliminate ambiguity Notably, the questionnaire was not fully translated into the students' first language, with the exception of the instructions and in-bracket translations for specific questions.
16) because the language use in each statement was quite simple and easy to understand Moreover, if some repeated statements were in Vietnamese, the students would easily find out and consider them as “the ridiculous trick.”
The PLSPQ questionnaire also included its scoring sheet which guided the user how to elicit the respondent‟s learning styles via 30 questions
Due to the assumption that students may not be familiar with the term "learning styles," a concise explanation was given during the survey administration Additionally, the questionnaire clearly stated the assurance of confidentiality and anonymity at the outset The motivation questionnaire used was adapted from Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB).
Despite some criticism from researchers like Dürnyei (1994), Gardner's Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) is widely recognized for its validity and reliability in motivation research Originally developed by Gardner and Lambert in 1958, the AMTB was designed to assess the non-linguistic factors of motivation and attitude among English-speaking Canadian students learning French This questionnaire has since been adapted and utilized in various studies examining the motivation of second language learners across the globe The AMTB evaluates learners' motivation and attitudes towards the target language through six distinct categories.
Integrative orientation: learners‟ motivation for learning English is for their daily life or social purpose;
Instrumental orientation: learners need to acquire language usage skills to a proficiency level for pursuing knowledge in their specific fields of study;
Motivational intensity: the level of learners‟ motivation in learning a language as a second/foreign language;
Desire to learn English: the insight into how strong is the students‟ desire to learn the language;
Parental/Lecturer’s encouragement: the effects of these two factors on students‟ motivation in learning English; and
The rating of English skills: the supplementary and complementary information which can be linked to other factors under study
To enhance respondents' commitment and reduce administration time, some researchers have opted for the mini-AMTB version, which contains only 12 items compared to the original 104 items in the AMTB.
Guilford (1954) instead of the full AMTB Despite its small number of survey items
The mini version of the AMTB features 12 items instead of the original 104, while still maintaining the essential conceptual framework Each item in this condensed version aligns with a corresponding scale from the full AMTB, ensuring consistency in measurement and interpretation.
Figure 9: Equivalent scales of 12 mini-AMTB items
On the other hand, Gardner (2004) suggested that the “Guilford style” mini- AMTB should not be used as a substitute for the full AMTB The reason was that
Single item scales are prone to significant measurement errors and offer a limited range of response options, which can affect their correlation with other variables This restriction in the number of items—utilizing only one item per scale to assess motivation and attitude—limits the depth of measurement, potentially compromising the validity and reliability of survey results.
To address the limitations of the mini-AMTB, the researcher modified key sections of the complete AMTB to create a tailored list of survey questions aimed at engaging the participating students effectively.
The research utilized the English-language version of the AMTB, primarily chosen due to its alignment with the study's overall language This version was originally translated for Gardner's international research project and is specifically designed for students learning English as a foreign language The similarity between the original survey subjects and the participants in this study enhances the questionnaire's relevance However, it's important to note that the original subjects were secondary school students, while this research involved university students, indicating a difference in age range.
The adaptation of the survey was essential to streamline data analysis while preserving the content validity of the AMTB The researcher focused on specific categories that align with the study's objectives, particularly motivation intensity and lecturer encouragement.
The survey, referred to as "English teacher evaluation," assesses the desire to learn English among university majors While ten items from the original scale were retained, modifications were made to the English teacher evaluation section Originally designed for secondary school students with a single English teacher, the scale was adapted for university students who typically have at least two English teachers instructing different skills in a semester Consequently, the evaluation items were updated to specify "English reading teacher" instead of just "English teacher."
Procedure of data collection
In phase 1 of the study, the PLSPQ questionnaire was administered to a class of second-year English majors to identify existing problems The collected data was then visualized in a chart and presented to the students Additionally, the AMTB questionnaire was distributed to assess the students' motivation levels during reading lessons prior to the implementation of the new differentiated instruction approach.
In Phase 2 of the intervention, the researcher will develop a hypothesis based on data collected from two questionnaires and implement a new teaching approach, focusing on differentiated instruction to enhance student motivation by aligning with their individual learning styles The teacher, who also serves as the researcher, will engage in self-observation and reflection during class sessions After the intervention, a follow-up motivation questionnaire will be distributed to assess any improvements in student motivation, and interviews will be conducted with students to gather additional insights at the conclusion of the process.
After the cycle one of the research, the researcher would decide whether or not to conduct the second cycle based on the result of the first one
Figure 11: The research first cycle
Phase 1: PLSPQ and AMTB questionnaire + interview with some students
Phase 2: Intervention (differentiated instructions by learning styles)
Procedure of data analysis
This study employs both qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze the collected data
After gathered, the PLSPQ questionnaire will be assessed and analyzed with the guidance from the scoring sheet of the PLSPQ (see Appendix 2) provided by Reid (1987)
The AMTB motivation questionnaire will be analyzed using a scoring sheet, where each item is assigned a numerical value from 1 to 6 Positively keyed items score from "strongly disagree" at 1 point to "strongly agree" at 6 points, while negatively keyed items score in reverse, from "strongly disagree" at 6 points to "strongly agree" at 1 point.
In this survey, respondents can achieve a maximum score of 180 by selecting "strongly agree" for positively keyed items and "strongly disagree" for negatively keyed ones Conversely, the minimum score is 30, which indicates choosing all 1-point-value options
The interviews with the students, classroom observation and student‟s diaries will be coded, transcribed, analyzed and quoted as the evidence in the study
All the collected data cooperated to help the researcher gain a thorough overview on the problems and seek out the best solutions.