Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za Education reform in post-apartheid South Africa Edward B Fiske & Helen F Ladd C M Y CM MY CY CMY K Elusive Equity Title.pdf 4/6/2005 4:10:21 PMElusive Equity Title.pdf 4/6/2005 4:10:21 PM Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za ABOUT BROOKINGS The Brookings Institution is a private nonprofit organization devoted to research, educa- tion, and publication on important issues of domestic and foreign policy. Its principal pur- pose is to bring knowledge to bear on current and emerging policy problems. The Institu- tion maintains a position of neutrality on issues of public policy. Interpretations or conclusions in Brookings publications should be understood to be solely those of the authors. Copyright © 2004 Edward B. Fiske and Helen F. Ladd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the Brookings Institution Press, 1775 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (fax: 202/797-6195 or e- mail: permissions@brookings.edu). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Fiske, Edward B. Elusive equity : education reform in post-apartheid South Africa / Edward B. Fiske and Helen F. Ladd. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8157-2840-9 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Educational equalization—South Africa. 2. Education and state—South Africa. 3. Educational change—South Africa. 4. Discrimination in education—South Africa— Prevention. I. Ladd, Helen F. II. Title. LC213.3.S6F57 2004 379.2’6’0968—dc22 2004011355 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The paper used in this publication meets minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials: ANSI Z39.48-1992. Typeset in Sabon Composition by Betsy Kulamer Washington, D.C. Printed by R. R. Donnelley Harrisonburg, Virginia Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za To Connor, Elijah, Devin, Myah, Jude, Margaret, and Lilly with love Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za Preface ix 1 Introduction 1 2 The Racial Context of South Africa 17 3 Education and Apartheid 40 4 Educational Aspirations and Political Realities 61 5 Governance and Access to Schools 81 6 Financing Schools: Initial Steps toward Equity 101 7 Balancing Public and Private Resources 130 8 Outcomes-Based Education and Equity 154 9 Educational Outcomes 173 10 Equity in Higher Education 201 11 Conclusion 232 Appendix Tables 249 References 251 Index 261 vii Contents Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za This book tells the story of South Africa’s efforts to fashion a racially equitable state education system out of the ashes of apartheid—a story that is both significant and compelling. South Africa captured the imagi- nation of the world when it succeeded, in 1994, in transferring political power from the white minority to the black majority without massive bloodshed. In part because of the heroic figure of Nelson Mandela, who emerged from twenty-seven years as a political prisoner to become the first president of the new democracy, South Africa became a global sym- bol of the struggle for human rights and racial equity. Remarkable as it was, the successful transfer of political power from white to black hands was only a first step toward the construction of a strong, multiracial, and sustainable social order. South Africa’s fledgling democracy also required new institutional structures built on the values embodied in the country’s progressive new constitution, which guaran- tees equal rights for all South Africans. Reform of the state education system exemplifies this broader trans- formation process under way in South Africa in the post-1994 period. The new government inherited a system designed to further the goals of apartheid, one that lavished human and financial resources on schools serving white students while systematically starving those with African, coloured, and Indian learners. Its task was to transform this system into one that reflected the values of the new democracy and to ix Preface Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za do so in a political and social context shaped by the historical legacy of apartheid, the nature of the power sharing that emerged from the negotiated settlement, and severe limitations on financial and human resources. The story of education reform in post-apartheid South Africa is also important because it was driven by a quest for equity and fairness. The concept of educational equity is attracting growing attention in political debates around the globe. Equity is the underlying basis for the Educa- tion for All movement, coordinated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), that was initiated with a major world conference in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990 and that held a ten-year follow-up conference in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000. Finally, South Africa’s experience is compelling because of the magni- tude and starkness of the initial disparities and of the changes required. Few, if any, new democratic governments have had to work with an education system as egregiously—and intentionally—inequitable as the one that the apartheid regime bequeathed to the new black-run govern- ment in 1994. Thanks to the apartheid system, the socially constructed racial classifications were so clearly delineated that they can provide a firm basis for evaluating movement toward racial equity. Moreover, few governments have ever assumed power with as strong a mandate to work for racial justice. Thus the South African experience offers an opportunity to examine in bold relief the possibilities and limitations of achieving a racially equitable education system in a context where such equity is a prime objective. We conclude that South Africa has made significant progress toward equity in education defined as equal treatment of persons of all races— an achievement for which it deserves great praise. For reasons that we explore, however, the country has been less successful in promoting equity, defined either as equal educational opportunity for students of all races or as educational adequacy. Thus educational equity has, to date, been elusive. Our research examines education reform efforts through 2002, which is eight years after the end of the apartheid system. Since this is a very short period, far too short for a thorough overhaul of the system, educa- tion reform in South Africa is still very much a work in progress. Nonetheless, much has already been changed and much accomplished. If only because South Africans are in a hurry to make things work, it is reasonable to take stock of the country’s progress at this time. x ■ PREFACE Free download from www.hsrc p ress.ac.za [...]... concepts of educational equity: equal treatment, equal educational opportunity, and educational adequacy Although South African policy documents and discussions do not always refer to equity in these specific terms, they provide a powerful and useful analytical framework for understanding both the ways in which educational equity has been furthered and the ways in which it has remained elusive Acknowledgments... dimension of educational equity reflects the country’s long history of racial segregation and inequity not only during the apartheid era but also in the colonial period that preceded it To be sure, other dimensions of educational equity, most notably gender equity, are also of current policy concern in South Africa, but they are not the subject of this book From a policy perspective, racial equity is the overriding... education Racial Equity in Education We evaluate South Africa’s reform strategies using three standards of racial equity: equal treatment, equal educational opportunity, and educational adequacy These concepts come from a rich philosophical tradition as well as the international literature on education reform Although South African policy documents and discussions do not always refer to equity in these... important tool for understanding what the national reforms meant for previously disadvantaged schools and students Chapter 10 evaluates the progress toward racial equity at the level of higher education In chapter 11, we summarize why equity has been elusive in South African education, consider prospects for future progress, and offer insights for other countries based on South Africa’s experience Free download... transportation costs Thus equity defined as equal treatment, important though it may be for symbolic reasons in South Africa, would not move the country very far in terms of the other two standards Equal Educational Opportunity Equal educational opportunity is a broader standard that expands the concept of equal treatment to include the potential for attainment This concept of equity is consistent with... possible solutions Indeed, the South African experience is relevant to other countries for a number of reasons: —Educational equity is a topic of widespread political concern internationally Post-apartheid school reform in South Africa serves as a natural experiment in which equity is a primary goal—a priority that stands in refreshing contrast to market-driven models that dominate so much of the educational... of educational opportunity by race is central to policy debates about racial equity in all countries Seeing how this distinction plays out in terms of education reform in South Africa helps to clarify and inform the situation in other countries where the historical legacy may be less clear —South Africa’s efforts to promote equity are taking place in the context of a restrictive economic policy dictated... who edited this volume; Carlotta Ribar, who provided proofreading services; and Robert Elwood, who indexed the pages Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Elusive Equity Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za ZIMBABWE BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE LIMPOPO NORTH WEST GAUTENG FREE STATE KWAZULUNATAL Umtata SOUTH AT L A N T I C OCEAN Cape of Good Hope SWAZILAND LESOTHO NORTHERN... not only that the possibility for such change exists, but also that all persons have a fair chance to attain it Given the historical disparities in educational investments by race in South Africa, this equity standard would require, at a minimum, that educational policies be “race aware.” Thus a uniform curriculum for all schools would be inequitable if educators in schools serving black students were... opportunity might be achievable in South Africa, albeit not without large additional expenditure and not within a short period of time If interpreted more broadly, in the sense of a student’s life chances, this equity standard is far too demanding.17 It would require South African schools to offset all the family, individual, and societal problems that make it more difficult for black than for white students . Africa Edward B Fiske & Helen F Ladd C M Y CM MY CY CMY K Elusive Equity Title.pdf 4/6/2005 4:10:21 PMElusive Equity Title.pdf 4/6/2005 4:10:21 PM Free download. Steps toward Equity 101 7 Balancing Public and Private Resources 130 8 Outcomes-Based Education and Equity 154 9 Educational Outcomes 173 10 Equity in Higher