Nuclear fission and cluster radioactivity 2005

Nuclear Fission and Cluster Radioactivity M A Hooshyar · I Reichstein · F B Malik Nuclear Fission and Cluster Radioactivity An Energy-Density Functional Approach With 82 Figures ABC www.pdfgrip.com Authors Professor M Ali Hooshyar Professor Irwin Reichstein University of Texas at Dallas Department of Mathematical Sciences P.O Box 830688, EC 35 Richardson, TX 75083-0688 USA Email: ali.hooshyar@utdallas.edu Carleton University School of Computer Science Herzberg Building 1125 Colonel By Drive Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada Email: reichstein@scs.carleton.ca Professor F Bary Malik Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Department of Physics Neckers 483A Carbondale, IL 62901-4401 USA Email: fbmalik@physics.siu.edu Library of Congress Control Number: 2005929609 ISBN -10 3-540-23302-4 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN -13 978-3-540-23302-2 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springeronline.com c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 Printed in The Netherlands The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use Typesetting: by the authors and TechBooks using a Springer LATEX macro package Cover design: Cover design: E Kirchner, Springer Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper SPIN: 10017708 56/TechBooks www.pdfgrip.com 543210 This book is dedicated to Dina and Nahid Hooshyar and Akemi Oikawa Malik for their encouragement and support and to the memories of Balgice and Masharief Hooshyar and Rebecca and Solomon Reichstein www.pdfgrip.com Preface There are a number of excellent treaties on fission in the market and a reader may wonder about the reason for us to write another book All of the existing books, however, deal with the phenomena associated with fission from the vantage point of the liquid-drop model of nuclei In this monograph, we depart from that and investigate a number of fission related properties from a simple energy-density functional point of view taking into consideration the actual density-distribution function of nuclei i.e., we investigate the effect of a nuclear surface of to fm in width on the potential energy surface of a separating daughter pair This influences the structure of the potential energy surface significantly The referee of the article titled “Potential Energy Surfaces and Lifetimes for Spontaneous Fission of Heavy and Superheavy Elements from a Variable Density Mass Formula” published in Annals of Physics, Volume 98, 1976, stated “The work reported in this paper is important and significant for fission theory.” We, therefore, wish to bring to the scientific community a comprehensive study of the fission phenomenon done so far from the energy-density functional approach An overview of this monograph is presented in Sect 1.10 of Chap under the title pre-amble Some of the successes of the approach are the following: In 1972, using a simple version of the theory, it was correctly predicted that half-lives of superheavy elements should be very short So far, experiments support this In 1972, the mass distribution in the fission of isomer state of 236 U was predicted The measurements done eight years later in 1980 confirmed this prediction The theory can calculate the most probable kinetic energies associated with the emission of a daughter pair in spontaneous and induced fission within a few MeV The theory, independent of observation done, predicted simultaneously that the mass-spectrum in the spontaneous fission of 258 Fm should be symmetric The theory can account for nuclear masses and observed density distribution functions to within 1.5% The theory predicted the existence of cold fission, well before it was found experimentally www.pdfgrip.com VIII Preface Aside from describing many phenomena related to fission, this theoretical approach can be extended to the study of cluster and alpha-radioactivities, which are discussed in Chap Thus, the theory provides a uniform approach to the emission of alpha, light clusters, and heavy nuclei from meta-stable parent nuclei This latter problem, on the other hand, is clearly a complex many-body one and as such, the theory presented herein is likely to be improved over time with the advancement in many-body and reaction theory We just hope that this little book will serve as a foundation for more sophisticated work in the future In essence, the theory is a refinement of the pioneering work of Professors Neils Bohr and John A Wheeler In 1939, when their work was published, very little knowledge of actual nuclear density distribution functions was available That work may be viewed as an energy-density approach to nuclear fission for a uniform density-distribution function We have benefited much from the underlying physics of this monumental publication One of us, (FBM) is very thankful to Professor John Wheeler for exposing him to many nuances of that work and teaching him much of physics in other areas Many persons deserve many thanks for discussion and encouragement in early parts of this investigation Obviously, much of the subject matter noted in the monograph is based on the excellent doctorial dissertation of Dr Behrooz Compani-Tabrizi We are much indebted to him We remember fondly the spirited correspondences with Professor G.E Brown, the then editor of Physics Letters B, where some of the key papers were published Discussion with Professors John Clark, (late) Herman Feshbach, (late) Emil Konopinski, Don Lichtenberg and Pierre Sabatier, and Dr Barry Block are much appreciated For the preparation of the manuscript, we are very much thankful to Professor Arun K Basak, Mr Shahjahan Ali, Ms Sylvia Shaw, Ms Angela Lingle, and Ms Carol Booker We are appreciative of the helpful assistance of the staff and editors of Springer Verlag associated with the publication of this monograph Lastly, the support of our many friends and relatives played an important role in getting this book done We thank them collectively January 2005 Ali Hooshyar, Richardson, Texas Irwin Reichstein, Ottawa, Ontario Bary Malik, Carbondale, Illinois www.pdfgrip.com Contents A Summary of Observed Data and Pre-Amble 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Half-Lives and Spontaneous Decay 1.3 Induced Fission 1.4 Mass, Charge and Average Total Kinetic Energy Distribution 1.5 Cooling of Daughter Pairs 1.6 Ternary and Quaternary Fission 1.7 Fission Isomers 1.8 Cold Fission 1.9 Cluster Radioactivity 1.10 Pre-Amble References 11 14 15 16 17 19 Energy-Density Functional Formalism and Nuclear Masses 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Energy-Density Functional for Nuclei 2.3 Conclusion References 23 23 25 29 31 The Decay Process, Fission Barrier, Half-Lives, and Mass Distributions in the Energy-Density-Functional Approach 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Theory 3.2.1 Expression for the Fission Decay Probability 3.2.2 Determination of the Pre-Formation Probability 3.2.3 The Influence of the Residual Interaction on the Pre-Formation Probability 3.3 Calculation of the Potential Energy Surface and Half-Lives 3.4 Results and Discussion 3.4.1 The Potential Energy Surface www.pdfgrip.com 1 33 33 36 36 39 41 43 50 50 X Contents 3.4.2 Half-Lives 54 3.5 Conclusion 58 References 58 Spontaneous Fission Half-Lives of Fermium and Super-Heavy Elements 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Determination of Asymptotic Kinetic Energy 4.3 Spontaneous Fission of 258 Fm 4.4 The Potential-Energy Surface and Half-Lives of Superheavy Elements 4.5 Conclusion References Empirical Barrier and Spontaneous Fission 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Nature of the Empirical Barrier 5.3 Empirical Formula for Kinetic Energy 5.4 Spontaneous Fission Half-Lives, Mass and Charge Spectra 5.4.1 Spontaneous Fission Half-Lives 5.4.2 Mass Spectra 5.4.3 Charge Distribution 5.5 Conclusion References 61 61 63 64 65 70 70 73 73 74 80 81 81 82 86 90 91 Induced Fission 93 6.1 Introduction 93 6.2 Theory 94 6.2.1 Cross Section and Decay Probabilities 94 6.2.2 Calculation of the Most Probable Kinetic Energy, TKE 98 6.3 Applications 99 6.3.1 Neutron Induced Fission 101 6.3.1a Neutron Induced Fission of 233 U 101 6.3.1b Neutron Induced Fission of 235 U 104 6.3.1c Neutron Induced Fission of 239 Pu 105 6.3.1d Neutron Induced Fission of 229 Th 107 6.3.1e Fission Widths 107 6.3.2 Test of Compound Nucleus Formation Hypothesis 108 6.3.3 Alpha-Induced Fission 109 6.3.4 Alpha-Particle Induced Fission of 226 Ra 109 6.3.5 Alpha-Particle Induced Fission of 232 Th 111 6.4 The Role of the Barrier and the Shape of the Yield-Spectrum 112 www.pdfgrip.com Contents XI 6.5 Conclusion 115 References 116 Hot and Cold Fission 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Summary of Data Pointing to Hot and Cold Fission 7.3 Theory and Discussion 7.4 Odd-Even Effect 7.5 Conclusion References 119 119 120 123 131 133 133 Isomer Fission 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Shell Correction and Shape Isomers 8.3 Half-Lives, Mass Yields and Kinetic Energy Spectra 8.4 Conclusion References 135 135 136 142 150 150 Cluster Radioactivity 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Models Based on the Gamow-Condon-Gurney Approach 9.3 The Quasi-Stationary State Model 9.4 The Energy-Density Functional Approach 9.5 The Surface-Cluster Model 9.6 Conclusion References 153 153 156 160 162 164 170 172 A The Relation Between the Asymptotic Kinetic Energy, and the Condition for the Existence of a Meta-Stable State 175 References 178 B The Expression for Half-Lives of Particles Tunneling Through the Barrier Shown in Fig A.2 B.1 Exact Expression B.2 JWKB Approximation References C 179 179 181 183 Diagonalization of the Coupled Set of Equations Describing Fission 185 References 187 Author Index 189 Index 191 www.pdfgrip.com A Summary of Observed Data and Pre-Amble 1.1 Introduction The discovery of nuclear fission has been a key factor in establishing a major role for physics in human society in the post World War II era It had, however, an inconspicuous beginning in the laboratories of Paris and Rome In 1934, F Joliot and I Curie [1.1, 1.2] reported on a new type of radioactivity induced by alpha particles incident on nuclei Immediately thereafter, Fermi and his collaborators reported neutron induced radioactivity on a series of targets [1.3–1.5] It was difficult to separate clearly the resultant elements In their zeal to discover elements heavier than uranium, the possibility of nuclear fission was overlooked [1.6, 1.7], despite the fact that Noddack [1.8], in her article, raised the possibility of nuclear fission in experiments carried out in Rome [1.5–1.7] Ultimately, Hahn and Strassmann [1.9] concluded reluctantly that uranium irradiated by neutrons bursts into fragments and the phenomenon of particle induced fission of nuclei was established This conclusion was immediately confirmed by Meitner and Frisch [1.10] and nuclear fission was established as an important phenomenon in the study of physical properties of nuclei The importance of nuclear fission for the production of energy is obvious About 180 MeV of energy is produced in the fission of an actinide to one of its most probable daughter pairs This means that kg of uranium is capable of producing about × 107 Kilowatt hours of energy, enough to keep a 100 Watt bulb burning continuously for about 25,000 years From the theoretical standpoint, the implication of the exothermal process involved in their decay is that actinide nuclei must be in a meta-stable state, very much like alpha emitters and the then nuclear physics community started exploring the intriguing question of whether or not fission could occur spontaneously in the same fashion as the emission of alpha particles from alpha emitters Libby searched in vain for the spontaneous fission of uranium, however, it was finally Petrzhak and Flerov [1.11] who discovered that uranium fissions spontaneously Since then, extensive efforts have been carried out at various laboratories to determine physical properties associated with spontaneous fission as reported by Segr´e [1.12] Spontaneous fission refers to the physical phenomenon where a parent nucleus decays spontaneously to daughter pairs, each member of which is www.pdfgrip.com References ⎡ A = A2 k −1/2 x0 exp ⎣− 183 ⎤ qIII dx⎦ (B.21) x2 Substituting the ratio of A2 /A from (B.21), the expression for half-life is given by ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ x x T = 2µ/E.k ⎣exp ⎝2 qIII dx⎠ x2 dx/qIII ⎦ dx/qII + (2/π) cos (π/6) x1 x2 (B.22) The contribution of the second term in (B.22) to half-life is of the order of 10−22 sec, since it is basically the time taken to traverse the distance (x0 −x2 ) Hence, it is appropriate to neglect it leading to the following expression ⎛ x ⎞ x T = 2µ/E exp ⎝2 qIII dx⎠ x2 dx/(1 − V (x)/E) (B.23) x1 In case average value of V (x)/E in region II is small, ⎞ ⎛ x T = qIII dx⎠ (x2 − x1 ) 2µ/E exp ⎝2 (B.24) x2 Thus, the critical parameter controlling the half-life for the decay through a barrier shown in Fig A.2 is the difference (V − E) in region III The actual shape of the potential in region II and its width (x2 −x1 ) not appreciably influence the numerical value in the calculation of half-life The critical point is that there should be an interval like region II characterized by E > V (x), so that a meta-stable state could form In the absence of region II, the potential surface is essentially repulsive since V (x) > E everywhere and the decay half-life is always of the order of 10−22 sec, the time taken for a projectile to traverse the potential References F.B Malik and P.C Sabatier, Helv Phy Acta 46, 303 (1973) E.P Wigner, Phys Rev 98, 145 (1955) F.T Smith, Phys Rev 118, 349 (1960) M.L Goldberger and K.M Watson, Collision Theory (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964) P.M Morse and H Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics Vol (McGraw Hill, New York, 1963) www.pdfgrip.com C Diagonalization of the Coupled Set of Equations Describing Fission In this appendix the decoupling of differential equation (8.20) is demonstrated for approximations (8.21) In order to achieve this, let us rewrite (8.16) with these approximations in the following form − 2µ ∇2R − (En + VnD (R))I − VnC (R)CnN FnN (R) = (C.1) Where FnN is a vector with elements fnβ , I is the N × N identity matrix and CnN is the following constant matrix ⎞ ⎛ γn2 γn3 γnN ⎜ γn2 0 ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ γn3 0 ⎟ ⎟ (C.2) CnN = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎠ ⎝ 0 γnN In order to diagonalize CnN , let us define an ⎛ −λ γn2 γn3 ⎜ γn2 −λ ⎜ ⎜ γn3 −λ GnN = CnN − λI = ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ 0 γnN N × N matrix ⎞ γnN ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ −λ (C.3) and claim that its determinant is given by the equation ⎡ ⎤ Det[GnN ] = (−1) ⎣λN − λN −2 N N ⎦ γnj (C.4) j=2 In order to prove the above equation, let us note that (C.4) is valid for N = Thus, appealing to proof by induction, let us assume that (C.4) is true for N and make use of this assumption to prove that (C.4) is also valid for N + To prove this, let us use the (N + 1) th element of GnN +1 as the pivot, and find www.pdfgrip.com 186 C Diagonalization of the Coupled Set of Equations Describing Fission Det[GnN +1 ] = −λDet[GnN ] − (−1)N +1 γn(N +1) Det(LnN ) ⎛ Where LnN γn2 ⎜ −λ ⎜ ⎜0 =⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ γn3 −λ γnN +1 0 − λ N −1 with Det(LnN ) = −(−1) (−λ) in (C.5) lead to ⎡ N (C.5) ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ , ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ (C.6) γnN +1 Substitution of (C.4) and (C.6) Det[GnN +1 ] = (−1)N +1 ⎣λN +1 − λN −1 ⎤ N ⎦ − (−1)N +1 λN −1 γnN γnj +1 j=2 ⎡ = (−1)N +1 ⎣λN +1 − λN −1 N +1 ⎤ ⎦ γnj (C.7) j=2 Equation (C.7) being identical to (C.4), except for N being changed to N + 1, completes the induction proof and allows us to conclude that the N × N matrix CnN has three distinct eigenvalues λ= N j=2 1/2 γnj , 0, − N j=2 1/2 γnj (C.8) With eignenvalue λ = having a multiplicity of N − the matrix CnN being symmetric, therefore is diagonalizable [C.2] and a constant N ×N matrix PnN exists such that ⎞ ⎛ λ 0 ⎜ −λ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜0 0 0⎟ ⎟ (C.9) ΛnN = P −1 nN CnN PnN = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎠ ⎝ 0 N 1/2 where λ ≡ [ j=2 γnj ] and PnN is the transformation matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of CnN For example, it can be written as ⎞ ⎛ −1 0 ⎜ ξn2 ξn2 −1 ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ξn3 ξ ζ −1 ⎟ n3 n3 ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ξn4 ξn4 ζn4 ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ (C.10) PnN = ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎝ ξnN −1 ξnN −1 0 −1 ⎠ ξnN 0 ζnN ξnN www.pdfgrip.com References 187 where ξnj = γnj /λ and ζnj = γn(j−1) /γnj Of course, due to our assumption that we have N coupled channels, γnj is all nonzero and therefore, ζnj is all well defined The application of above transformation matrix to (C.1) yields the desired result − 2µ ∇2R − (En + VnD (R))I − VnC (R)ΛnN F˜nN (R) = (C.11) Where F˜nN (R) = P −1 nN FnN (R) As it can be seen, (C.11) is a set of N decoupled ordinary differential equations, containing only three distinct decoupled equations which are identical to equations (8.22a), (8.22b) and (8.22c), appearing in Chap References M.A Hooshyar and F.B Malik, Helv Acta Phys 45, 567 (1972) D.B Damiano and J.B Little, A course in Linear Algebra (Academic Press, New York, 1988) www.pdfgrip.com Author Index Alam, G.D., 136, 143 Anderson, H.L., Bethe, H.A., 162 Blendowske, R., 160 Block, B., 35, 120, 164 Bohr, A., 137, 138 Bohr, N., 23, 34, 43–45, 48, 175 Brink, D.M., 162 Brueckner, K.A., 26–28, 35, 44, 46 Buchler, J.R., 28 Buck, B., 160, 161 Cameron, A.G.W., 113 Castro, J.J., 162 Chetham-Strode, A., 11 Clark, J.W., 120, 162 Compani-Tabrizi, B., 15 Condon, E.U., 154, 156, 162 Coon, S.A., 26, 27 Curie, I., Dabrowski, J., 26, 27 Devaney, J.J., 164 D’yachenko, P.P., 93 Ericson, T., 94, 113 Ewing, D.H., 94 Facchini, U., 99, 120 Faessner, H., 113 Ferguson, R.L., 136, 143 Fermi, E., 1, Feshbach, H., 36 Fong, P., 18, 96, 98, 113 Fontenla, C.A., 15, 136, 143 Fontenla, D.P., 15, 136, 143 Frisch, O.R., 1, Gadioli, E., 96, 100 Gales, S., 153 Gammel, J.L., 27 Gamow, G., 154, 156, 162 Glendenin, L.E., Goldberger, M.L., 77 Gă onnenwein, F., 11 Green, A.E.S., 5, 63, 75, 107, 175 Greiner, W., 131 Gurney, R.W., 154, 156, 162 Hagiwara, T., Hahn, O., 1, Heffner, R.H., 136 High, M., 120 Hohenberg, P., 25 Hooshyar, M.A., 15, 64, 136, 143 Huizenga, J.R., 93, 109 Ivascu, M., 160 Jentschke, W., Joliot, F., Jones, G.A., 16, 153 Jorna, S., 28 Kalcker, F., 23 Kohn, W., 25 Kutschera, W., 153 Kuz’minov, B.D., 93 Levinson, C.A., 26 Lombard, R.J., 28, 137 Malik, F.B., 15, 29, 35, 64, 73, 74, 76, 120, 136, 140, 143 Mang, H.J., 167 Møller, P., 63, 75 Montoya, M., 121 www.pdfgrip.com 190 Author Index Mottelson, B.M., 138 Mueller, G.P., 162 Myers, W.D., 5, 28, 63, 75, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107, 175 Neiler, J.H., 11, 120 Newton, T.D., 94, 113 Nilsson, S.G., 61, 137–139 Noddack, I., Pavlov, A.F., 111 Perring, J.K., 113 Plasil, F., 136, 143 Pleasonton, F., 120, 130 Polikanov, S.M., 14 Prankl, F., Present, R.D., Preston, M.A., 164 Price, P.B., 153, 157 Signarbieux, C., 15, 119, 121 Smith, F.T., 179, 181 Specht, H.J., 136, 141 Stefanescu, E., 131 Story, J.S., 113 Strassmann, F., 1, Strutinsky, V.M., 14, 43, 61, 135–137, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145, 150 Swiatecki, W.J., 5, 28, 63, 75, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107, 175 Terrell, J., 63, 64, 80, 81, 85, 86, 90 Tretyakova, S., 56 Tsang, C.F., 139 Unik, J.P., 93, 109 von Weisă acker, C.F., 23 Reichstein, I., 29, 35 Ră opke, G., 162 Rose, H.J., 16, 153 Rosenblum, S., 153 Sabatier, P.C., 73, 74, 76 Saetta-Menichela, E., 99, 120 Sandulescu, A., 131, 159 Schmitt, H.W., 11, 120, 136, 143 Scholz, W., 140 Segr´e, E., 1, 56 Wahl, A.C., Walliser, H., 160 Walter, F.J., 11, 120 Watson, K.M., 77 Way, K., Weisskopf, V.F., 94 Wheeler, J.A., 34, 43–45, 48, 175 Wigner, E.P., 5, 179, 181 Wildermuth, K., 113 Winslow, G.H., 156, 160, 162, 164, 166 Zetta, L., 96, 100 www.pdfgrip.com Index 100 146 118 150 Zr 57 Pd 52 122 Cd 52 128 Sn 64 130 Sn 64 142 Ba 52, 79 142 Xe 50 144 Ba 57 147 (59) 63 148 (56) 63 148 (58) 63 14 C 154 14 C from 226 Ra 19 156 (64) 63 20 O, 24 Ne, 25 Ne, 26 Ne, 32 Si 153 223 Ra 226 Ra 56, 154 230 Th 2, 109 233 U 105 234 U 39, 43, 50, 56 234 U, 236 U 74 235 U 93, 105, 125 236 U 108 239 Pu 93 240 Pu 52, 56, 74, 79 244 Cm 56 248 Cf 56 252 Cf 56, 85 256 Cf 256 Fm 258 Fm 2, 56, 62 293 (118) 63 296 (112) 63 298 (114) 63 310 (126) 63 92 Sr 50 98 Sr 52, 79 (59) (56) 154 (62) 28 Mg, 30 Mg, 63 63 63 actinide 1, 135 actinides 7, 16, 61, 62, 66 adiabatic approximation 35, 154 adiabatic model 45 alpha decay 162 alpha induced fission of 232 Th 108 alpha particle alpha particles 1, alpha radioactivity 19 alpha-decay 41 alpha-decay half-lives 62 alpha-induced fission 93, 109 alpha-particle induced fission of 226 Ra 109 alpha-particle induced fission of 232 Th 111 alpha-particles 11 associated Laguerre polynomial 39 asymmetric 7, 62 asymmetric decay modes 79 asymmetric fission 35 asymmetric mode 55 asymmetric modes 101, 111 atomic charges 87 atomic number 75 atomic numbers 73 average kinetic energies 80, 145 average kinetic energy 2, 8, 136 average kinetic energy associated with the fission of 236 U 15 average kinetic energy spectra 90 average kinetic energy, TKE 35 www.pdfgrip.com 192 Index barrier penetration probabilities 61, 81 barrier penetration probability 38, 50 barrier-penetration 75 binary fission 2, 3, 175 binding energies 28, 31 blocking effect 41, 168 Bohr-Sommerfeld 162 Bohr-Wheeler 50 Bohr-Wheeler theory 45 Bohr-Wheeler’s theory 137 calculation of TKE 94 californium change in entropy 97, 105 change in percentage mass yields spectra 101 change in TKE spectra 101 channel approach 18 channel kinetic energy 144 charge 18 charge distribution 2, 6, 8, 16, 86 charge distributions 62, 74 cluster emission 17, 153, 157 cluster radioactivity 16 cold fission 15, 93, 112, 120 cold fragments 119 compound nucleus 108 compound nucleus formation hypothesis 108 condition for the existence of a meta-stable state 175 Coulomb barrier 153 Coulomb energy 64, 138 Coulomb interaction 179 Coulomb potential 27, 35, 130, 144, 180 Coulomb potential energy 113 coupled channel 19 coupled channel decay theory 136 coupled equations 144 coupling potential 79, 145 decay constant 159 decay mode 65 decay of 310 (126) 67 decay of californium 67 decay of elements 112, 114, 118, and 126 68 decay of the isomer state 136 decay probabilities 94, 98, 101, 105, 113 decay probability 164 decay width 123 decay-constants 158 deformation parameter 138 density contours 52 density distribution 23, 31 density distribution function 29, 33, 43, 47, 74 density distributions 25 density reorganization 43 deuterons 135 diagonalization of the coupled set of equations describing fission 185 dissipation of energy 127 electronic shielding 162 elementary shell model 39 elements 112 and 114 62 emission of 14 C emission of 14 C from 223 Ra 16 emission of clusters empirical barrier 18, 64, 74 empirical external barrier 62 empirical potential 78 empirical potential energy surface 73 energy density functional theory 55 energy per nucleon 24, 29, 31, 44, 46 energy-density functional 25, 31, 36, 61 energy-density functional approach 25, 73, 162 energy-density functional theory 16, 35, 58, 64, 136, 170 energy-gap 96 exact expression 179 exact expression for calculating half-lives 179 external barrier 35, 54, 67, 73, 126 Fermi distribution 29 Fermi energy 26 Fermi function 45, 74 Fermi-momentum 25 Fermium 61 final channel interaction 113 fine structure in alpha-decay 153 www.pdfgrip.com Index fissibility parameter 4, 137 fission 17 fission amplitude 37 fission cross-sections fission decay probability 36 fission half-lives 135 fission isomers 14, 74 fission of 244 Cm 57 fission phenomena 172 fission probability 38 fission widths 74, 107 fractional parameter 48 francium to curium 16 frequency of assaults 159 kinetic energy 100 kinetic energy spectra 18, 74 kinetic energy spectrum of emitted neutrons 10 Gamow-Condon-Gurney 162 Gamow-Condon-Gurney’s theory 154 half-density radius 33, 43, 45 half-lives 2, 18, 19, 52, 61, 65, 115, 169 half-lives in spontaneous fission 18 half-lives of 248 Cf 57 harmonic oscillator 39, 41 Hartree-Fock approximation 26 heavy-ions B, C, N and O 11 hot fission 18, 120 IFS 146 IFS standing for isomer fissioning states 142 induced fission 3, 6, 7, 9, 16, 18, 93, 136 induced fission of 235 U induced fission of 255 Fm interaction in the final channel 99 internal conversion 141 isobars 83 isomer 15, 135 isomer fission 18, 19, 79 isomer state of 240 Pu 135 isomeric fission 135 isomeric states 14 isotopes of 294, 298, 300 and 302 of the element 114 61 isotopes of H and He 11 isotropic harmonic oscillator 39 JWKB approximation 178, 181 K-matrices 26 193 77, 130, 164, Langer approximation 161 level densities 95 level density 144 level density function 108 level density functions 113, 126 liquid drop 61 liquid drop approach 33 liquid drop mass formula 105 liquid drop model 23, 28, 35, 73, 136 liquid droplet 23 local density approximation 18, 154 local-density approximation 27 London-Heitler approximation 45 low density nuclear matter 50 low-density nuclear matter 162 low-density nuclear matter neck 24 Malik-Sabatier theorem 76 mass 2, 62 mass and charge distribution 162 mass distribution 4, 7, 11, 15, 35, 109 mass distribution in the fission 55 mass distribution of cold fragments 16 mass distributions 18, 74 mass formula 28, 43, 63, 75 mass formulae 29 mass formulas 99, 175 mass number 7, 9, 82, 175 mass numbers 73, 105 mass spectra 82 mass yields 106 mass yields spectra 110, 146 mass, charge 74 mass, charge and average total kinetic energy distribution mass, charge and TKE distributions mean field 26 meta-stable state 175 models 61 moment of inertia 96 most probable kinetic energy 98, 110, 119 µ-mesic 136 www.pdfgrip.com 194 Index µ-mesic atomic data 29 neck of low density nuclear matter 73 neck of low-density nuclear matter 58, 61 necks of low nuclear matter 33 neutron capture neutron induced fission 101, 109 neutron induced fission of 229 Th 107 neutron induced fission of 233 U 101 neutron induced fission of 235 U 108, 111 neutron induced fission of 239 Pu 105 neutron induced radioactivity Nilsson model 160 Nilsson’s Hamiltonian 137 Nilsson’s potential 137 nuclear density distribution 73 nuclear density distribution function 23 nuclear masses 17, 23 nuclear matter 23, 31 nuclear matter of low density 33 nuclear temperature 97 nucleon-separation energy 40 nucleonic matter 26, 162 number of assaults 162 observed Q-values 171 odd-even effect 123 pairing correction 143 pairing effects 137 pairing energy 137 pairing model 41 pairing potential 41 partial decay width 97 partial width 98 Pauli exclusion principal 37 Pauli principle 25 penetration probabilities 162 penetration probability 36 percentage mass yield 99 percentage mass yields 9, 79, 90, 105, 111, 113, 136 percentage mass yields distribution 109 percentage mass yields spectra 93 percentage yields spectrum 108 potential energy surface 17, 35, 43, 44, 48, 50, 65, 73 potential energy surfaces 33, 61, 77 potential surface 24 potential-energy surface 65, 154 pre-amble 17 pre-formation probabilities 36 pre-formation probability 38, 40, 50 pre-gamma 75 pre-neutron emission kinetic energy 62 pre-neutron emissions 75 preformation probabilities 81 preformation probability 68, 73, 145 probable kinetic energies 105 proximity force 154 proximity potential 160 Pu, Am and Cm 15 Q-value 8, 35, 63, 73, 153 Q-values 16, 19, 80, 99, 101, 109 quasi-stationary model 154 quasi-stationary state model 162 quaternary fission radioactivity recoil effect 162 recoil energy 163 reorganization 33 resonant states 154 resonating group model 36 rotational states 140 rotational-vibrational coupling strength 142 saddle 74 saddle and scission points 35, 58, 115 saddle point 14, 137 saturation 31 saturation density 25, 50 scission 74 scission point 33, 64, 73, 74, 153 scission radius 48, 163 self-consistent potential 26 SFS 146 SFS, spontaneous fissioning states 142 shape isomers 14, 136 shell closure 61 www.pdfgrip.com Index shell correction 136 shell structure 31, 136 Sommerfeld’s Coulomb parameter 77 special adiabatic approximation 47, 163 spectroscopic factor 159 sphere-sphere case 45, 49, 50 sphere-sphere model 65 spherical harmonic 39 spheroid-spheroid case 49 spheroid-spheroid model 65 spontaneous 17 spontaneous decay spontaneous decay of 240 Pu 55 spontaneous decay of fermium isotopes 62 spontaneous emission 163 spontaneous emission of 14 C 153 spontaneous fission 2, 3, 7, 9, 61, 65, 75, 99, 100, 105, 121, 153, 162 spontaneous fission half-life 64 spontaneous fission half-lives 62, 74 spontaneous fission half-lives of 102 , 1016 , 1015 and 1014 years 61 spontaneous fission of 234 U and 236 U 85 spontaneous fission of 258 Fm 18, 64 spontaneous fission of the actinides 35 spontaneous half-lives 79 statistical model 95 statistical theories 113 statistical theory 94 Strutinsky’s idea 135 Strutinsky’s model 136 super-heavy elements 61, 62 superheavy elements 18, 65 surface thickness 43, 45 surface thickness parameter 29, 45 surface thicknesses 78 195 surface-cluster model 158, 169 symmetric 7, 55, 62 symmetric decay modes 111 symmetric modes 52, 79, 101, 109 ternary and quaternary fission 11 Th, U, Pu, Cm, Cf thermal induced fission 107 thermal neutron fission of 233 U, 235 U and 239 Pu 107 thermal neutron induced fission 7, 80, 87, 113, 119 thermal neutron induced fission of 229 Th 128 thermal neutron induced fission of 235 U 11, 16 thermal neutron scattering 23 thermal neutrons Thomas-Fermi statistical approach 25 TKE 3, 8, 56, 93, 99, 105, 108, 119 TKE spectra total decay width 95 total fission widths 107 total kinetic energy transformation matrix 186 transmission coefficient 96 transmission function T (ε) 95 trapezoidal density distribution function 164 trapezoidal distribution 45, 65 trapezoidal distribution function 47 trapezoidal function 23, 29, 65 two-nucleon potential 25 uranium 1, 2, 33 vibrational states Volterra equation 141 176 Weisă ackers mass formula www.pdfgrip.com 23 Copyright Permission The permission to use or reprint from the following holders of copyright for the articles listed under them are hereby acknowledged 50 Years with Nuclear Fission eds J W Behrens and A D Carlson (American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, Illinois 60525, USA, 1989) (a) From the article by N E Holden (starting p 465) Figures 1, 3, and Table III (b) From the article by A C Wahl (starting p 525) Figure (c) From the article by J Throchon, G Simon and C Signarbieux (starting p 313) Figure III McGraw Hill From the article by S Katcoff, published in Nucleonics, vol 18 (1960) Figures on p 201 and p 202 Academic Press (New York) (a) Nuclear Fission by R Vandenbosch and J R Huizenga (1973) Figures XII-2, XIII-4, XIII-5, and XII-6, www.pdfgrip.com (b) B Block et al Annals of Physics (N Y.) Vol 62, p 464 (1971) Figure (c) I Reichstein and F B Malik, Annals of Physics (N Y.) Vol 98, p 322 (1976) Figures 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, and Plenum Press (a) I Reichstein and F B Malik, Condensed Matter Theories, Vol p 243 (1993) Figure (b) Proc Int’l Symp Om Superheavy Elements Ed M A K Lodhi Article by I Reichstein and F B Malik Figures and (c) Frontier Topics in Nuclear Physics Eds W Scheid and A Sandulescu Article by F Gönnenwein Figure Springer Verlag (a) M Montoya, Zeit Physik A Vol 319, p 219 (1984) Figure (b) J Kaufman et al., Zeit Physik A Vol 341, p 319 (1992) Figure www.pdfgrip.com Institute of Physics (U K.) (a) W Mollenkopf et al., Journal of Physics G: Nucl Part., Vol 18, p L203 (1992) Figures and (b) A Florescu et al., Journal of Physics G: Nucl Part., Vol 19, p 669 (1993) Figures and American Institute of Physics (a) H W Schmitt et al Physical Review, Vol 141, p 1146 (1966) Figure (b) J Terrell, Physical Review, Vol 127, p 880 (1962) (c) Figure 11 K A Brueckner et al., Physical Review, Vol 168, p 1184 (1968) Figure (d) F J Shore and V L Sailor, Physical Review, Vol 112, p 191 (1958) Figure (e) A C Wahl, R L Ferguson, D R Nethaway, D E Trouter, and K Wolfsburg, Physical Review, Vol 126, p 1112 (1962) Figure www.pdfgrip.com Helvetica Physica Acta (a) F B Malik and P Sabatier, Vol 46, p 303 (1973) Figure (b) M A Hooshyar and F B Malik, Vol 46 p 720 (1973) Figure (c) M A Hooshyar and F B Malik, Vol 46, p 724 (1973) Figure Elvesier (a) M A Hooshyar and F B Malik, Physics Letters B, Vol 38 p 495 (1972) Figures 1, 2, and (b) M A Hooshyar and F B Malik, Physics Letters B Tables 1, 2, and 10 Prof Dr F Gönnenwein Private communication of fig 7.4 of this book www.pdfgrip.com ... book is dedicated to Dina and Nahid Hooshyar and Akemi Oikawa Malik for their encouragement and support and to the memories of Balgice and Masharief Hooshyar and Rebecca and Solomon Reichstein www.pdfgrip.com... 21 (1952) 13 R Vandenbosch and J.R Huizenga Nuclear Fission (Academic Press, New York, 1975) 14 E.K Hyde, I Perlman and G.T Seaborg The Nuclear Properties of Heavy Elements Vol I and II (Prentice-Hall,... particles and by radiation and like spontaneous fission, is predominantly a binary process Following the discovery of the fission process, Hahn and Strassmann [1.9] in Berlin and Anderson, Fermi and