Women, MINORITIES, AND
Persons Witn DISABILITIES
IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: 1996
Trang 2Women, Minorities, AND
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:
1996
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION September 1996
Trang 4FonEwonD
In an increasingly global economy, making fll use ofall of the Nation's human resources is essential to sue ‘xsful international competition, word leadership in science and engineering, and an improved quality of ie in the United States Different perspectives, talents, and experiences produce beter ideas and ultimately better goods and serviees to meet the needs of incessingly diverse markets in the United States and abroad, We need to involve all ofthe Nation's human resources in slence and engineering to simulate creativity, innovation, and change; con- teute tothe advancement of science and engineering: and foster "We need fo encourage al of the Nation's people to partcipate in science ad engineering at cach stage of the a sciemifcally literate population educational process and inthe workforce Some groups~-wortea, minorities, and persons with dssblites—tradi- Sionally have not fll participated in science and engineering Progress has Been made inthe achievement and par- ticipation of some of these groups but not consistently oe atthe same rate "This report the eighth na eves of biennial eeports tothe Congress the administration, and others wh direct public polity, presents data on participation of underrepresented groups in seience and engineering It also docu ‘ments factors important to success in Sience and engineering in precollege education, undergradvae and graduate ‘education, and employment The data and analyses presented fete canbe used to tack progress inform develop- ‘ment of policies to increase participation in science and engineering, and evaluate the effectiveness of such polices
Trang 6ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Resources ‘Studies (SRS) of the National Science Foundation (NSF) under the direction of Kenneth M Brown, Director of SRS Cora B Maree, Assistant Director for Social, Behavioral, and Beonomic Sciences, and Alan R Tupek, Deputy Director, SRS, provided Buidance and review Preparation of the report was the responsibility of the Education and Human Resources Program under the direction of Mary A Golladsy, Program Director "The report was written by Joan Bure, Carolyn Arena, and Carolyn Shetle of SRS, and Deborah For, ‘consultant Joan Burrell coordinated the preparation of the report, compiled data, and directed the production of the volume, Several SRS sal members, nelading Lind, Handy, Susan T Hill, James Huckenpéhler, Jean M Johasen, Kelly Kang Mark Regets, John Tsapogas, and RR Keith Wilkinson, provided data or helped with data gathering and interpretation, Abiola Davis and Colin ‘McCormick prepared tables and chars Administrative support was provided by Martha James, David Sais, and Julia Harrison of SRS Editing of the text was per Tormead by Marilyn Nelson and Melissa Andrews of Blue Pencil Group Ine Friday Systems Services edited and produced the appendix tables Friday Systems Services aff ineladed Lia Alexander, Thomas Binaut, Swart owen, So Young Kim, Megan Kinney and Sara Pula Patricia Hughes of NSF's Publication Services handled production and printing arangements
Special acknowledgments due 19 NSF's Commitee ‘on Equal Opportunities in Science and Engineering {CEOSE) who provided comments on the report The 1995 members were
Pati T Ota, Lehigh University
Jeanete Brown, New Jersey Insitute of Technology Beaty Davidson, Boston Museum of Science Sacquelynne E Eccles, Unversity of Michigan David Glover, Woods Hole Oceanographic Tnsition|
George C, Hill, Meharry Medical College William M Jackson, University of Calforia-Davis
Jane Butler Kable, Miami University Carolyn W Meyers, Georgia Institute of Technology
Richard Nichols, ORBIS Associates
‘Anne 8 Pruitt, Council of Graduate Schools, ‘Marilyn Suiter, American Geological Insitute ‘Teresa A Sullivan, The University of Texas at Ausin William Yslas Velez, University of Arizona Lydia Villa-Komaroff, Harvard Medical School Henry N, Willams, University of Maryland H David Woblers, Northeast Missouri State University
‘Sue Kemnitve, Exceuive Seectary of CEOSE, also reviewed the report
Contributors
‘The following people provided data, allowed their research results o be presehied, oF assisted in obtaining data: M Nell Bailey, Tectnology Society of North ill Bogard, American Council on Education: Carol Burger, Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering: Linda C Cain, Oak Ridge ‘National Laboratories; Dehorah Carter, American Council on EdueMlion Linda Chase, Bureau of the Census: Alfrida Cooper Black Issues in Higher ulation; Margie Crutchfield, National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education; Jean M Curtin, ‘American Institute Tor Physics; Gaelyn Davidson, [National Research Council: Barbara DePaul, Quantum ‘Research Corporation; Donna M Dickman, Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf; Catherine 1 Didion, Association for Women in Science; Nan Ellen East, Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf; Henry Etzkowite, Slate University of New York Purchase: Michael Finn, Oak Ridge Insite for Science and Engineering: Lourdes Flaim, US Department of Census: Karen Foote, National Academy ‘of Sciences; Jay R Franz, American Physical Society; Howard N Fulleron, Je, Bureau of Labor Statistics: David Givens, American Anthropological Association: W Vance Grant, National ‘Center for Education
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Statisties; Rhona Hartmat Education; Cathy Henderson,
Education, consultant: Michael D Hoefer US Department of Immigration and Naturalization Services Susan Holland, Mathematica Policy Research; Shirley
‘Wat Ieton, National Science Teachers Association: Ma laacs,Zhongre Jing, and Rita Kieshstea, Pelavin Research Insitute, William S Kom, Higher Education Research Institue: Paula Knepper, National Center for Education Statistics; Nancy Matheson Plavin Research Insitute, Michael Mati, Horizon Research, Ine Lisa (McFall, University of Tennessee: Michael Neuschatz, ‘American Institute of Physics; George Nozicka, Quantum Research Corporation: Daniel Pasquini, National Research Council: D Michael Pavel, ‘Washington State University; Manvel dela Puente, U.S Bureau of the Census; Carol Schlectse, National Technical Insite for the Deaf: Flaine Seymour, University of Colorado; Frank Soper, Landmark College; Claude Stecle, Stanford University; A Christopher Stenta, Dartmouth College; Peter Syverson, Council of Graduate Schools; Delores
Thurgood, National Research Council; Sheila Tobias, consultant; and Linda Zimbler, National Center for clcation Statistics Their contbutions ae gratefully acknowledged LAAoweogmene Reviewers
Reviews of the report were provided by Carolyn Arena, Lawrence Burton, James Dietz, Rolf Letiing, Mark Reges, Richard Morison, Joanne Siete, and Lary Suter of NSF Outside reviewers included Ivy Broder American University; Sheldon Clark, Oak Ridge Insitute for Science and Education; Nicholas Claudy, American Geological Institute; Catherine Gadds, ‘Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology: Rhona Hartman, American Council on Education; Susan Mitchell, National Research Council; Wile Pearson, Je, Wake Forest University Nina Roscher, American University; Terry Russel, ‘Assocation for Insiutional Research Peter Syverson, Council of Graduate Schools; and Iris Weiss, Horizon Rescarch, Inc; and the members of the American Chemical Society's Committee on Chemists With Disabilities, including Todd A Blumenkopf, Thomas Doyle, Mark Dubaick, ‘Thomas Kucera, David C Lunney, Michael Moore, Christine Rout, Virginia Stem, ‘Anne B Swanson, and H David Wohlers
‘Recommended Citation
Trang 8CONTENTS Foreword « Acknowledgments ve vec i ‘Abbreviations xi Highlights xii Chapter 1 Introduction
‘Representation in Science and Engineering "Women 2 1 Minors Persons With Disabilities 2 4
‘Scope of Tis Report 5
Grganizaion of This Report 5
ata Sources, 6
References 6
Chapter 2 Precollege Education Mathematics Course Taking 9
‘Women 9
Minos 8
Science Course Taking ‘Women 9 9
Minos io
Science and Maiemaics Achievement ‘Women 10 10
Minos "
Factors Influencing Achievement iT Family Background Family Income 12 2
Parental Education 12
Immigrant Status 2
Characteristics of Schools “Ability Grouping Sun : 13 HH
“Teacher Expectations 1B
(Qualifications of Teachers im
Corrculums Emphases i
Trang 9Intended Undergraduate Major Minorities ‘Scholastic Aptitude Test
SSAT Scores and Level of Diliculty of High School Mathematics and Scieace Courses Parental Income and SAT Scores
rental Education and SAT Scores Citizenship Status and SAT Seores ‘SATII Achievement Tests
Intended Underaraduate Major Persons With Dissbltis Scholastic Aptitude Test SIDEBARS “American Taian Sehool
(Course Taking and Test Performance References
Chapter 3 The Undergraduate Experience in Science, ‘Mathematics, and Engineering Patterns in Undergraduate Education
FullTime 4-Year Eneilment ‘The First 2 Years, First-Year Enrollment
First Time, Full-Time College Student “The Role of 2-Year Institutions
‘Aer the First 2 Years: Patterns of Stdents Majoring in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Faculty Teaching Undergraduates
Students Leaving College in General and Scienes, Mathematics, and Engincoring in Particular ‘Some Causes —And Some Remedies ° Positive Paters for Women, Underrepresented Minorities, and Students With Disabilities in ‘Science, Mathematis, and Engineering nnn
‘Women Minorities
Students With Disabilities
‘ye Opposite of Aton: Schnee and Hagin Graduation Degrees “Associate Degrees and Cerucaiec sa :
Baccalaureate Depres
SIDEBARS Pattems Among American Indian Undergraduates
‘Students With Disabilities Studying Science, Engineering and Mathematics “The Time Disadvantage ‘Choosing and Leaving Science in Four Highly Selective Tnstiatons
‘A Burden of Suspicion: How Stereotypes Shape the Intellectual Idetites and Performance ‘of Women and Blacks ve ‘Minorities in Science at Pout Highly Selective lnsttations
References
Chapter 4, Beyond the Baccalaureate in Science and Engineering Graduate Enollment Acros the Board
Gradaate Stents: Some Characteristics Financing Graduate Schoo!
Trang 10oman ont and Pens a ates n Src an ếngeerng 185 Where They Study
Minorities Enrollment Choice of Fie Where They Study Blacks,
Hispanics
‘American Indians Asians
Students With Disabilities
Outcomes: Masters, Doctorates, and Posdoctorates in Science ‘Master's Degrees and Engincering ‘Women, Minories ‘Asan, Blacks Hispanics American indians Doeontex "women
‘Where They Study Minorities ‘Asians
Blacks Hispanics
“American indians Where They Study Students With Disabiles Posdoclortes
SIDEBARS Pluses and Minuses for Women Graduate Students in Physics Foreign Graduate Students: Stayers and Leavers
The Rites and Wrongs of Passage: Criscal Transitions ‘for Female PhD Students in the Sciences References
Chapter 5 Employment Overview ‘Women Scienists and Engineers Field
Employment and Unemployment ‘achelors and Master's Scientists and Engineers Doctoral Scientists and Engineers
Sector of Employment ‘Academie Employment Nonacidemic Employment Salaries ‘Bachelors and Master's Salaries
‘The Doctoral Gender Salary Gap, ‘Years Sine Receipt of Doctorate Field of Degree
Background Variables
‘Other Work-Related Enployee Characteristics Employer Characteristics, ‘Type of Work Life Choices
Trang 11Summary
XMinorty Sgienids and Enginccs el "` — Employment and Unemployment ‘Bachelors Sieniss and Engineers
Doctoral Scientists and Engineers Sector of Employment “Academic Employment
‘Nonacademie Employment Salaries ‘Starting Salaries
Dectoral Racial/Ethnic Salary Gaps Scientists and Engineers With Disabiites Feld of Seience and Engineering
Employment and Unemployment Recent Bachelor's Graduates Dactoral Scientists and Engineers Sector of Employment “Academie Employment
Nonacademic Employment ‘The Disability Salary Gap
SIDEBARS ‘Women's Persistence in Science After Graduation ‘Are Mariage and Seience Compatible for Women? “Measuring Disabilities for Persons in the Labor Force References
“Tecnica Noes
Appendix A Technical Notes
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pm ———
nể tae
‘To got the latest information about program deadlines, to download copies of NSF publications, and to access abstracts of awards, visit the NSF Web site at:
hitp/www.nsf.gov
TH Location: 4201 Wilson BI
Arlington, VA 22230
1 For General Information (NSF Information Cente); (708) 306-1284
HE TDD (forthe hearing-impaired): (708) 306-0090
To Order Publications or Forms:
Trang 14ABBREVIATIONS
act American College Testing
ADA, “Americans with Disables Act of 1990 ẤP ‘Advanced Placement
BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs
care (Cooperative Institutional Research Program EWC Engineering Workforce Commission GRE Graduate Record Examination
HACU Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities HBCU Historically Black College or University
HEGIS Higher Education Geneeal Information Survey HES Higher Eauation Survey
IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data Sytem NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progzess
NCES National Center for Education Statistics, US Deparment of Education NIH NPSAS NSF National Instittes of Health National Postsecondary Student Aid Study National Seence Foundation
R&D research and development See science and engineering SAT Scholastic Apatude Test SDR Survey of Doctorate Recipients
SED SIPP Survey of Eamed Doctorates Survey of Income and Program Paricipation SME Science, mathematics, and engineering
Trang 16HIGHLIGHTS
Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities hve historically been underrepresented in cintitic and engineering occupations Some progres has been made lover the last several decades, especially in degrees to ‘Women, bat theres still oom Tor mprosement Women, and minorities take fewer high-level mathematics and Science courses in high school: eam fewer bachelor's, Inasters and doctoral degrees in science and engineer- ing: and are tes likely to be employed in sclence and engineering than ate white males
Women
Course Taking in Elementary/Secondary Education
Female students re similar to males in mathematics ‘course taking ata levels, About 80 percent ofboth male and female high school graduates in 1992 had taken Algebra, 69 percent of males and 72 percent of females ad taken geometry 21 percent of both had taken #igonomet, and 10 percent ofboth had taken calculus Female students were also about as likely as males (0 hve taken advanced placement calculus: Š perceat of females and 6 percent of males Tn science couse taking, male and female 1992 high school graduates did not difer greatly, except in ‘physics Similar percentages of both male and female bigh schoo! graduates had taken biology and chemisty 92 pereent of males and 94 pereent of females had taken biology and $4 percent of males and 57 percent of females had taken chemistry Male students, however, ‘were more likly than females to have taken physics: 28 peteent of males and 21 percent of females had taken physics, Male stadenis were also more likely than females to have taken advanced placement physic, Female students have made gains over the lst several years, however: in 1982, only 9 percent of women had {aken physics in high school
Science and Mathematics Achievement “Male and female students have similar mathematics proficiency onthe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics asesement at ages 9 13,
1992, $2 percent of males and $1 percent of females scored at of above 200 at age 9,78 percent of both sexes Scored at oF above 250 at age 13, and 60 percent of males and 58 percent of females scoved a or above 300 atage 17 Female students score lower than male students on the NAEP science assessment at ages 9, 13, tnd 17 “Although the differences are smal rom ito 3 percent lower) they are statistically significant and have been persistent since 1970 The gap between males! and females science achievement is greatest at age 17, although female students scores increased significantly Since 1982,
‘Transition to Higher Education
‘On the mathematics component ofthe SAT, scores for both sexes have risen during the decade since 1988, Nevertheless, in 1994 females continued to score con- siderably below males, the gap narrowing oaly slightly ‘over the decade, Since 1984, female scores increased I points to 460 in 1994, whereas male scores increased 6 points 1 S01 Females were also much les ikely than males to place inthe top range of scores (i inthe 600 {800 range) on the mathematics component of the SAT In 1994, only 14 percent of females scored in the ‘op fange versus 24 percent of males Differences between Temales and males in thee intended preference for degree majorare striking for stu- dents planing to eater college Thirty-one percent of ‘males and 13 pereent of females intended to pursue nat- tural science, mathematics, or engineering Held.)
Undergraduate Education
Trang 17Bachelor's Degrees
‘Women eamed a smaller proportion of total science and engineering degrees (45 percent in 1993) than they dof non-sience-and-enginecring degrees (SS per ‘ent
‘+ Within the sciences, the field vith the highest share of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women ‘was psychology (73 pereen), Women also eared 668 percent of accalauretes in sociology, and ‘more than half (52 percent) of the bacealureates in biological sciences,
[Engincering continued 1 be one ofthe lest popu: lar fields fr women: in 1995, they eared 16 per cent ofall baccalaureats in engineering
In most science and engineering fields, women ‘earned 1903 than they did in T983 In thee fields, com- a higher proportion of bachelor’s degrees in puter sience, economies, ad sociology, however, ‘women's share of bachelor’s degrees deeresed Since 1983,
Graduate Education
In 1998, 36 percent of graduate students enrolled in science and engineering fields were women, up from 32 peroent in I9RS In seience fics, women constituted 44 percent of the total numberof graduate stodents: in engi hoerng, 15 percent Within science fields, women Were ‘substantial majority oF graduate enrolments in psy hogy (70 percent and more tan half the toa in bio Iettyepidemiology, genetics, nuttin, anthropology,
Hingustes, and sociology ‘Master's Degrees
‘The proportion of women earing master's degrees in science and engineering Fields reached 36 percent in 1993, having steadily increased from 31 percent a deca earlier In engineering, one of the fields in which ‘women are lest represented, the percentage of master's ‘degres eared by women increased from 9 to 15 per- ‘ent between 1983 and 1993,
Doctorates
‘Women earned 30 percent of the seience and eng neering doctorates awarded in 1993p frm 25 percent Of the toa in 1983 Their proportions varied consider ably by field: 61 percent in psychology, 40 percent in biological sciences, 37 percent in social sciences, 23 percent in mathematical sence, 16 percent in compal: fr sciences, and 9 percent in engineering
Employment Levels and Trends
‘Women are 22 percent ofthe science and engineer ing labor force Within science and engineering, women fare more highly represented in some fields thân in oth fers, Women are more than half of sociologists and ps} hologiss but are omy 9 percent of physicists and 8 per- cent of engineer sraduates, women ae les likely to be in the labor free, ‘Among recent bachelor's science and engineering
to be employed full ime, and tobe employed in their Feld than are men, Women constituted 1992 bachelor’s science and engineering graduates but 44 percent ofthe ae 58 peteent of those out ofthe labor force (Le, not ‘employed and not secking employment), S¢ percent of those employed part time, and 47 percent of those employed fll ine outside thet fed ‘Unemployment rates of men and women recent bachelor's graduates donot difer greatly 4.1 percent of female and 47 percent of male 1992 bachelor's science and engineering graduates were unemployed in April 1993, Among doctoral scientists and engineers, worben fare more likely than men to be wnemployed, although the difference is small, The unemployment rae for doc ‘oral women in 1983 was 1.8 percent; For men, it as L6 percent ‘Women scientists and engineers are more ikely than ‘men tobe employed in academia, but among cademics, ‘women are Tess Tikely than men to be in science and engineering Women are 44 percent of facully in "hon seiele and egineeing fields but only 4 percent fof science and engineering faculty, Women foculty dit {er from men in tems of teaching fed, typeof schoo}, Tall par-time employment, contract length, primary ‘work activity, productivity, rank, and ten
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Women noes, ne aon in Destin So
+ Women are les likely than men to be engaged in funded researeh, to be a principal investigator or co-principal investigator, ơr to have published books or atcies i the previous 2 year These di ferences remain even wilh research universities and among all age groups
‘Among Talim seience and engineering faculty, ‘women are less likely to char deparments Only TT pereent of women, but [4 pereent of full-sime ren science and engineering faculy, chair their ‘department
‘Women scientists and engineers hold fewer high kod position in colleges and universities than n Women are less likely than mento be fll professors and are more likely than men t0 be sistant professors or instructors Par of this di ference in rank can be explained by age dite ences, but diferences in rank remain even after controlling for age Among those who received {heir doctorates 13 or more years ago, 72 percent gự me ately 85 percent of wore ae > ‘+ Women are aso les likely than men tobe tenured for to be on a tenure track, Forty-three percent of {alltime employed women science and engineer: ing faculty are tenured, compared with 67 percent of men
Among doctoral scientists and engineers employed in indistry, women and men having similar number of years of professional experience are equally likely to be in management For example, among’ those who received degrees between 1970 and 1979, 32 percent of both women and men are manages, ‘Within science and engineering, women tend t0 be ‘more highly represented in fields with lower average res The 1993 median staring salary for recent ‘women bachelor's scence and engineering graduates ‘was lower than that for men overall, but within fils the median stating slaries were more nearly the same “Among more experienced bachelor’s scientists and engi teers, the gap Between men’s and women's salaries is Ty, ‘A substantial salary gap exists between men and women with scence and engineering doctorates Almost 90 percent explained hy differences between men and women on ofthe observed $13,200 gap, however can be the following variable groups: yeurs from doctorate dđeyee, science and engineering degree field, other background variables, Work-related employee character ste, employer characterises, ype of work performed and indicators of “life choices”
Engrg 198
Elementary/Secondary Education Course Taking
oth science and mathematics course taking by minorities have increased over the lst decade, The per ‘centages of black, Hispanic, and American Indian St dents taking many basic nd advanced mathematics ‘courses have doublod between 1982 and 1992 For example, 30 percent of Black high school graduates in 1982 had taken geometry and 1 percent had taken caleu- lus, By 1992, this ad increased to 60 percent and 7 per- xm, respectively ‘Substantial differences in course taking by racialethnic groups temain, however Black and Hispanic high school graduates im 1992 were far less ely than white and Asian students to have ken advanced mathemati courses and far more likely 0 have taken remedial mathematics courses, Thiny-one etcent of black, 24 percent of Hispanic, and 35 percent Do American Indian graduates, compared with about 15 petcent of white and Asian graduates, had taken remedi- al mathematics in high school Although about 60 per- ent ofboth white and Asian students had taken algebra T, les than half of blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians had taken this course Asians were mos ks of racilethnic group to have taken advanced mathe- tates courses Almost one-thind of Asians had taken trigonometry, and one-fth had taken ealelus By con- teas, 22 percent of white, 13 pereent of blacks, 15 por- cent of Hispanies, and 10 percent of American Indians had taken trigonometry and far fever took prealeulu+ oreilelus Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are taking ‘more seience classes than they took in he past The per centage of blacks and Hispanics taking chemistry and physics doubled between 1982 and 1992 In 1982, 22 percent of black and 17 percent of Hispanic high school fraduates had taken chemistry By” 1992, this had Increased 46 percent and 43 percent, respectively In 1982,7 percent of Blacks taken phisies; by 1992, 18 pereent of blacks and 6 per- and 6 percent of Hispanics had cent of Hispanics ha taken physics Despite gains, racialthnic diferences persis in high school science course taking Black and Hispanie studens are far less Iikely than white students to have taken advanced science courses Although black and Hispanic high school graduates are about equally likely
Trang 19
as white and Asian students to have taken biology, they fre meh less Tikely than shite and Asians t0 have taken chemistry or physics, Only 46 percent of black, $3 percent of Hispanic, and 38 perent of American Indian high school graduates had taken chemistry compared to 58 percent of white and 67 perceat of Asian high school jaratates, Although 42 percent of Asian and 26 percent fof white student had taken physics, less than 20 perceat Of black, Hispanic, and American Tadian students had taken physics in high school
Achievement
[NAEP mathematics assessment scores improved for white Black, and Hispanie students tapes 9,13, and 17 between 1982 and 1992, Gains for black and Hispanic sStudens wore higher than those for white students 1a 1902 for example, 13 percent more back 17-year-olds and 18 percent more Hispanic T7yearolds, compared ‘with 12! percent more white 17.yearolds seored aLor ove 300 than ad scored that high in 1932, Despite these gains, mathematics scores for black and Hispanic students remain substantially lower than ‘hose of white students at all the age levels The medi- an scores fr black and Hispanic stodens at all three age Tevels are lower than the 25th pereenle scores for white sds [NAEP science assessment scores increased for st ents at ages 9, 13, and 17 between 1982 and 1992, although scares for some racillethnicsroups increased ‘more than eters The pap between black and white and ‘between Hispanic and whit science scores narrowed for Styearolds between 1982 and 1992 Fifty-one percent of black 9-year-olds scored a or above 200 in 1992, Compared with 39 percent in 1982, 2 12-percentage point increase The percent of Hispanic 9-year-olds Scoring ator above 208 increased rom 40 percent i 1982 0.56 percent in 1992, a 15-percontage-point increase The Comparable gain for white 9-yearol0s was from 78 percent in 1982 to 86 percent in 1992 a T-per- centage point increase No narrowing of the gap Was evident for black or Hispanic 13-year-old or 17-year- ‘olds Despite those gains scores for whites ae substan tially higher than those for blacks and Hispanics tall age levels, and diferences Schools, particularly secondary sehools, in urban are greatest at age 17 areas with high proportion of economically disedvan- {aged high proportion of minority students offered less access to science an! mathematics education, Many factors contbute to unequal participation of minorities in science and mathematis ecation,incding track: ing, judgmenss about ability, number and quality of Science snd mathematics courses offered, aecess 10 qualified teachers, access to resources, and curicula emphases, gts Being labeled by ability is very important to student achievement because teachers tend to have different expectations of students inthe various groups, Teachers Tn "high-abiity lasses are more likely than “Towable "clases to emphasize the development of reasoning fd ingury sills Students in “low ability” clases are tore likely to read fom a textbook and Hess ch to participate in hands-on science activities, ae more like Fy to spend time doing worksheet problems, and ae less ly 10 be asked to write reasoning about solving & ‘mathematics problem ‘Minority students aso have less accesso qualified teachers, Mathematics clases wih «high proportion of ‘minorities ae less likely than those with & Tow propor= tion of minorities 4o have mathematics teachers with ‘major in the fed "The instructional emphases in largely minority lasses ar likey to difer as wel The teachers in sci- fence and mathematics elasses having a high minority enrollment are more likely to emphasize preparing stu- ‘dents for standardized ln classes having fever minority sadents to emphasize tests and ae les likely than those preparing students for further study in science ot mathe
‘Transition to Higher Education
On the mathematics component of the SAT, the scores of every racialethnic group improved over the ‘decade In 1994, Asians continued to have the highest tverage mathematics SAT scores, followed in order by ‘whites and American Indians, Latin American Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and blacks Asi students also achieved the highest increase in mathemat- ies scores of any racaletnie group, with scores ising 16 points over the decade Black students achieved the seeond highest increase in scores (15 points), and ‘American Indian stodens achieved a 14:poin increase “The amount and type of coursework taken in high school ate related t the scores achieved onthe SAT In ppanticular, Asians and whites, the two groups with the Consistently highest mathematics scores on the SAT, ‘were aso the (0 groups who ha taken the most cours: es in mathematics and atual scence in igh schoo “The SAT data show that for every meidfethie _roup higher reported levels of parental income ae gen- fall associated with higher scores both the verbal land mathematics sections of the SAT Family income oes not uniformly eelate wo level of achievement, ow ‘ever The mean SAT mathemati seoe of 482 Tor those ‘Asian students atthe lowest family income level (under $10,000) exceeded the scores at the highest family Tev- cls for several of the underrepresented minorities Tous
Trang 20
women ros, se one With abies in Sence an Eee 85 Within every raciaVethnic group higher levels of
prrentl eddeaion were associated With higher student Scares on the mathematics potion of the SAT: Forexan- ple, the difference in mean SAT mathematics Scores between the group whose parents didnot receive a high School diploma and those whose parents held a graduate tlgree ranged fom 120 poins for whites to 85 points for backs Racialetnic differences in choice of undergraduate major are less dramatic than the difeences by sex Particularly when the socialsciences are separated from the natural seiences and engineering the diferences in Sex preference Hecome striking: the proportion of males fending to major in natural sciences snd enginecring ‘was signficanly higher in all raialethnic groups than the proportion of females intending to major in these subjects For instance, the proportion of males intending { major in natural scienceengineering ranged from 28 ‘Percent for American Indian and Puerto Rican males to 4 percent for Asian males, For females, however the ‘proportion intending 10 study natural sccncefengincer- Ing was much lower, ranging from 12 percent for ‘Mexican Americans to 16 percent fr Asians
Undergraduate Education
‘Two-Year Institutions
‘Two-year institutions have Been particularly impor- tant in providing acess to higher education for tadi- Tionally'undemrepresented groups of student Two-year colleges enroll 46 percent ofthe students entering high ‘eredlucation as first-year students: they enrol 80 percent ‘of students from underrepresented minority ‘roups entering college Although the number of students ‘enrolled ull time at 2-year insitions rose by 20 per- ‘cent from 1980 to 1993, the number of students from Underepresented minority groups earolled as fulltime
‘dents increased 39 percent,
Four-Year Institutions
Enrollment of minorities in 4-year institutions has increased atthe same time tat enrolment of white st dents leveled off or decreased Fulltime earolimeat of tunderrepresenied minorities increased 37_ percent between 1980 and 1993 whereas white enrollment ‘increased | percent, Among ist year students at 4-year Institutions, enrollment of underrepresented minorities increased 8 percent between 1980 and 1993; enroll: ‘ment of whites decreased 16 percent in that time
Attrition From Higher Education
tition from higher education i pester for minor ity students Although undemepresented minorities 21 percent of fistsime fest'year undergraduate enc ment they are only 12 percent of bactelor’s degree recipients’ Comparison’ of enrollment profiles for ‘cohorts enrolled inthe lower division in 1991 and the Upper division in 1993 shows differential declines in the size of cohorts enclled from different acilletnic fsroups Comparing across this 2-year period, the losses fnrnumbers of full-time students enrolled were appro rately 36 perceat of blacks, 22 percent of Hispanics, find 2 pereene of American Indians, compared with © percent of whites
Bachelor's Degrees
Underrepresented minorites—blacks, Hispanics and American Indians—are as likely to arm bachelor's ‘degroes in science and enginecting as they are to earn bachelor’s degrees in oher fields Blacks earned? per- cent of both science and enginesring and non-science- and-enginesring degrees, Hispanics earned 5 perce land American Indians earned 0.5 pereent Asians were ‘more likely to eatn degrees in science and enginccring than in other fields They earned 7 percent of bachelor's ‘egroes in science and engineering in 1993 and 3 per cent of non-scienceand-engineering degrees Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) continve fo play an important cole in the ‘undergraduate education of blacks, despite the growing sisersity ofthe Nations campuses, Thirty percent ofthe black students receiving bachelor’s degrees in science and engineering in 1993 received their degrees from an HBCU:
Graduate Education
Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians continued to be seriously underrepresented in graduate science and ‘engineering programs Blacks were'5 percent, Hispanics ‘Spercen, and American Indians Oct percent of the tol US citizen enrollment in graduate scicnee and en neering programs, Asians were 7 percent of US elizen enrollment
2S ce perm ie ny
Trang 21Master's Degrees
Minories eamed 17 percent of master’s degrees in science and engineering in 1993, compared with 13 per ent in 1085, Asians increased from 6 percent of mas- ters degrees in 1985 t0 8 percent in 1993; blacks and Hispanics both increased fom 3 percent in 1985 t0'4 percent in 1993
Doctorates
Minorities who were US citizens eared 11 percent ofthe total seience and engineering doctorates awarded {USS citizens 1983, For all of the underepresented minorities, the in 1993, up fom 7 percent ofthe total in numbers of scence and engineering doctorate recipients in 1993 wore very small: 374 blacks, 446 Hispanics, and ‘43 American Indian,
Employment Levels and Trends
With the exception of Asians, minorities are a small proportion af scientists and engineers in the United States Asians were 9 percent of seientists and engineers in the United States in 1993, although they are only 3 percent of the US population Blacks, Hispanis, and “American Indians as a group are 23 percent of the US population, but only 6 percent of the total science and engineering labor force Blacks were 3.5 percent, Hispanics were almost 3 perce and American Indians ‘were 0.02 pereent of scientists and engineers Undertepresented minorities are an even smaller proportion of doctoral scientists and engineers in the United States than they are of bachelor's or master's si- entsts an engineers Asians were I1 percent of doctor- fal sientists and enginoors in the United States in 1993, Backs were 2 percent, Hispanics were 2 percent, and "American Indians were less than half of 1 perceat of actor scientists and engineers, Tn 1993, unemployment rates of doctoral scientists and engineers by faceletnicity did not differ signiti= andy The diferences in unemployment were consistent with what is expected from chance vai- were small and ations due to sampling ‘Within the doctoral sience and engineering labor force sa whole, minority scientists and engineers difer inthe eld of employment
+ Half of black doctoral scientists and engineers, but ‘only 29 percent of all sientists and engineers re in the social sciences and psyehology: Only IT percent of black doctoral scientists and engineers
Sepa ni Mt Mr
rons compared with 21 percent of all doctoral scents and engineers percent of black doctoral scientists and engineers, are in physical sciences, and only 11 compared with 16 percent ofthe toa, ae in eng neering
Hispanic doctoral scintss and engineers are sim iar to whites in terms of fel,
+ Thirty-seven percent of Asians compared with 16 percent ofall doctoral scientists are in engineering, snd engineers, and only 10 percent of Asians are social scientists, including psychologists, com- pared with 29 peccent of ll doctoral cients and engineers, US.-bom® Asians are simile to whites ‘in terms of field, Non-U.S-bor Asians, on the ‘other hand, as wells non-U.S-bom scientists and tobe engineers engineers in gener, are disproportonately likely
RaciaVethnic groups differ in their academic employment characteristics The types of isttations in ‘which they teach differ; they dtfer in employment sta- tus, in highest depre, in research activites in rank, and + Asian faculty are far es ikelythan other groups to be employed in 2-year colleges of 1 have a master's as their highest degree They are more likely than others 10 be engaged in funded research, to be principal or eo-principal investiga tors, and to have publications within the last 2 years—at al ages ahd within research universities Black faculty are less likely than ether groups to ‘be employed in research institutions and are more Iikely to be employed in comprehensive indi- tions, liberal ats schools, and 2-year colleges Black faculty have fewer publications inthe previ ‘us 2 years than white scientist and engineets—at all ages and in all types of schools Black faculty at also less likely than other groups tbe engaged in funded research or tobe a principal investigator ‘or co-principal investigator
Trang 22an anit, nd Porson ith sts nS an Engrg 198 xx as likely or more likely than white faculty 1 be Fal professors, bu lack faculty are sil es ike-
ly than other faculty to be full professors Among, ‘anked faculty who received doctorates 13 6 more years previously, only 58 percent of black faculty compared to 70 percent of white faculry were all professors
Black, Hispanic, and Asian faculty ae also less likely than white faculty to be tenured Fit-four pereent of black faculty, 52 percent of Hispanic faculty, and $7 percent of Asian faulty compared ‘wih 64 percent of white faculty are tenured, Black, Hispanic, and Asian scientists and engineers ifr Tite fom white scientists and engineers in thet primary work activity The one exception is that among octoral scientists and engineers, Asians are much moce Tike than other groups to be engaged in research and evelopment “The median stating salaries of new bachelor's and master's sience and engineering graduates by raceleth- nity are not dramatically dierent Racia/edmie sac {doesnot appear very “elt” population of full-time employed individe- to have much effect on salary within the als with doctoral science and engineering deprees when ‘one compares groups with similar caracterstis on rel evant variables expected t alec salary
Persons With Disabilities Elementary/Secondary Education
The incidence of elementary/secondary students with disabiies is increasing Approximately 6 perent ‘of the population of ehilren fom birt though age 21 in the United States were in feerally supported special education programs in 1992-1993, compared with 4.5 percent in 1976-107 ‘Mote than half of the children ages 6 through 21 with disabilities had specific leaming disabilities, and ‘nother one-fifth had speech or language impairments, ‘Students with these disabilities were most likely to be either in 2 regular class environment or in a resource room Students with other, less prevalent disabilities, Such as mental retardation and autim, were more likely fo be taught in separate classes or separate school “Those with speech or language impairments a well 35 those with visual impairments, were most likely to spend more thân bai oftheir cass time in segula ei ‘ation academic clasts,
Science and Mathematics Education
Students with physical disabilities make up 4 t0 6 percent of the science students and 2 o 6 percent of the
‘mathematies stents in grades 1 through 12 Students with mental disabilities make up 2 109 percent of the cence student and Ito percent ofthe mathematics students in grades 1 through 12, Srodents with mental Aisabilities dre more likely to be included in regular si- fence instruction than n mahenatics indrueion, “The fraction of stadets sith learning disabilities is ‘much smuller in high schoo! than inthe earlier grades Slighily more than haf of the seience and mathematics classes in grades 4, but only 31 percent ofthe scence ‘asses and 24 porcent of the matheraties classes in fides 9-12, have students with leering distiliies, ‘The fraction of students with physical and mental i abies much smaller and vies less by grade, Four percent of sconce clases ad 6 percet of mathematics lasses in grades 1-1 have at least one student ith & physical disability compared with S percent of scence asses and 2 percent of mathematics classes in grades tà
‘Transition to Higher Education
Four percent of high schoo! seniors in 1994 report ced adisabling condition: Scores onthe SAT than dd seniors who reported having they tended to have lower mean
no disabilities In mathematics, the average SAT score for students with disabilities was 436, compared with 483 for oer students
Undergraduate Education Choice of Field
‘Students with ssbiities ar as likely to choose sci= ence and engineering majors as they ae to choose ater ‘majors Stents with disabilities constituted 9 percent of first-year students with planned majors in science and engineering and also 9 percent of those planing majors fn non-sclence-and-engineering fields Students with Aisabilities constiuted a higher proportion of planed ‘majors physi sciences (ID percent) an socia fences (10 petcent) than they did in engineering (8 pe end Doctorates
‘The munber of science an nung dates feared by people who reported that they had di
Trang 23Employment Levels and Trends
About 20 percent ofthe population have some form ‘of disability; shout 10 percent have a severe disability? Persons with disabilities were 13 percent of all employed persons in 1991 and were 5 percent of the 1993 sence and engineering labor force “The proportion of scientists and engineers with dc abiites ‘neteases with age- More than half became isabled at age 35 or later Only 7 percent had been ‘isabled since bint, and only 25 pereeat had been đe abled before the ae of 20 ‘Unlike women and minorities, persons with dis ities are not prtculrly concentrated incerta Fld ‘event bachelor's science and engineering gradu
‘ates with disabilities ae somewhat las ikely than those ‘without disabilities wo enrll either fll time or parttime in graduate school Twenty-six percent of 1992 bache~ Joe's science and engineering graduates with disabilities were fulltime or parttime graduate students in 1993, compared with 31 percent of comparable graduates Svthout disabilities
‘The unemployment rates of recent bachelor's Science and engineering graduates with and without Aisabilios ae similar The unemployment rate for 1992 bachelor's science and engineering graduates with dis- abilities was 4.7 percent compared with 45 percent for those without disabilides “The labor force part
tists and engineers with and without di
{quite diferent Almost one-quarter of doctoral scientists find engineers compared with only 7 percent of those without with disabilities are out of the labor force — ‘Among those in the lor fore, persons with dis
ities are more likely than those without disabilities to be unemployed and to be employed parttime The tinemployment rate for doctoral scientists and engineers ‘with disabilities was 24 percent compared with 6 pet- tent for those without disabilities The percentage of
Semaine ones gts
doctoral scientists and engineers inthe lor force who ‘were employed parttime in 1993 was 11 percent for those with disables and 6 percent fr those without cđahiidex, Doctoral scientists and engineers who are employed in universities and 4year colleges and who have dis 2Biiiet are more likey than hose without dsabiis 0 be fll professors and to be tenured Because incidence ‘of disability increases with age, scientists and engineers ‘vith disabilities tend wo be ole and to have more years ‘of professional work experience than those without dis- abilities Among pre-I985 graduates, the differences in Ta an tenure satus between persons with disabilities tnd persons without disabilities are narower ‘The typeof work that bacbelo eVel and maer5- level scientists and engineers with disabilities dois not reat diferent from the type of work done by those ‘without disabilities The primary work activity of 27 petcent of bacheloe’s scientists and engineers with dis- bilities is computer application compared with 29 peteent of chose without disables Design of equip: rent i the primary work activity of 1S perent of bach elofs scientists and engineers both with and without Aisabilites Ten percent of bachelor’s scientists and engineers with disabilites and 11 percent of those with- ‘ut dsabiies are in management and administration ‘Within industry, doctoral scientists and engineers with disabilities are more likely than those without dis abilities co be in management Again, this funtion fof age Among doctoral scientists and engineers age 4S and older and employed in business or industry, 32 pe- ent ofboth those with disables and those without Aisabilitios are in management Disability satus appears to have a slight effect on Salary among those fulltime employed individuals with doctoral science and engineering degrees when one ‘compare groups with similar characteristics on relevant Variables expected to affect sary Those with disabii- ties average slates approximately $1,000 a year less ‘han those without disailies
Trang 24CHAPTER 1
Representation in Science and Engineering ‘The Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities ‘Act of 1980 declares that itis he policy ofthe United State to encourage
men and women, equally, ofall ethnic, racial and economic backgrounds to acquire skill in Science, engineering and mathematics 1 have ‘equal opportunity in edocation, taining, and ‘employment inslenifie and engineering field, land there (0 promote sieniie and engineer” ing literacy and the full use of the human resources of the Nation in science and engineering,
PSE SEES Stee HS
Pgưe L1
INTRODUCTION Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities? ae underrepresented in scientific and engineering osc Pations, (See figure 1.) Some progres hasbeen made ver the last several decades, especialy iathe number of degrees awarded to women, but there is sill room for improvement Women snd underrepresented minor ties—blacks, Hispanics, and American Thdians—take fever highevel mathematics and science courses in high school: earn fewer bachelor’s, mader' and doe toral degrees in science and engincering; and are less Tikely to be employed in science and engineering than sre white males
tthe US population and the science and engineering labor fore, by se, racefethnicty, and
Percentage
‘leabity status: 1905
Trang 25
Women
‘Women constitute 51 percent of dhe US popula: tion, and 46 percent ofthe USS labor force (see appen độc tables 1-2 and 1-4), but only 22 percent of scents, nd engineers in the Tabor free (See text table I-1.) ‘Women particulary white women, are approaching par ity among science and engineering bachelor’s depree recipients In 1993, 45 percent of bachelor’s depree recipients in science und engineering were women, up from 39 perceat in 1983 (See appendin table 325.) ‘Women, though, ae less likely 19 choose seience and engineering than they ae to choose other feds Women ‘were $8 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients in on-science-and-engincering filds in 1993, compared ‘wth 45 percent of bachelor's degre recipients in si tence and enginccring (See figure 1-2) Within scence tnd engineering, women ate sill concentrated ina few Fields—predominantly the social sciences Women
eared more than half ofthe bachelor’s degrees in ps ‘chology and social seiences, but only about one-third of the bachelors degrees in mathematics and physical feiences, and 16 percent of bachelor’s: degrees in engineering
erconage of degrees in sence and engineering ‘hd ates to women, by level of degre: 1958
‘Women earn a smaller proportion of master’s and doctoral degrees than they do of bachelors degrees Far fewer women than men are enfolled in graduate sience and engineeing education or earn doctoral degrees in Science and engineering Women were 36 percent of fraduate enrollment in science and enginering in 1993 find were 30 percent of sience and engineering doctor: ale recipients, (See appendix tables 4-8 and 4-24.) Because of thet more recent enty into science and engineeing ts well asa greater tendency than mento be but ofthe labor force and tobe employed ouside of se fence and engineering, women ae only 22 percent ofthe Science and engineering labor foree Abo because of their more recent entry into science and engineering, far fewer women than men attain the rank of full professor in seademis or asin management positions in industy,
Blacks, Hispanics, and American Taans have his torcally heen underrepresented in seience and engin ing Asians on the oer hand, ae overrepresented in Science and engineering, Asians were 3 percent of the US population, but 5 percent of US citizen doctorate reciplems in 1993 Underrepresented minorities a5 & ‘whole were about 23 percent of the U.S population Blacks constituted about 12 percent ofthe US popu tion, Hispanics about 10 percent and American Indians shout I percent (See figure 1-3) Although they are as likely to choose science and engineering fells a other
Bang Là Percentage ofthe US population, by racelethnlcty:
Trang 26Tea tbo 1-1
Selected characteristics ath netos net vali, by sox, rcefthnicty, and eisai statu: 1988
s faceetmoty | popaton | „hoi |«geesin |deveecaa| v8ene | graduate | doyees | labo: Tan | nh | BVBS | BAGS |NEMENSS] SAE | PO | see HUệt | gadusee| sites | Seer | SẠC | coi | sce? | fren ensieymon!| etna soe | som | 60k | 107% | soo% | r00% | s00% | too 296 | ‘asa | ‘aoa | ‘sur | ‘sar | ‘eto | ‘eos | 70
2 | ot | Se | asa | 383 | Soo | oon | zea Ha | me | me | mz | øs | set | sẽ | me geo | mỹ | sx | ee | as | - | s2 | %2 Si | 22 | 49 | oe | sẽ | = | se | 4 mg | mạ | sa | a | 73 | 5s | 28] se | 3 | 1 0ml 2| | t®8) a5 83 | z|J 9 || AI niên eo | as | 5 | ee | ae | +3 | 33 | zm fo | 40 | 21 | as | 22 elaine | at 4 | 4| 30 | 3 Tổ Sahin pce: or | — | os | es | b» | os | 03 | 0z os | = | oa | s ng C092 | ee 08 “mi oe 02 Ste ee) at sa te =) oa pea ey ee ss | 78 | os | s3 re 16 ai) ea Mentzer OG) Cee Tar Persone wah
‘este! 200 cã|sg AE ii ni Se ie |e mg Persons wahout Seabiies | 800 Ti ae — | wr | M2
» Source: US, Bureau of the Census, Popuiation Dison, Release PPL, US Poputon Estimates, by Age, Sex ‘Race ahd Hepane Ong, 1990 01069 » Source! Brine and Ase U.S rons of he Census, Curent Population ports P2079, Ocuber 1894 ince porte 42-24 ony Hipanes ae ncuded bh he white and ask popaston Soups Seo appon-
detabe b
ôâ Pures by clan ae for US cizens and permanent esients ony Sources: National Science Folndaion, Scion ant Engineering Degeas 1965-98, Selected Daia ov Gado Sturt an,
Fostoctortes n Sconce and Engnoorng, Fal 1809, and Selsced Osa an Saence and Engneanng Doctorate ‘ures 1283
Trang 27
fields, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are less likely than whites to earn bachelors degrees, (See figure 1-4) As a group, they are only 12 percent degree recipients in science and enginering, as they are of bachelor's fof bachelor’s degree recipients in all Tels, Steady progress has been made in these groups’ share of science find engineering degrees In 1985, blacks were 5.2 per- ‘ent of bachelors degree recipients in seience and ene feering, Hispanics were 3.7 percent, and American Indians were Ot percent, By 1993, the Traction of si ence and engineering bachelor’s ‘deprees camed by black inereased (06,7 percent, by Hispanics 05.0 pe ‘ent and by American Indians to 05 percent” (Sec Big fre 1-5.) Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are
‘are likely to carn degrees in the socialsciences than in the natural sciences or engineering More than half of the hachelor’s degrees earned by members of these {groups were in socialsciences, (See appendix able 3-28 land figure 1-6, Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians, who con- sttwie 6 peroent of the tial science and engineering labor force, are disproportionate likely to cảm degrees inthe social sciences and t0 be employed as Social science practitioners, for example, as social Workers of clinical psychologists, rather shan in social Sciences per se
Me tá,
‘US: popuiaton, undergraduate and graduate ‘uation, by raceetnety: 1858,
Irredcton_ersetatin Scene and Ena
Seema eo?
Persons With Disabilities
Persons with disabilities are also underrepresented inscience and engineering About 20 percent ofthe pop tation have some form of disability about 10 pereent havea severe diebili:® Data on participation of per Sons with disabilities are less avalable than data on ‘other groups in science and engineering by disability status are aval (fr example, no data on bachelor’s degrees thle), The data that do exist, though, point to a small Proportion of persons with disabilities in science and ‘engineering education and employment In 1998, pee Sons with disabilities were only 6 percent of undergrad
uate enrollment, 4 percent of graduate enrollment, 13 percent of scence and engineering doctorate recipients, find 6 percent of scientists and engineers inthe labor force.” (See figure 17, Factors influencing participation by women, minor ties, and persons with dsabiies in science and engi
Re mi tnger Rmtpeim HỒN nó 0 Hy Đợi
Trang 28
Pecans ih Dien Scnce ae Engrg: 1088 5
Bgợ tổ of bachelor's by broad el ana rocaetnley degrees in science and ‘990 (U.S eltzens and permanent relents
neering ate varied and complex They include, among others, ferences in access 10 eddctional resources, Alfferences in economic satus, diflerences in interest (hoe), cultural bares, and lck of encouragement®
‘Scope of This Report
‘The National Seience Foundation (NSF) is mandat ed by Congress o provide bienial reports onthe status ff women and minorities in science and engineering “The primary purpose of this report is to monitor trends {in paticipation at various levels This report documents the progres that has been made by women, minor find persons with disabilis in science and engineering education and employment and highlights the areas in ‘which further progress can be made This report isthe cihth in a series of repors on this subject Like is pre fecessors, it examines the purtcipation of women, ‘minorities, and persons with disabilities in Sclence and tngineering education and i Scientific and engineering ‘ceupations, including employment, salaries, and pro- ‘motional opportunites, Sutistical data are presented on represent
fen trite, em Donbled Peron Sooo Sata
gue 17
Percentage of persons wth aisabities inthe US: population n undergraduate nhượng among scene andengineing and greduste Shaenginestnglaborforer 063
— ae eee
undergraduate, and graduate levels, and on representa tion in science and engineering employment (Current data and historical tends fom a numberof [NSE surveys are reported, and also, whete appropriate, findings from externally conducted research are cited A shronological sequence of education then workforce barieipaton is followed This report documents the progres that has boon made in recent years and exatn- ‘nes some ofthe factors that continue to hinder further participation,
Organization of This Report
Trang 29enrollments and degrees, primary source of support in ‘rauate school, time to completion of PAD, aid post ‘ctor fellowships ‘Chapter 5 examines employment patterns including unemployment underemployment fll- and parctime employment, and employment by field and sector Te also ‘examines career patterns and attrition out of seience and engineering, and focuses separately on academic and ‘nonacademie employment
Data Sources
Data for this report come from a numberof sources ‘The primary sources of information are surveys con- dete by NSF's Division of Sience Resources Studies, Other sources include surveys conducted by the Depattmnent of Education's National Center for ducati Statistics (NCES) by the Educational Testing Service, and bythe Higher Education Research Inditt Dats on bichelor's and master's degrees come fom ‘he Ineprated Postsecondary Eduction Data Systems LAPEDS) Completions Survey, which is part of an inte grated system of surveys conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics Tis survey provides sta on the number and types of degrees awarded by US postsscondary institutions and data on the cha teristics Data on graduate enrollments come primarily from of degre recipients [NSF's Graduate Students and Postdoctrats in Science and Engineering (GSESP) Survey This survey provides data on the number and characteristics of graduates fence and enginering students enrolled in US institu- ‘ions diferences in enrollment patterns, and differences in financal support pater Data oa doctoral degrees come primarily from the ‘Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), which i conducted bby the National Research Council for the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the National Endowment forthe Humanities, the US Department of Education, andthe U:S Department of Agriculture, This survey annually provides data on the ‘number and characteristics of individuls receiving research doctorate degrees from US, institutions Dataon employment come primarily fom thre sur- ‘veys that wil form an integrated system of NSF surveys called the Scientist and Engineer Stasis Daa System (SESTAT), which produces national estimates of the entre science and engineering workforce? The Survey ff Doctorate Recipienls provides demographic and feployment formation on individuals with doctoral degrees in science and engineering This survey i lon-
SRSA LRT Se Se MISS ec Fre! gu Ha
neato: Repreotnton Sab and Eapeing situdinal survey ofa sample of individuals under the age Sf 76 who received a research doctorate in science OF engineering from a US insutution and who were ving in the United States The National Survey of Recent College Graduates provides employment and demo- grape data on individuals who recently obtained à bachelor's or masters degre in a science or engineering field The National Survey of College Graduates pro- vides data on the number and characteristics of inivid- uals with training and/or employment in science and engineering in the United States ‘Other large-scale sources of data used inthis report, include the NCES National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), the NCES Feculty Survey, and the [NCES High School and Beyond Survey ‘The Technical Notes in appendix A present infor- ‘mation on the underlying concepts data collection tech- nigues reporting procedures, and statistical reliability of the primary data Sources used in this report
References
Bruno, Rosalind R., and Andrea Adams 1994 School Enrolment—Social and Economic Characteristics fof Students: October 1993 US Bureau of the Census, Current Populations Reports (P20-479) ‘Washington, DC: U.S Deparinent of Commerce [National Seience Foundation 1994, Selected Data on Science and Engineering Doctorate Awards: 1993
(NSF 94-318) Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation,
[National Science Foundation, 1995 Science and Engineering Degrees: 1986-93 (NSF 95-312) ‘Adlington, VA: National Science Foundation [National Science Foundation 1995, Selected Data on Graduate Students and Postdoctornes in Science
land -Engincering: Fall 1993 (NSF 95-316) ‘Aalington, WA: National Science Foundation, Oakes, Jeannie, 1990, Lost Talon: The Underparick pation of Women, Minortes, and Disabled Persons fm Science Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation
as amended by PL, 99-159,
SSRI Intemational 1991, Youth Wisk Disables: How Are They Doing? The First Comprehensive Report from the National Longitudinal Study of Spectal Educavional “Students Washington, DC: SRL
Trang 30oman, Monte, nd Pern nasties in Soe Engrg 108 US Department 1994, US Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,
and Hispante Origin, 1990 10 1993 (PPL-8) ‘Washington, DC: U'S Department of Comers U.S Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1993 Americans With Disabilities: 1991-92: Data
Jom the Survey of Income and Program Pat cipaion "(P70-33) "Washington, DC! US
Department of Commerc
Trang 32CHAPTER 2
Differences in science and mathematics achieve rent by sex and by aceethnicity appear a ary a le mentary school and widen in secondary school The lig in achievement by women and minonty students may hinder their participation in science and engineering higher education an careers because they have less of foundation for such pursuits, Many factors contribute to differences in achievement, including course taking, family background, and school characteristics such as tacking, teachers" judgments about ability, number and quality of seience’ and mathematics courses offered s2c056 10 qualified teachers, access 10 soutte, ni furicula emphases This chapter examines precollege Science and mathematics course taking, achievement, factors influencing achievement, and the transition to higher education,
Mathematics Course Taking Women
‘The number of courses taken in mathematics and science is an important indicator of preparation for Undergraduate majors in science and engineering as well sof general scientific tracy Female student are sin iar to males in mathematics course taking at ll level, sccording tthe 1992 National Education Longitudinal Study Transcripts More than half of bo male and female high school graduates in 1992 had taken algebra 1 algebra Th and geometry, but far fewer had taken twigonometry and callus in high school Nevenheleex the same percentages of mae ad female students had taken these advanced courses: 21 percent of both had taken tgonometry and 10 percent of both had taken cal ulus Similar percentages of male and female students had taken advanced placement calculus: 6 percent of males and S percent of females, (See appendix table 2-1.)
Minorities
Ravillethnie groups difer greatly in mathematis course taking Black and Hispanic highschool raduates jin 1992 were far les Tikely than white and Asian st dents to have taken advanced mathemati courses and far mote likely to have taken remedial mathematics courses, Thirty-one percent of blacks, 24 percent of
PRECOLLEGE EDUCATION
pared with about 15 percent of whites and Asians, had taken remedial mathematics in high school Although shout 60 percent ofboth white and Asian students had taken algebra IL less than half f blacks, Hispanics, and ‘American Tndians had taken this course, Asians ere tot likely of any racaletnic group to have taken vanced mathematics courses Almost-one-thind of ‘Asians had taken wigenometry and one-fifth had taken calulus By contrast, 22 percent of whites, 13 percent of blacks, 15"pereent of Hispanics, and 10° percent of ‘American Indians had tkea wigonomety, ad far sll- fr poreenages took precaleuus or ealeuts (See appen disable 21) “Although substantial dtferences in course taking by racillethnic groups remain, the percentages of black Hispanic, and American Indian Students taking many basic and advanced mathematics courses doubled between 1982 and 1992 For example, 30 percent of black high schoo! graduates in 1982 had iaken geomet), and 1 percent had taken calenlus, By 1992, this had Increased to 60 percent and 7 percent respectively (See anpendixable 210)
Science Course Taking
Women
‘Male and female high schoo students did not tier really in science course taking in 1992, except in physics Similar percentages of both male and female high schoo! graduates had take biology and chemistry: 92 percent of males and 94 percent of lemales hal aken biology, and 54 percent of males and 57 perceat of females had taken chemistry, Male stants, however, were more likely than females to have taken physies: 28 petcent of males and 21 percent of females had taken Diysies, Male students were also more likely than Females to hive taken advanced placement physics, Female stents have made pains over the las several years, however: in 1982, only 9 percent of women had taken physics in high school (See appendix table 2-2) ‘A study undertaken by the American Instiute of Physics indicates female students are increasing their share of physies enrollment, Women constituted 43 per- of high school physics enrollment in 1993, up from
Trang 33
10
though, of physics students in the more advanced class= «es For example, female students were 46 percent of st dents inthe physies for nonscience students lasses but ‘only 27 percent of the caleulus-based advanced place- ‘ment course enrollment in physics (Neuschatz and Alpert 1995},
Minorities
Racialethnicdiferences in scence course taking age pronounced Black and Hispanic students are farless Iikely than white students fo have taken advanced si fence courses Although Black and Hispanic high school tradvates are about equally Iikely as white and Asian Students to have taken biology they are much less lke ly than whites and Asians to have taken chemistry oF physics Only 46 percent of black 43 percent of Hispanic, and 33 percent of American Indian ‘high school graduates had taken chemistry compated with $8 Percent of white and 67 pereent of Asian high school fraates, (See appendix table 22.) Although 42 per- ent of Asian and 26 percent of white students had taken physics, less than 20 perceat of Black, Hispanic, and ‘American Indian students had taken physics in high sehonl ‘Although the gap in sence couse aking between ‘whites and underepresented minaiies remains, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are taking more se ence classes than they tok in the past The percentage fof blacks and Hispanics taking chemistry and physics ‘Soubled between 1982 and 1992 In 1982, 23 petent of black and 17 percent of Hispanic high school graduates had taken chemistry By 1992, this had increased to 46 percent and 43 percent, respectively In 1982, approxi- Matly 7 percent each of blacks and Hispanics had taken physics: by 1992 18 percent of blacks and 16 percent of Hispanics had taken physics (See appendix table 2-2.) Science and Mathematics
Achievement
Given the differences in course taking differences in science and mathematics achievement are no urpes- ing Trends in science and mathematics achievernent since the early 197Ds reveal persistent dilferences by race and sex at ages 9,13, and 17 despite the narrowing ‘of many gaps."
Women
“Male students score slightly higher than female stu dents om the National Assessment of Educational
tee in Nase Caer far Econ Sa’ NAEP aes ức Sees Be alan Sis oe tees eee i ees
Prclape Easton Progress (NAEP) scence and mathematics acievernent tests ata ages (See figures 2-1 and 2-2.) Atage 17, the zap between males” and females’ mathematics and sci- fence scores is smaller than in the 1970s, but the narrow Jing ofthe gap is ot statistically significant ‘Male and female students have similar mathematics proficiency at ages 9,13, and 17, although males" aver age scores are slighty higher In previous yeas, female Students at age 9 had a light edge over male sudents, but in 1992, male scores edged higher than those of females, (Gee figure 2-1) Although mals showed the most gains tage 9, female students improved most at age 17 The
rina scores NET me agents HAT
= THẺ Se meant a2
Thạc 22 AEP sconce sore at gee 3, 12and 17, | ‘by 90x: 197-1992, soecied years
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result ofthese increases isa similar percentage of males 8nd females scoring ator above selected anchor pons In 1992, 82 percent of males and 81 perent of females scored a or above 200 at age 9,78 peteent of bo sexes Scored at or above 250 at age 13, and 60 percent of males tnd 58 percent of females scored at or above 300 at age 17 (See appendix able 26.) Female stents also score lower than male students fon the NAEP Sclence assessment at ages 9,13, and 17 (Gee figure 22) “Although the differences are small (from Ì 19 3 percent lower), they ae statistically signi icant and have béen persistent since 1970 (US Deparment of Education 1994) The gap between males and females’ science achievement is greatest at age 17 although female students” scores have increased ‘Sgnificanily since 1982 In 1982, 48 percent of male and 30 percent of female I7-year-olds scored at or above 300 0n the NAEP science assessment In 1992, SI per- ont of males and 42 percent of females in tht age froup scored ator above 300: a é-pereentazepoint Increase for males and a 12-percentagepoint increase for females (See appendix able 2-11.)
Minorities
‘The diferences in mathematics and science achieve ment by race/ethnicity are much more prenounced than differences by ex, although they have narrowed during the past decade, Mathematies scares improved for white, black, and Hispanic stadents at ages 9, 13, and 17 between 1978 and 1992 (See figure 2-11) Gains for black and Hispanic stadens were higher than those for white students For example, 13 percent more black 17- yearolds and 18 pereent more Hispanic 17-year-olds Scored ator above 300 compared with 12 percent more white 17-year-old (See appendix tble 2-6.)
engpeerng 198 " Despite these gains, mathematics scores for black and Hispanie students remain substantally lower than those of white students all thee ge loves (See appen ‘ix bles 2-3 t 2-6) The median scores for black std Hispanic students a ll tree age levels are lower than
the 25th percentile scores for white students, The gap between white and black mathematics scores at ages 2, 13 and 17 narrowed between 1978 and 1992, although it is sill substantial The gap between white and Hispanic ‘mathematics scores narowed a ages 13 and 17, but has remained constant at age 9 (Se figure 2-3.) ‘As with mathematics scores, differences in science Scores persis across racialethie groups Scores for Whites are substantially higher than those for blacks and Hispanics at all age levels, and differences are greatest at age 17 (See figure 2-4)" Sclene scores inreased for Students at all three ages between 1982 and 1992, although scores for some groups increased more than ‘others, The gap between black and white and between Hispanic and white sence sores narrowed for 9-year ‘olds between 1982 and 1992 Fifty-one percent of Back S.yearolds scored at or above 200 in 1992, compared vith 39 percent in 1982, 12-percentage-pont increase ‘The percentage of Hispanic year-olds scoring at or hove 200 increased from 40 percent in 1982 to 56 pe ‘ent in 1992, a L5-percemage-point increase, The com- parable gui for white 9-year-olds was from 78 percent
In 1982 lo 86 percent in 1992, 4 7-pereentage-poi increase (See appendix table 2-11.) No narrowing of the gap was evident for black or Hispanic 13-year ods ‘or LT-yearclds
Factors Influencing Achievement ‘Some of the differences in mathematics and science achievement by racelthniity can be explained by fam ily background characteristics and sshool characersis
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fier than the role of course taking already cited “Minority students are more likely than white stadents to come from families in poverty o have pareats with low salteaion levels, and 1 attend “disadvantaged” schools (eng etal 1995),
Family Background
Family background characteristics havea consider able influence on minoriy parieipaion and achieve ‘ment in science and mathematics education,
Family Income
Children from poor families have less access to learning materials and educational activities (Oakes 1990a)"and are less likely to complete high school Socioeconomic staus (parental occupation, education, and income) aocounts for @ substantial amount of the Alitferences in mathematics achievement (Ekstrom eta 1988) Persistence in high school is song associated with family income Students from low-income files ate more likely to repeat a grade and to drop out of high chool than students from higher income families One ‘hind of low-income stadents who repeated a aade were <ropouts in 1992 (See appendix table 2-12.) "A lager percentage of minority students than of ‘white students come from families in poverty with less ‘access to leaning materials and educational activites (ong et al 1995) Black children, in particular, are ‘more likely than other ehilden to Tive in single-parent families and to live in poverty Only 34 percent of black children under 18 live with Doth parens compared with 19 percent of whit, non-Hispanie children (See appen: dix table 2-13) Thirty-nine percent of black failies with children under 18 are below the povery level com pared with only 12 percent of comparable white, non- eames
Seemnirsesa whe Ấm ie leo a ope, Parental Education
Parental education is the single most important pre- ictor of participation in mathematics and science (GBerryman 1983; Malcom et a 1985) Those most ike Iy to go w college oo graduate school are those whose parents went 1 callege or o graduate school The p= “SN serve as Tole models and mentors in encoursging their children to have high edveational aspirations (Oakes 1990a) Minority students are more likely than white oF Asian students (0 hive parents with low educational attainment: 32 perent of Hispanic, 15 percent of black, and 12 percent of American Indian eighth graders, but nly 6 percent of white and 8 percent of Asian eighth faders, had parents or guardians who didnot finish high school Pavel eal 1995, p 13) Stents all age levels whose parents had less han igh school education scored lower in science and mathematis than students ‘hose parents had higher levels of education Among Students ages 9 and 13, however, the science and math matics scores of students whose parents had less than & high school education improved more since 1978 than those whose parents attended school longer (See appen độc table 214.)
Immigrant Status,
Trang 36Characteristics of Schools
‘Many factors contribute to unequal participation of minorities in sclence and mathematics education, Including tracking, judements aboot aby, number and ‘quality of scinoz and mathematics courses offered, Access 10 qualified leachers, access to resources, and ‘curricula emphases Schools, particularly” sccondary Sebools in urban areas with «high proportion of eco nomicaly disadvantaged or minority students offered fess access to science and mathematics education (Gakes 19908),
Ability Grouping
Many sehools continue to group students according to ability levels Grouping students by ability level is more prevalent in mathematies than in science and is ‘more prevalent in grades 9-12 than i the lower grades {Weiss 1994) In Both science and mathematics, classes With a high proportion of minority students aze more Tikely to Be “low ability classes than ate classes with 9 low proportion of minority students, For example, in prades 9-12, 29 percent of the classes with a Tow pro- Porton of minority students are labeled “low-abiliy asses, but 42 percent of the classes with atleast 4 pcc- tent minority students are <0 labeled Conversely, 6 percent ofthe classes with a Tow proportion of minority udens, but only 9 percent ofthe classes with a high Poponion of minority students, are Tabcled "high hit” classes, (See figure 2.)
‘Teacher Expectations
Being labeled by ability has profound impact on student achievement because teachers tend to have dị" ferent expectations of students in the various groups Teachers in high-abily classes are more likely to emphasize the development of reasoning and inguiry skills than are those in low-abiiy classes Stents in low-ability classes are more likely to read from a tex book and Tes likey to participate ia hands-on science
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Fewer than half of American Indian 12th graders ‘score a or above a basi achievement level in math cemutics (See appendix table 272) American Indians are | percent of stents tending public schools and Bureau of Init AMtirs (BIA bal ‘Schools inthe United States Fight percent of these ‘tend BlA/ital schools, 36 pereent atend public Schools witha high Q5 percent or more) American Indian ‘enrollment, and 36 percent attend poblic ‘schools with low (less than 25 pecent) American Indian enrollment (Pavel et al 1995,p 10) ‘Schools with high American Indian enrollment dit fer from those with low American Indisn enrol ‘ment inability characterises of teachers They are tre Tiel 10 of programs and services ain ‘offer compensitory ‘offer college repertory programs, All BIAbal programs snd arc lec hàeh lo Schools and 82 percent of public schols with high
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sctivities, are more likely to spend time doing worksheet problems, and are less likely 10 be asked to waite rea Soning about Solving a mathematics problem (See appendix table 2-16.)
Qualifications of Teachers
‘Minority students also have less access to qualified teachers Mathematics classes with «high proportion oF ‘inonis ar les key han those with low proportion fof minorities to have mathematics teachers with majors in the field (See appendix table 217.) Schools with & high [Proportion of minorities, however, do not differ fom Schools with a lower proportion of minorities in teaches” highest degree eamed See appendix ble 2-18.) Curriculums Emphases
‘The instructional emphases in largely minority classes are likely to differ as well The teachers in si tence and mathematics clases that have a high pereen- age of minority students are more likely to emphasize preparing stidents for standardized tests and ate less Tikely than those having fewer minority students (0 emphasize preparing students for further study in sc fence or mathematics (See appendix table 2-17.) Students With Disabilities
Elementary and secondary students with disables Ihave special neads that may hinder thee aii to pari pate fully in cience and mathematics instruction In 1993, Approximately 7 percent of students in public elementary and secondary schools received services through programs or students with dsabilies See appendix able 2-21.)
Special Education Services
‘The incidence of elementarysecondary students receiving services because of disabilities is increasing “Approximately 6 pereent ofthe population of chien in ‘the United Stats from birth through age 21 were in fed erally” supported special education programs in 1992-1993, compared with 4.5 percent in 1976-1977 (US Department of Education, Office of Special Flucaion and Rehabilitative Services 1994, p 7 The increase has variously been explained se dụe lo am increased fraction of the Nation's children living in poverty inzeased prenatal exposure to alcohol or drugs, fr an nerease i reporting because of changes in eligibility enteria, ‘More thn half of the children ages 6 through 21 ‘with disabilises had specific Teaming disabilities, and another one-filth had speech or language impairments (See appendix table 2-22.) About 12 percent are men tally etarded, 9 percent have a serious emotional distur- ‘bance, and about 1 percent each have onhopedic, heat ing, or other health impairments Less than 1 pereent ‘have visual impairments,
Prcoese Casson Depending onthe nature oftheir disability, students may be served in regular elasstooms and be provided With special services via a resource room, oF they may receive instruction at a variety of special sites Special ‘education sites may not offer the same acces to science instuetion a regular classrooms, because often science instruction needs, especially in the higher grades, are ‘equipment or faciityinensive Stdents with speech oF language impairments svere most likely to spend more than half of their las time in regular education acade~ mic classes (see appendix tale 223) and ths have ccess fo science instruction similar to that of students ‘without disabilities Students with other, less prevalent cdeabilide, sich ae hearing or mobility impairments, ‘were more Hikely fo be taught in separate classes
Science and Mathematics Education
Students with physical disabilities make up 4 t0 6 percent of the science students and 2 to percent of the Imathematies students in grades I-12 Students with ‘mental disabilities make up 2 109 perceat ofthe sience Students and L10 5 percent ofthe mathematics students in grades 1-12 Studeats with mental disabilities are ‘more likely tobe included in regular science insiuction than in mathematics instruction, “The fraction of students with learning disabilities is much smaller in high schoo! than inthe earlier grades Slightly more than half of the seience and mathematics lasses in grades 14 but only 31 percent ofthe sience lasses and 24 percent of the mathematics lasses in fides 9-12 have students with leaning disabilities, (Gee figure 2.6) ‘The fraction of students with physical fnd mental disabilides is much smaller and varies less by grade, Four percent of seience classes and 6 percent of mathematics classes in grades 1 have lemf onc student witha physical disability, compared with 5 pet= tent of science classes and 2 percent of mathematics lasses in grades 9-12,
Transition to Higher Education
The transition from elementary/secondary school 19 higher education isan important step not only t0 the individuals making it, but also to a nation commited to the well-being of IS citizens, Information on persons ‘making this Uanston provides opportunites for the assessment of their progress through the stages just Completed and their readiness for future activities In this report, the tanstion points mark an important opportunity for examining the staws of “under- fepeseted groups as thy progress tough he eds: ‘onal sytem
College Entrance Examinations
“Two organizations administer national college entrance ‘examinations —the Admissions Testing Program of the
Trang 381 gre 2
Percentage of sclonce and mathematics clases with one or more students wth disables, by grade: 1983
_ 228
College Entrance Examination Board, which administers the Scholastic Aptinde Test (SAT), and the American College Testing Program, which administers the American College Testing (ACT) Assessment Results of these exam- ination are of substantial importance to college admissions Aecsions and hence to opportunitis fr college students A ‘lose analysis jon of women and underepresentedminosies also offers Turter insight im the precollege Susana diterenes remain in standardized test results among the various groups atthe extical tanstion point from secondary school t higher education,
Women
Scholastic Aptitude Test
“The Admissions Testing Program of the College Eniance Examination Board collects and tabulates data fon the scores of college-bound seniors who have taken the SAT The College Board uses the term “eolepe- bound senior” to refer to those students fom each high School graduating class who take the SAT Program ess ‘anytime during theit high school years ‘The SAT {examination consists of two components: the verbal ‘component, which tests reading comprehension and ‘vocabulary’ skills, and the mathematics component, Which assesses the ability to solve problems by using
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arithmetic reasoning as well s skills in basi algebra land geometry" The score range foreach SAT compo: nents from 200 19 800
In 1994, almost 1.1 milion students took the SAT tests females constiuied 53 percent of the total (See appendix table 2-25) Continuing a long-time ren, in 1994 females scored below males both the mathe ics and verbal portions of the SAT This pattern persists ‘despite the fact that fenaleelenl to ave higher overall fries in hgh school than males and they tend to have beter grades in college (see the related discussion on Lndergradustesin chapter 3) Educators and researchers both inthe academic commonity and within the College Board have been concerned about the underying causes ofthis disparity
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‘SAT Scores and High Schoo! Classes
‘Mathematics On the mathematics component of the SAT, scores for both sexes have risen during the decade since 1984, a period of increased emphasis on Inuthematies and science education at the K-12 level [Nevertheless females in 1994 cootinued to score con siderably below males inthe mathematics component, the gap narowing only slighty over the decade (See figure 27.) Since 1984, females” scores increased 11 points to 460 in 1994, whereas mals’ scores increased 6 points SOL Thus, here was a 4-point diference in cores in 1994, down from a 46-point difference in TO984, (See appendix table 2-26) ‘This age difference in mathematics scores between the two sexes occurred despite the similarity in many of their high school characterises In 1994, females who {ook the SAT exam reported completing an average of 136 yeatsof mathematics coursewark compared with 37 {years for males, Females received grade point average {9 2.96 in mathematics, compared with a mathematics trade point average of 2.97 for males.” (College Entrance Examination Board 1994, p 10) Verbal In 1995, females also continued to score somewhat lower than males onthe verb component of the SAT (See figure 2-7) This ccourred even though females reported a higher high School grade point aver- age than males in both English and social scienceshis- tory Females also took a higher average number of years of coursework in English (3.9 years for females Yersus 38 years for mals) and social scieneeshistory (G24 yeam Tor females versus 3.3 years for males) (College Entrance Examination Board 1994, p I0)
Figure 27
‘Mean SAT scores, by sex: 1904-1908
Proven Eaten SAT Scores and Level of Difficulty of High ‘School Mathematies and Science Courses
‘The propensity for taking difficult coursework in high school may account for some ofthe differences between males and females in mathematics test scores, seconting to an analysis of the profile data reported by high schoo! seniors who take the SAT In particular, although males and females had almost the Same pet= centage taking Honors courses and had almost identical trade point averages inthe mathematics courses they took, & smaller percentage of females took 4 or more years of mathematics ’and a much smaller percentage of Temales took the most advanced coursework The discrepancy in course taking between the males and the females taking the SAT oceus in courses that ae generally electives, ie, those following the peorne- try course For example, 96 percent of both males and females took algebra, and 95 percent of both genders reported taking a geometry course There isa gap of 3 percent, however, in maleffemale pariipation in bodh trigonometry (53 percent for females versus 56 percent for males) and precalculus (34 percent for females ver~ sus 37 percent for males) The gap widens to percent difference in the proportion taking ealeulus (19 percent for females versus 24 pereent for males) (See appendix table 227) “Tis difference in propensity to take the more i= cult mathematis courses undoubtedly contributes the ‘male-female differences in scores, Females were ich Tes likely than males to place in the top range of scores fn the mathematics component of the SAT, ie in the 600 to 800 range In 1994, only 14 percent of females ‘scored i this top range versus 24 portent of males (See appendix table 2-28.) "A siilar paler is evident in enrollment in natural Science classes Females” grade point averages are very Sila to males’ in the courses they take: ath sexes {ake about the same numberof years of coursework: and they pate equally i be pereetage aking honors ‘Asis the case with mathematic, however, a smaller percentage of females take the mont avanced course- tvorc in the natural science fields, For example, 97 pe ont ofall students sho took the SAT, both female and tale, had taken biology, and 83 percent of both sexes had faken chemistry Only 41 percen of females took plysies, however, compared with $1 percent of males,
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omen Monts an Persons tn Dasbes 82eree sứ £gpeorng T8 7 (See the related discussion above concerning stay by
Neuschatz and Alper, American Instiuteof Physics.) In sourseworkintensiveness, 43 percent of females took 4 tr more yeas of natural science, compared with SO per ‘cent of males,
SAT Il: Achievement Tests
‘The diferences in coursework taken may also affect the differences between males and females in scores fecelved on the achievement tests offered by the ‘Admissions Testing Program of the College Bosd."* “Although females took 50 percent ofthe achievement tests in science and mathematics in 1994," female par tiipation was concentrated in theless advanced mathe ‘matics T exam in which females took 57 perceat of the
‘otal, and in biology (35 percent ofthe tot) Males took the majority ofall the other mathematics and science achievement test exams Female participation was Towest in physics, in which thy took only 26 percent of the exams Tm the mathematics and science achievement tests they did take, females’ mean scores were lower than the sean scores for males in 1994, (See appendix table 2
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29) The discrepancy ranged from 31 points on the bio ogy test to 53 points onthe pysies exam The spread between scoreson the nes? math level IC was 48 points (680 for females and 698 for males)
Intended Undergraduate Major
Differences between females and males in their intended preference fr degree major are striking for st dents planing wo enter college Perhaps in keeping with their lower scores on the maibemaiee SAT, relatively few females about to ener college in 1994 intended to pursue a major in engineering, (See figure 28.) Only 3 percent of females intended to major in this subject, ‘whereas 17 percent of males intended to major in eng hoerng, the highest percentage for say individual major for males (See appendix table 2-30.) “Tweny-four percent of females cited health and allied services as their most probable major Business and commerce was the next most popular field for ‘women (13 percent), followed by education (11 pee end) For males, business and commerce was also the Second most popular probable major (15 perce) ai owed by heath and allied services (13 pereenD, Education was mentioned by just 4pereent ofthe male ‘Combining ll natural science Hels, [4 percent of the males intended to pusue these majors, and 10 per ‘cent ofthe females chose these Fels probable majors: two percent of males chose agicltue/aaturl resources as their major, compared with I percent of females, One percent of mils chose mathematics asa major and less than 0.0 pereent of females did Double the oreenage ‘of males than females also chose the physical siences (2