INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
Rapid globalization over the past few decades has elevated English to the status of the most significant foreign language in Vietnam, a traditionally monolingual nation This shift has led to a growing number of bilingual individuals who fluently speak both Vietnamese and English, often engaging in code-switching or code-mixing during conversations and lectures Defined by linguists as a common characteristic among bilingual speakers worldwide, code-switching necessitates knowledge of at least two languages, distinguishing it from other sociolinguistic phenomena like pidgins and creoles Consequently, investigating code-switching is essential for understanding the communication processes of bilinguals.
Code-switching is a common practice in bilingual communities, where speakers alternate between their native language (L1) and a second language (L2) in various contexts (Kim, 2006) This phenomenon is particularly prevalent among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers, who frequently switch between Vietnamese and English when communicating with colleagues in the field This practice reflects the reality that EFL teachers, immersed in their native language environment, are continuously exposed to English through their professional and academic activities.
In the researcher’s initial observations, code-switching is particularly evident in conversations among EFL teachers at the tertiary level As a member of this bilingual community at a university in Vietnam, she became intrigued by the code-switching practices of her colleagues, prompting her to explore this phenomenon further.
Recent research on code-switching has primarily focused on its linguistic aspects and applications in various contexts, such as foreign language classrooms, internet chatting, advertising, and expatriate conversations However, studies specifically addressing code-switching among Vietnamese-English bilinguals remain scarce, indicating a significant gap in the literature This study seeks to explore the patterns and motivations behind code-switching among Vietnamese EFL teachers at the English Division 1 of the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education at Hanoi University of Languages and International Studies, thereby contributing to the understanding of this linguistic phenomenon in Vietnam.
The researcher is motivated to conduct this study due to a strong interest in the utterance processes of bilinguals and the specific code-switching practices of her colleagues, as well as the necessity to address unresolved questions in the field.
Aims and research questions of the study
This study aims to review existing literature from influential scholars on code-switching, particularly among Vietnamese EFL teachers at the English Division 1 of the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, ULIS, VNU Utilizing the classification theories of Poplack (1980), Malik (1994), and Appel and Muysken (2006), the research investigates the various types of code-switching present in this context Additionally, the study seeks to explore the underlying reasons for code-switching within this bilingual community.
In short, the study aims to answer the two following research questions:
1 What are the types of code-switching found in conversations between Vietnamese EFL teachers at English Division 1, Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, ULIS, VNU?
2 What are the reasons for the use of code-switching in conversations between Vietnamese EFL teachers at English Division 1, Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, ULIS, VNU?
Scope of the study
This case study focuses exclusively on the phenomenon of code-switching among Vietnamese EFL teachers at English 1, Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, ULIS, VNU It does not explore code-switching practices of teachers in other divisions, despite their prevalence.
This study examines patterns of code-switching in informal conversations among participants, primarily occurring in campus settings such as teacher break rooms and conference halls during breaks It specifically focuses on spontaneous discussions related to daily life, excluding formal discussions from scheduled meetings or conferences.
Methods of the study
The research utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods to address the research questions Initially, natural conversations among participants were audio recorded and transcribed to identify instances of code-switching, which were then categorized based on Poplack's theory (1980) This qualitative approach aimed to uncover the types of Vietnamese-English code-switching present in the recorded dialogues among Vietnamese EFL teachers.
Transcripts of conversations and a brief self-report form were provided to participants to gather their reflections on the reasons behind their code-switching The collected data was then analyzed and categorized By utilizing a quantitative approach, the researcher aimed to address the second research question regarding the motivations for the participants' code-switching behavior.
Significance of the study
This research aims to enhance understanding of code-switching among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers, particularly Vietnamese EFL educators, and to inspire further exploration of this topic by other researchers The study's findings will highlight sociolinguistic issues, including attitudes towards code-switching and its future development Additionally, it contributes to conversation analysis as an ethnographic methodology and discourse analysis from a sociolinguistic viewpoint, while also enriching studies on the speech community of this demographic Ultimately, this research serves as a foundation for future investigations into bilingualism and code-switching.
Overview of the rest of the study
The rest of the study is comprised of four chapters which are as follows
Chapter two, Theoretical Background, reviews prominent literature directly relevant to the topic being discussed
Chapter three, Methodology, presents the methods used for data collection and data analysis as well as justification for these methods
Chapter three is followed by the fourth chapter, Results and Discussion, in which the findings of the study are discussed to answer the research questions
Finally in chapter five, recapitulation of the whole study is presented before suggestions for further studies and a conclusion are given.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Introduction
This chapter outlines key definitions and foundational theories relevant to the research topic, focusing on various systems for classifying code-switching and exploring the underlying reasons for its occurrence.
This chapter focuses exclusively on the phenomenon of code-switching in everyday conversations, reviewing studies that examine its occurrence among speakers It intentionally excludes research related to code-switching in other contexts, such as advertising, chat rooms, or language learning environments.
Bilingualism
As code-switching is “the inevitable consequence of bilingualism” (Hudson, 1996, p 51), it is necessary to discuss bilingualism in the review of literature related to code-switching
Numerous attempts have been made by linguists to describe and fully understand the concept of bilingualism One of the earliest studies carried out by Bloomfield
Bilingualism is broadly defined as having "native-like control of two languages" (1933, p 56), which raises questions about the level of mastery required for this designation Haugen (1953, p 7) clarifies that true bilingualism exists when an individual can produce complete and meaningful utterances in a second language.
According to Spolsky (1998, p 45), when people “develop some knowledge and ability in a second language”, they become bilingual He continues defining a bilingual:
A bilingual individual is defined as someone who possesses functional proficiency in a second language This proficiency can range from basic skills in specific areas to a high level of fluency in both languages, often referred to as balanced bilingualism.
According to Spolsky, a person is considered "bilingual" if they can communicate in a second language, regardless of their proficiency level In contrast, Grosjean emphasizes the regular use of two or more languages within a specific speech community, suggesting that bilingual speakers exhibit unique language behaviors beyond merely being two monolinguals Grosjean's later definition highlights the importance of language use frequency, making it more widely accepted than Spolsky's view, as individuals with limited functional ability in a second language should not be classified as bilingual if they rarely engage with that language.
Weinrich's (1953) renowned typology identifies three distinct types of bilingualism, categorized by the learning environment and the cognitive organization of language in a bilingual's mind: compound bilingualism, coordinate bilingualism, and subordinate bilingualism.
Compound bilingualism occurs when an individual acquires both their first and second languages simultaneously in the same environment during early childhood In this case, the speaker associates the same meanings with equivalent words, leading to a merging of the two languages at the conceptual level in the brain As a result, the speaker develops and maintains two distinct language systems, both readily accessible within their linguistic repertoire This phenomenon is commonly observed in individuals with bilingual parents or those raised in diverse linguistic settings.
Coordinate bilingualism arises when an individual learns two languages in distinct contexts, leading to separate conceptual representations for translation equivalents in each language.
Bilingualism can develop at different stages of life, with individuals often acquiring their first language in early childhood and learning a second language later through formal education or in adulthood A specific type of bilingualism, known as subordinate bilingualism, occurs when a speaker's first language supports their understanding of the second language In this case, the meanings and concepts of the second language are often interpreted through the lens of the first language, leading to a lower proficiency in the second language.
2000) Following Weinreich‟s (1953) typology, many theories for bilingualism have been proposed with most focusing on compound and coordinate bilingualism as they are regarded as “true” bilingualism
On the basis of this typology by Weinreich, the participants in this study can be considered to have coordinate bilingualism
Once bilingualism is established within a speech community, the patterns of language choice become a defining characteristic of bilingual behavior Community members must navigate decisions regarding which language to use in specific contexts and with particular interlocutors, as highlighted by Holmes.
Social factors, such as the identity of the participants, the context of the conversation, and the discussion's purpose, significantly influence language choice within speech communities (2008, p 21) For instance, when a bilingual individual converses with a monolingual person, they typically communicate in the monolingual's language, potentially adjusting their style or formality In contrast, discussions between bilinguals with shared linguistic backgrounds become more intricate, often involving code-switching and borrowing (Grosjean, 1982) Grosjean's perspective highlights that a bilingual speaker's language choice primarily depends on their interlocutor's linguistic background, leading to a mutual agreement on the language to be used, whether or not code-switching occurs.
Code, code-switching, code-mixing, lexical borrowing, and interference
Research on code-switching has grown significantly in recent decades; however, confusion remains regarding its definition and examples Scholars face challenges in differentiating code-switching from related concepts such as code-mixing and lexical borrowing.
In this section, the concepts to be defined are code and code-switching The term
“code-switching” is then compared and contrasted with other two confusing ones mentioned above, namely “code-mixing” and “borrowing” The distinction between
CS and interference, albeit not always puzzling, is also relevant in this literature and therefore will be briefly discussed in this section
To understand code-switching, it is essential to define "code," which sociolinguists refer to as a "variety of language." This term encompasses languages, dialects, and registers, representing a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution (Hudson, 1996) Holmes (2008) supports this perspective, acknowledging the significance of these linguistic varieties in the context of code-switching.
A variety refers to a collection of linguistic forms utilized in specific social contexts, characterized by unique social distributions This encompasses various accents, linguistic styles, dialects, and even distinct languages that contrast with one another due to social factors.
Both authors highlight the significance of the speech community where a language variety is utilized, focusing on linguistic elements as key components In this study, the term "code" or "variety" refers specifically to the primary language spoken by the citizens of a country.
Among the first researchers trying to define code-switching, Hasselmo (1961, 1970, as cited in Ho-Dac, 2003, p 6) points out that:
Code-switching refers to alternating between two languages during conversation, influenced by the speakers' proficiency in each language This linguistic phenomenon can manifest as a "clean" switch, characterized by a complete phonological change, or a "ragged" switch, where grammatical and lexical changes occur without altering phonology.
Hasselmo defines code-switching as the transition between languages, highlighting that these switches can vary phonologically, grammatically, or lexically based on the language proficiency of the speakers involved.
Another influential author of many studies on code-switching, Shana Poplack
Code-switching, as defined by 1980, refers to the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence, or constituent, often without changing the interlocutor or topic This definition highlights the various levels at which code-switching can occur, including discourses, sentences, and constituents It has been widely accepted and supported by linguists such as Hudson (1996), Spolsky (1998), Ho-Dac (2003), and Holmes (2008).
Gumperz (1982, p 59) defines code-switching as the integration of segments from two distinct grammatical systems within a single speech exchange This perspective highlights the temporary and contextual nature of language use, emphasizing that such switches occur within the framework of the same conversational interaction.
Code-switching, a term defined most broadly by Poplack (1980), encompasses a spectrum of language switching that can occur at various levels, from entire sentences to individual words Despite its established definition, there remains ambiguity regarding what constitutes code-switching, as it is frequently conflated with related concepts such as code-mixing and lexical borrowing.
2.3.3 Code-switching and code-mixing
The distinction between code-switching and code-mixing is a key topic in code alternation studies Clyne (1991) suggests that both terms describe the same phenomenon where a speaker shifts from one language to another However, some researchers differentiate between the two concepts Wei (1998) proposes a grammatical perspective, stating that code-switching occurs at or above the clause level, while code-mixing happens below the clause level.
Muysken (2000) defines "code-mixing" as the inclusion of lexical items and grammatical features from two languages within a single sentence, a concept he terms "intra-sentential code-mixing." He differentiates this from "code-switching," which he describes as the rapid alternation between multiple languages in a speech event Similarly, Bhatia and Ritchie (2004) describe code-mixing as the integration of various linguistic units—such as morphemes, words, and phrases—primarily from two grammatical systems within one sentence The definitions provided by Wei, Muysken, and Bhatia and Ritchie suggest that code-mixing occurs within sentences, while code-switching pertains to transitions between sentences.
Poplack (1979/1981) presents a distinct perspective on code-switching, defining it as the sole term for all instances of code alternation, whether they occur below, at, or above the sentence level Further exploration of this concept will be addressed in the following section.
The distinction between code-switching and code-mixing can be approached from two perspectives: code alternation and sociolinguistic factors According to Hudson (1996), code-switching occurs when language changes align with situational changes, while code-mixing happens when fluent bilinguals switch languages without any alteration in the context, a phenomenon he refers to as "conversational code-switching," which he considers an inadequate term Hudson's classification relies on the speaker's language choice influenced by situational changes, yet the concepts of "situation" and "situational changes" require further exploration to identify the factors that determine them and how they impact a bilingual's code choice.
Another extra-linguistic factor used to differentiate code-switching from code- mixing is suggested by Holmes (2008, p 43) She argues that code-mixing suggests
The speaker's indiscriminate mixing of codes may stem from incompetence, contrasting with code-switching, which involves intentional and meaningful transitions between languages Holmes suggests the term "metaphorical switching" for this purposeful switching, emphasizing that distinctions should be based on speaker-related factors like intention and language competence However, this perspective has its drawbacks, as assessing a speaker's intention or competence is often challenging Even bilingual individuals with limited proficiency can engage in rapid code-switching that carries significant implications.
This study adopts the approach of code alternation to clearly distinguish between code-switching and code-mixing, as it proves more effective for analyzing conversations The framework established by Poplack (1979/1981) will be utilized to identify instances of code-switching throughout the research.
2.3.4 Code-switching and lexical borrowing
Linguistic constraints on code-switching
A growing number of code-switching studies have dealt with the linguistic factors that operate to constraint code-switching (Gumperz 1976; Plaff 1976, 1979; Poplack
1980, 1981) From these studies, some general linguistic constraints have emerged, which have been explained as follows
Poplack (1980) introduced the equivalence constraint, which posits that language switches are more likely to occur at points where surface structures are similar in both languages This principle emphasizes the preference for common linguistic elements during code-switching, highlighting the significance of structural similarities in bilingual communication.
Code-switching typically happens in conversations when elements from both the first language (L1) and second language (L2) can coexist without breaching the syntactic rules of either language This occurs at points where the surface structures of L1 and L2 align Consequently, code-switching is restricted from taking place within a grammatical structure that is unique to one language and not applicable to the other.
Intra-sentential code-switching occurs within sentences at points where the grammatical structures of both languages align This allows for switching between elements such as adjectives and nouns or verbs and objects, provided that both languages maintain the same order for these components.
Vietnamese English Possible switch point nhà đẹp nice house NO xem phim hoạt hình watch cartoons YES: i.e „xem cartoons‟ or „watch phim hoạt hình‟
The size-of-constituent constraint indicates that higher-level constituents, such as sentences and clauses, are more frequently switched than lower-level categories, which include nouns, verbs, determiners, adverbs, and adjectives (Gumperz & Hernández-Chávez 1975; Poplack 1980) An exception to this rule is the category of nouns, which consistently accounts for the highest number of switches below the sentence level (Pfaff 1979; Poplack 1980, 1981).
The free morpheme constraint is the third linguistic rule governing code-switching, which prohibits switching between free and bound morphemes According to Poplack (1980), code-switching can occur after any discourse constituent as long as it is not a bound morpheme For example, the term *EAT-iendo, meaning "eating," includes a Spanish bound morpheme, -iendo, illustrating this constraint.
The addition of the suffix "ing" to the English root "eat" is not typically found in the speech of Spanish/English bilinguals unless one morpheme has been phonologically integrated into the other language, indicating that the word has become a borrowing This phenomenon illustrates the free-morpheme constraint, defined as the impossibility of code-switching at the point where morphemes are bound together.
From a sociolinguistic perspective, many scholars argue against the existence of universal and absolute rules in language use, suggesting that current rules may merely reflect the limited data available They emphasize the importance of considering social, stylistic, and contextual factors in language switching The instances of code-switching can vary based on factors such as the languages involved, the purpose of the switch, and the proficiency levels of the speakers It is proposed that intra-sentential code-switching is more common among highly proficient bilinguals, while inter-sentential switching, along with the use of short fixed phrases or tags, is more frequently observed among those with lower proficiency levels (Holmes, 2008).
Despite the controversy surrounding the topic, linguistic constraints on code-switching have established a valuable framework for examining language mixing This research paper leverages these constraints to identify instances of code-switching and non-switching within conversational speech data.
Typologies of code-switching
Based on various studies on code-switching that proposed constraints on switching locations, numerous scholars have developed their own typologies for classifying code-switching This section will examine three prominent systems used to categorize code-switching.
2.5.1 Poplack’s typology of code-switching
According to Poplack‟s (1980, as cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000, p 259) study on English-Spanish/ Spanish-English code-switching, there are three types of code- switching:
Extra-sentential code-switching involves inserting tags like "you know" or "I mean" from one language into a sentence that is otherwise completely in another language This form of code-switching is straightforward and does not necessitate a high proficiency in both languages, as it carries a minimal risk of breaching grammatical rules.
Inter-sentential code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between languages at the boundary of clauses or sentences For example, a bilingual speaker might say, "Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in English and finish in Spanish," demonstrating a seamless transition between languages This phenomenon highlights the fluidity and adaptability of bilingual communication.
(1980) in the Puerto Rican community of New York city)
Intra-sentential code-switching involves the use of different language switches within a single clause, including within word boundaries, such as in loan blends like "checker" (combining the English verb "check" with the French infinitive morpheme "-er") This type of code-switching is considered the most complex due to its high likelihood of violating syntactic rules and the necessity for a deep understanding of both languages and their interconnections.
Muysken (2000) introduced a typology of code-switching that is significant in the literature review He defines "code-mixing" as the occurrence of lexical items and grammatical features from two languages within a single sentence The first type of code-switching, known as insertion, involves adding a constituent from language B into a structure in language A.
A is the matrix language (Muysken, 2000, p 60-62) This type of code switching is illustrated in the following example taken from Nortier‟s (1990) Moroccan Arabic- Dutch code switching data
Example 1: Žib li-ya een glas water of zo
(Get me a glass of water or something.)
(Nortier, 1990, p 131, as cited in Muysken, 2000, p 62) The second type of code-switching described by Muysken (2000, p 96) is termed
“alternation”, and occurs where the two languages “remain relatively separate”, for example, when the switch is at the periphery of the clause (Muysken, 2000, p
121) The following example, taken from Treffers-Daller‟s (1994) French-Dutch corpus, illustrates this type of code-switching
Example 2: Je dois je dois glisser daan vinger hier
(I have to insert my finger here.)
(Treffers-Daller 1994, p 213, as cited in Muysken, 2000, p 96) The final type of code-switching suggested by Muysken (2000, p 122) is called
Congruent lexicalization refers to the phenomenon where two languages share a similar grammatical structure, either partially or fully As noted by Muysken (2000), this process often involves switching between the two languages and is most prevalent among related languages An example of congruent lexicalization can be observed in the Sranan-Dutch context, as illustrated by Bolle (1994).
Wan heri gedeelte de ondro beheer fu gewapende machten (One whole part is under the control of armed forces.)
(Bolle 1994, p 75, as cited in Muysken, 2000, p 139)
2.5.3 Bloom and Gumperz’s typology of code-switching
Poplack (1980) and Muysken (2000) analyze code-switching from a grammatical perspective, while Bloom and Gumperz (1972) categorize it into two types based on sociolinguistic factors: situational and metaphorical code-switching Situational code-switching occurs when speakers change languages due to alterations in the context, such as the participants, topic, or setting Conversely, metaphorical code-switching involves the selection of language influencing the situation itself.
The speaker chooses to overlook the visible external circumstances and instead concentrate on the subtle aspects of code-switching among the individuals involved (Hudson, 1996, p 53) This metaphorical code-switching serves as a valuable conversational strategy, facilitating interactions such as making apologies or requests.
The evaluation of three key typologies of code-switching reveals important insights Bloom and Gumperz's sociolinguistic classification may overlook how situational changes often align with bilingual speakers' intentions, raising questions about the clarity between situational and metaphorical code-switching Muysken's comprehensive system presents challenges for novice researchers, particularly in differentiating between insertion and congruent lexicalization when incorporating elements from one language into another Additionally, Poplack's typology, while highly regarded for its transparency and comprehensiveness, may face limitations in classifying incomplete clauses in oral corpora Nonetheless, it serves as the conceptual framework for analyzing code-switching types in recorded conversations for this study.
Communicative functions of and reasons for code-switching
The communicative functions of and motivations for code-switching have been studied extensively from various linguistic perspectives by a multitude of researchers
According to Grosjean (1982), code-switching among bilinguals occurs for several reasons, including the inability to find suitable words or expressions, lack of appropriate translations, and the influence of interlocutors, contexts, messages, attitudes, and emotions Bilinguals may switch languages to quote someone, thereby reinforcing group identity, to specify the addressee by using their preferred language, or to clarify previous statements Ultimately, the choice of language is determined by various factors, such as the participants involved, the topic of conversation, and the timing and location of the interaction (Bhatia and Ritchie, 2004).
Appel and Muysken (2006) identify six primary functions of code-switching, highlighting its functional significance in communication These functions share similarities with the reasons proposed by Grosjean, indicating a complex interplay between linguistic choices in bilingual contexts.
1 Referential function: code-switching involves lack of knowledge or facility in a language Thus, bilingual speakers switch code when they do not know the word or when a certain concept is not available in that language
2 Directive function: This participant-related function of code-switching aims to include or exclude a person from part of a conversation such as by using a familiar or foreign language to that person
3 Expressive function: Speakers use more than one language to stress their self- identity or feelings to others in the conversation
4 Phatic function: code-switching is used to show a change in tone and emphasize important parts of a conversation
5 Metalinguistic function: Bilinguals sometimes code-switch in order to comment on another language In other words, this function is most marked when the speaker or writer quotes words, phrases or sentences in another language in order to preserve the original meanings and senses of the quotations
6 Poetic function: Words, puns, and jokes in one language are switched to another language for the purpose of amusement or entertainment
Seeking reasons for code-switching from a sociolinguistic approach, Gumperz
(1982, p 144) lists examples of situations created to convey meaning as given below:
- to appeal to the literate
- to appeal to the illiterate
- to ease communication, i.e., utilizing the shortest and the easiest route
- to negotiate with greater authority
- to capture attention, i.e stylistic, emphatic, emotional
- to identify with a particular group
- to close the status gap
However, the ten reasons described by Malik (1994) appear to be most succinct yet comprehensive Those reasons are listed and explained as given below:
1 Lack of facility: According to Malik (1994), bilinguals or multilinguals often code-switch when they cannot find an appropriate expression or vocabulary item, or when the language of conversation does not have the particular word needed to carry on the conversation smoothly
2 Lack of register: Code-switching also occurs when speakers are not equally competent in two languages and when they do not know the terms in two languages This reason often applies to cases of terminology For example, Vietnamese students studying English Language Teaching often use English terminology discussed in the course when they talk to each other about it in Vietnamese, owing to the fact that proper terms in Vietnamese may not be available to them
3 Mood of the speaker: Malik (1994) claims that usually when bilinguals are tired or angry, code-switching takes place with a new dimension This means, when the speaker is in the right state of mind, he or she can find the appropriate word or expression in the first language He or she may know exactly the word in both languages but the second language may be more available at the point of time when the speaker has a disturbed mind Cases like this are also described by Holmes
(2008, p 39-40) as “switching for affective functions”
4 To amplify and emphasize a point: Switching is also used to emphasize a point David (2003) uses the courtroom environment to show how a defending lawyer uses dominant Bahasa Malaysia to start with and shifts to English to emphasize an important point to the judge that the accused had not committed any crime for ten years The example is as follows
Example: “Sebelum ini OKT pernah ditangkap pada tahun 1975 dan 1986 There has been a 10 years gap since the last offence Semenjak itu OKT telah berumahtangga, mempunyai kerja tetap dan insaf.”
(“Before this, OKT was caught in 1975 and 1986… since then OKT has married and has held a steady job”)
5 Habitual experience: Malik (1994) stresses the fact that code-switching often occurs in fixed phrases or getting and parting, commands and request, invitation, expressions of gratitude and discourse markers Examples in Vietnamese-English code-switching may include “Thanks em/ anh! (Cám ơn em/anh!)” when the speaker wants to express gratitude
6 Semantic significance: Malik (1994) notes that switching at a particular moment can be used as an effective tool to convey appropriate linguistic and social information such as the speaker‟s attitudes, communicative intents or emotions
7 To show identity with a group: code-switching is used to signify shared values and experiences by people of a same group or culture, and to represent a sense of belonging and familiarity to the group This view by Malik is also shared by Holmes (2008, p 35-36)
8 To address a different audience: Malik (1994) states that code-switching is also used when the speaker intends to address people coming from various linguistic backgrounds He takes the example of India where the television announcer often uses Hindi as it is the national language, but also switches to English
9 Pragmatic reasons: Sometimes the alternation between two languages is highly meaningful in terms of the conversational context This means code-switching is dependent on the context of a conversation or other factors such as formality, participants and location where a conversation is taking place Therefore, code- switching may portray a varying degree of speaker‟s involvement
10 To attract attention: Malik (1994) shows that in advertisements (both written and spoken) in India, code-switching is used to attract the attention of readers/ listeners In English newspaper when readers come across non-English, the reader‟s attention is automatically drawn to depend on the language background he or she originates from A similar situation prevails in advertisements that involve audio and video output
Previous studies on Vietnamese – English code-switching and in Vietnamese
Research on Vietnamese-English code-switching remains limited, with a significant study conducted by Ho-Dac Tuc in 2003 focusing on bilingualism patterns Analyzing recordings of natural speech from sixty Vietnamese immigrants in Melbourne, Australia, Ho-Dac found that single words are switched more frequently than entire clauses The study revealed that different syntactic word classes switch at varying rates, with nouns being the most commonly switched and articles the least Additionally, it was noted that code-switching patterns correlate with specific discussion topics, and informants grouped by their residential areas exhibited similar types of code-switching.
Two notable studies on code-switching in Vietnam include Nguyen's (2007) research on code-switching as a translation technique and Giap's (2009) examination of language mixing in verbal communication between Vietnamese and English While Nguyen's study emphasizes the role of code-switching in translation contexts, Giap's work treats it as just one aspect of language mixing, making it less relevant to the current topic.
Despite the significant contribution of Ho-Dac's research in establishing the empirical groundwork for studies on Vietnamese-English bilingualism, there remains a scarcity of papers addressing code-switching in Vietnam This lack of research underscores the necessity for the current study.
Chapter summary
This chapter has examined the relevant literature on the topic, presenting general definitions of key concepts and clarifying distinctions between commonly confused language contacts It has also discussed the linguistic constraints on code-switching, explored various typologies of code-switching, and analyzed the motivations behind this linguistic phenomenon.
The literature review reveals a lack of consensus on key issues surrounding code-switching, including its typology and linguistic constraints Influential linguists offer varying definitions of code-switching, allowing individuals to interpret the phenomenon from their own perspectives After evaluating various theories, the researcher has chosen to adopt Poplack's framework for further analysis.
(1980) typology of code-switching and Malik‟s (1994) and Appel and Muysken‟s
(2006) suggested reasons for code-switching as theoretical frameworks for this study, mainly because of their general coverage of most cases and intelligibility to readers
In the next chapter, details on how this study was conducted will be presented.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter gives an overall account of the Vietnamese EFL teacher group from which the data were drawn, and presents the methods of data collection and data analysis
This chapter is organized into three key sections: the first provides an overview of the context and participants involved; the second details the data collection methods employed and the reasoning behind their selection, along with the procedures followed during data collection; and the final section outlines the methods used for data analysis.
Description of the context and participants
The University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS) stands out as a premier institution in Vietnam, renowned for its exceptional environment for language education and International Studies Among its ten faculties, the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE) is the largest, boasting approximately 150 faculty members and serving around 2,000 students each academic year.
FELTE comprises six divisions: English 1, English 2, English 3, Translation and Interpretation, English for Specific Purposes, and English Language Teaching This study focuses on English 1, which is dedicated to developing English skills for first-year students pursuing degrees in English Language Teaching, Translation and Interpretation, and Business.
The study involved 20 Vietnamese English teachers, comprising 18 females and 2 males, aged between 22 and 35 The participants had teaching experiences ranging from one year to several years, with all having used English regularly for at least a decade Each teacher majored in either TESOL or translation during their undergraduate studies and graduated with Distinction or Honour degrees Currently, they are responsible for teaching four English skills to first-year students at FELTE.
The EFL teachers in English 1, FELTE, were selected for this case study due to the researcher’s three-year experience in the Division, which facilitated easy access to the group through her involvement in various professional and social activities This familiarity with the participants and setting allowed her to engage in conversations and record them, enhancing the study's internal validity by aligning scientific categories with participants' realities Additionally, the researcher observed that teachers often engaged in informal discussions during lesson breaks, sharing teaching experiences and code-switching instances, making these interactions valuable for analysis.
The reason for adopting the methods of data collection including recording of natural speech and delivering teacher‟s self-reports are indicated in the following section.
Data collection method
To explore the various types and underlying causes of code-switching within the target group, two data collection methods were utilized: the recording of natural speech and self-reports from teachers.
The spontaneous nature of real-life speech is crucial for studying linguistic behavior, particularly code-switching, which often occurs in informal contexts (Poplack, 1980) To capture authentic speech data, researchers have employed audio recording methods in their methodologies (Labov, 1981; Milroy, 1987, as cited in Ho-Dac, 2003, p 33) This study utilized natural speech recordings to analyze various types of code-switching present in conversations and to gather participants' retrospective accounts.
The researcher collected recordings from 20 informants to capture speech samples in various situations, primarily focusing on informal conversations in the teacher's room during lesson breaks These spontaneous interactions involved two or more speakers and were not pre-arranged To address ethical concerns, the researcher obtained consent via email from all participants before commencing the recordings.
Despite the insights gained from literature, a notable issue persists: informants aware of being recorded may alter their speech behavior, deviating from their typical conversational patterns (Gardner-Chloros, 1991, as cited in Poplack, 1980) In this study, the researcher effectively mitigated this concern by discreetly positioning the voice recorder out of the informants' sight and engaging in conversations naturally.
A total of ten conversations, featuring all participants, were recorded, amounting to three hours and twenty-two minutes The recordings varied in length, with the shortest lasting approximately three minutes and the longest extending to about one hour Notably, instances of code-switching were observed throughout all conversations.
Sample transcripts of recorded conversations are provided in Appendix B
To investigate the reasons behind informants' code-switching in recorded conversations, a self-report form was created and distributed to gather their retrospective accounts This approach is similar to Nunan's (1989) concept of "stimulated recall," where researchers analyze recorded lessons and seek feedback from teachers and students on the context of their interactions In this case study, informants provided insights on the factors that prompted their code-switching by reflecting on the transcripts of their conversations.
The self-report form was created with the understanding that respondents might consider various situations, leading to diverse reasons for their code-switching choices By allowing informants to reflect on their context-specific code-switching while reviewing recorded conversations and transcripts, the form facilitated deeper insight into their motivations Additionally, it provided suggested reasons for code-switching, enhancing both the convenience for respondents and the efficiency of data analysis.
The teacher's self-report form comprises two main sections, A and B, in addition to the title, introduction, and key term definitions Section A features a transcript of a recorded conversation, highlighting instances of code-switching made by the recipient, which are italicized, underlined, and numbered sequentially Meanwhile, Section B contains a table with two columns, listing eleven reasons for code-switching as proposed by Malik.
In this section, informants are required to indicate the number corresponding to instances of code-switching in the transcript from part A, reflecting the reasons for their code-switching If informants identify additional reasons not listed in the provided table, they can specify these in a subsequent blank table that follows the same format and headings The form concludes with a final expression of gratitude.
The teacher‟s self-report form is provided in Appendix A
The process of data collection consisted of four main steps
Step 1: Designing the teacher’s self-report form
The teacher's self-report form aimed to gather participants' retrospective insights on their code-switching motivations during the analyzed conversations It included ten reasons proposed by Malik (1994) and an additional reason from Appel and Muysken.
(2006) Some space is reserved for the informants to specify any other reasons not belonging to the eleven ones
Initially, an email was sent to all informants to obtain their consent for recording their conversations Once approval was granted, the researcher began discreetly capturing the natural dialogues among the informants, primarily in the Faculty teacher's room and occasionally near the conference room A total of ten conversations were recorded, featuring all participants, with a cumulative duration of three hours and twenty-two minutes The recordings varied in length, with the shortest lasting approximately three minutes and the longest around one hour.
Data transcription occurred immediately after recording each conversation, with instances of code-switching italicized, underlined, and numbered sequentially The finalized transcripts were then transferred to Section A of the self-report forms.
Step 4: Sending the audio files and teacher’s self-report forms to participants
Once the transcript of a recording was completed, a teacher's self-report form, along with the transcript and corresponding audio file, was emailed to an informant involved in the conversation to gather insights on their code-switching reasons Informants were instructed to listen to the audio while reading the transcript to clarify their code-switching choices After completing the forms, they returned them to the researcher's email for data analysis.
Coding and data analysis procedure
The research analyzed three hours and twenty-two minutes of recorded speech, revealing 213 instances of code-switching that served as qualitative data To address the first research question, these instances were categorized into three types based on Poplack's (1980) framework: extra-sentential (tag switching), intra-sentential, and inter-sentential switching Each instance was also coded for its syntactic function within the utterance, and the results were tabulated to show the breakdown of switching according to Poplack's typology and by word classes.
Participants' self-reported responses were analyzed consistently to address the second research question The instances of code-switching were categorized based on their underlying reasons and then organized in tables, displayed in descending order of percentage.
The names of twenty participants were also coded into letters from A to T to guarantee the confidentiality of their identities and personal information
Examples from the transcripts were used for the discussion of results, each of which was followed by an English translation while switched words and phrases were indicated with underlining.
Conclusion
This chapter detailed the methods used for data collection and analysis to achieve the research objectives The subsequent chapter will present the findings and discuss the results of the research.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter explores the nature and frequency of code-switching within the corpus, structured into five key sections Following the introduction, the second and third sections present the findings from the data analysis aimed at addressing two specific research questions The fourth section offers an in-depth discussion of these results, culminating in a concise summary of the chapter.
Research question 1: What are the types of code-switching found in
4.2.1 Categorization of detected instances of code-switching according to Poplack’s (1980) typology
Based on the definition of code-switching proposed for this study, there are 213 code-switches in the corpus This number was obtained after borrowings such as
“CD” or “mail (“meo”)” were excluded
The detected code-switches were divided into three types according to Poplack‟s
(1980) typology, namely extra-sentential code-switching (or tag switching), inter- sentential code-switching, and intra-sentential code-switching which can be seen in table 2 below:
Type Number of instances Percentage
Table 2 Breakdown of detected code-switching instances according to Poplack‟s
Intra-sentential code-switching predominates in the analyzed corpus, supporting the notion that only highly proficient bilinguals engage in this practice (Holmes, 2008, p 46) Conversely, less proficient bilinguals are more likely to switch at sentence boundaries, leading to a notable absence of inter-sentential code-switching in the data The study recorded only two instances of extra-sentential code-switching, both being simple interjections: “No” and “No thanks.”
Among the 211 tokens of intra-sentential code-switching identified, 210 adhere to the "equivalence constraint" and "free morpheme constraint" proposed by Poplack (1980), while only one token does not conform to these established rules.
The "equivalence constraint" indicates that during intra-sentential code-switching, language switches can only happen at points within sentences where the grammatical structures of both languages align A violation of this principle can be illustrated through specific examples.
Họ lập luận rằng tất cả các thang đánh giá đều có thể chuyển đổi lẫn nhau, và vì đây là chuẩn chuyển đổi, nên họ tự cho rằng điều này là hợp lý, giống như câu nói "Đầu Ngô mình Sở".
The debate centers around the ability to convert one assessment scale into another, with some asserting that they possess the authority to make this decision based on standard conversion methods This raises concerns about the inconsistency of their approach.
As can be seen from the example, the syntactic category of the switched word should have been a noun acting as a complement and derived from the verb
“convert”, which is “conversion”, not the verb itself
This chapter will examine intra-sentential code-switching in detail, focusing on the classification of tokens based on Poplack's proposed system, as identified in recorded conversations.
4.2.2 Quantification of instances of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category
Table 3 displays the distribution of the syntactic category of the 213 intra-sentential tokens of code-switching
Syntactic category of code-switching Number Percentage
Table 3 Break down of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category
Table 3 indicates that nouns are the most common syntactic category in intra-sentential code-switching, accounting for 50.24 percent of total switches This aligns with previous research, such as Poplack's (1980) study on Spanish-English code-switching, which found that single nouns were more frequently switched than other word classes Similarly, Ho-Dac (2003) reported comparable results in her study on Vietnamese-English code-switching Furthermore, when combined, switched nouns and noun phrases constitute nearly 70 percent of all switches, highlighting their prevalence in the participants' code-switching behavior.
In the study of code-switching, verbs play a significant role, accounting for 23.22% of total switches, while adjectives represent 6.16% Additionally, verb phrases and prepositional phrases are nearly equally represented, with four and three occurrences, respectively Notably, sentences are the least common instances of intra-sentential code-switching, comprising less than one percent of the total cases identified.
The following sections describe switching by syntactic category found in the recorded conversation in order of frequency
4.2.3 Overview description of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category
It should be noted here that the examples given below are extracted from the recorded conversations, and therefore they will serve as example only
Table 3 reveals that over 50% of code-switching instances involve English nouns and noun phrases, making them the most frequently switched syntactic category Most of these switched terms pertain to concepts frequently discussed in the English language teaching field The identified nouns and noun phrases can be categorized based on similar semantic themes as outlined in the accompanying table.
Effective English language teaching encompasses essential skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, along with vocabulary assessments and midterm evaluations Incorporating strategies like scanning and utilizing resources such as tapescripts and glossaries enhances student comprehension and engagement Academic writing and structured course outlines are vital for organizing coursework, while supplementary materials and follow-up activities reinforce learning Participation in discussions and case studies, including the exploration of Double Degrees, fosters a deeper understanding of language concepts Additionally, standardized tests play a crucial role in assessing proficiency and guiding instructional approaches in English Language Teaching (ELT).
TOEFL, TOEIC, PET, IELTS, BEC
Book titles College Writing, IELTS Foundation, Objective IELTS
Intermediate, Market Leader, Great Paragraphs Lesson topics and subtopics conflicts, new business, names, common names, nicknames, adaptor, innovator, adapting, meeting, google
Work-related form, deadline, full time, pay
Clothes size, free size, free style
Others image, positive feeling, negative feeling, permanent residence, quality of assessment and e-learning in Vietnam Table 4 Switched nouns and noun phrases by semantic category
Other semantic categories include words and phrases related to family issues, studying abroad and conferences
English verbs and verb phrases account for approximately 25% of the 211 intra-sentential switches observed Notably, with the exception of the present participle "coaching," all other switched verbs and verb phrases appeared in invariable forms, such as the infinitive without "to," rather than in third-person singular, past, or past participle forms.
Chị đã chọn ra một ví dụ điển hình cho trình độ B1 và dành 15 tuần để giảng dạy, trong đó 3 tuần cuối tập trung vào việc hướng dẫn học sinh về cách viết đoạn văn, gần như là coaching để học sinh nắm vững kỹ năng này.
To effectively teach writing skills, select a specific B1 type and dedicate the final three weeks of a 15-week course to focused instruction During these last two weeks, concentrate on paragraph structure, providing coaching to ensure students grasp the essential elements of coherent writing.
The detected verbs and verb phrases can be generally classified into different semantic categories as in Table 5
Semantic category Verbs and verb phrases
English language teaching and learning activities revise, comment, scan, time, check, note, summarize, discuss, role-play, practice, manage time, preview the unit
In the realm of work-related activities, key actions include recording, compiling, and administering tasks, while also focusing on coaching and converting processes Additionally, it is essential to sort and order activities efficiently On the other hand, certain actions may lead to breaking down barriers, satisfying needs, or missing opportunities, which can ultimately result in paying off efforts or paying back commitments Acknowledging contributions with a simple thank you can also enhance workplace relationships.
The most frequently switched verbs in the recorded conversations are: “check”,
Only 13 adjectives were found in the recorded conversation, which account for 6.16 percent of total switches Most of these adjectives were used when participants talked about their teaching, namely “boring”, “creative”, “happy”, “smooth”,
Summary
This chapter reveals that out of 213 switches analyzed, only two instances of extra-sentential code-switching were identified, while the majority were intra-sentential, with no occurrences of inter-sentential code-switching This prevalence of intra-sentential switches may be attributed to their preference among proficient bilinguals, as noted by various linguists Furthermore, the analysis shows that single words dominate the 211 instances of intra-sentential code-switching, likely because these words, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives, exist in both languages and are seen as "categorical equivalents." Additionally, most switches align with points where the word order of both languages corresponds, supporting the "equivalence constraint" proposed by Poplack.
This chapter reveals that various syntactic word classes switch at different rates, with noun switches occurring most frequently, followed by verbs and adjectives This finding aligns with previous studies conducted by Poplack (1980) and Ho-Dac (2003).
The analysis of code-switching revealed that habitual expression and the quotation function were the primary reasons cited by informants Additionally, participants noted the purpose of amplifying and emphasizing points as a contributing factor Since informants were proficient in both languages, instances of code-switching due to a lack of language facility were rare One informant mentioned "to save time" as an additional reason for code-switching Notably, no instances of code-switching aimed at attracting attention were reported, likely due to the shared linguistic background among the speakers.
In the next chapter, a brief summary of what has been done in this research papers will be presented, followed by limitations of the study and suggestions for further studies.
