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Exploring Emotional Intelligence: A study of Vietnamese hotel workers Quynh Nguyen A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2019 BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY i COPYRIGHT STATEMENT This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and due acknowledgement must always be made of the use of any material contained in, or derived from, this thesis ii Abstract Recent research recognises the importance of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the hospitality industry Hospitality employees are required to regulate their emotions effectively during face-to-face interactions with customers, which forms a crucial part of the experience Research on EI in hospitality are predominantly quantitative to measure the relationship between EI and work-related factors: education and training, leadership or management, and culture Furthermore, EI research is heavily Western centric because of the selection of sample and place of the research This study explores Vietnamese hotel workers’ practice of EI in interactions with customers and colleagues in the workplace in Vietnam The study adopted a qualitative approach using three methods; focus groups with 20 hotel employees, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) to record favourable and unfavourable incidents (114 incidents in total), and semi-structured interviews with 34 hotel employees All the data was collected in Nhatrang, Vietnam in October 2015 and September and October 2016 The research findings show that their EI practice varied depending on the context and with whom they interacted, which highlights the advantage of employing the qualitative approach Vietnamese hotel workers employed different strategies to recognise and regulate their own emotions and the emotions of customers and colleagues These were obtained through higher education, hotel training programmes, their experiences and those of colleagues and managers In addition, Vietnamese culture was found to influence their emotions and how they managed them and others’ emotions Also, a significant source of knowledge of emotional management derived from their religion and culture Implications are discussed from theoretical, methodological, and managerial perspectives, which will benefit stakeholders in the sector iii Table of Contents ABSTRACT III TABLE OF CONTENTS IV LIST OF TABLES X LIST OF FIGURES XI LIST OF APPENDICES XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS XIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XIV CHAPTER – INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 1.2 THE STUDY IN CONTEXT 1.3 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY 1.4 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES 1.5 THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS 1.6 SUMMARY 10 CHAPTER - LITERATURE REVIEW: RESEARCH ON EI AND ITS STATE IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR 11 2.1 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTERS 11 2.2 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER – RESEARCH ON EI AND ITS STATE IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR 11 2.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON EI 11 2.3.1 ORIGIN OF THE EI CONCEPT 13 2.3.2 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO EI 13 2.3.2.1 Ability-based EI 14 2.3.2.2 Trait-based EI 17 2.3.2.3 Mixed EI 17 2.3.3 CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING EI 19 2.3.3.1 The conceptualisation of EI 20 2.3.3.2 The measurement of EI 21 2.3.3.3 EI as predictor for organisational outcomes 22 2.4 EI AND RELATED CONSTRUCTS 24 2.4.1 EMOTION REGULATION 24 2.4.1.1 Theory of ER 24 2.4.1.2 Relationship between EI and ER 26 2.4.2 EMOTIONAL LABOUR 27 iv 2.4.2.1 Theory of EL 27 2.4.2.2 Relationship between EI and EL 28 2.5 EI RESEARCH IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR 32 2.5.1 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HOSPITALITY WORK 33 2.5.1.1 The image of hotel work 33 2.5.1.2 The gendered nature 34 2.5.1.3 Turnover culture 36 2.5.1.4 Low-skilled or high-skilled job? 37 2.5.2 EI IN HOSPITALITY 39 2.5.2.1 EI and work-related factors 41 2.5.2.2 EI, education, and training 43 2.5.2.3 EI and leadership or management 45 2.5.2.4 EI and culture 47 2.5.2.5 Others 48 2.5.3 QUALITATIVE STUDIES ON EI IN HOSPITALITY 48 2.6 SUMMARY 49 CHAPTER – VIETNAMESE CULTURE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON VIETNAMESE HOTEL WORKERS’ EI 51 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 51 3.2 THE THEORIES OF NATIONAL CULTURE 51 3.2.1 KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 52 3.2.2 HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 53 3.2.3 HALL’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 54 3.2.4 TROMPENAARS’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 55 3.2.5 SCHWARTZ’S DIMENSIONS 55 3.2.6 GLOBE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 56 3.2.7 DIVERGENCE AND CONVERGENCE AMONGST THE MODELS OF NATIONAL CULTURE 57 3.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NATIONAL CULTURE AND EI 62 3.3.1 THE INFLUENCE OF NATIONAL CULTURE ON EI 62 3.3.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EAST AND THE WEST IN THE EMOTIONAL PROCESS 65 3.4 VIETNAMESE CULTURE 66 3.4.1 THE MIXTURE OF CONFUCIANISM, TAOISM, AND BUDDHISM 67 3.4.1.1 Confucianism 68 3.4.1.2 Taoism 69 3.4.1.3 Buddhism 70 3.4.2 EXPLORING VIETNAMESE CULTURE BASED ON HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS 71 3.5 THE INFLUENCES OF VIETNAMESE CULTURE ON HOTEL WORKERS 75 3.5.1 HARMONY-ORIENTED CULTURE 75 3.5.2 RESPECT FOR THE ELDERLY AND SENIORS 76 3.5.3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP MEMBERS 77 3.6 PROBLEMS ARISING FROM MISINTERPRETING VIETNAMESE CULTURE 78 3.7 SUMMARY 79 v CHAPTER - METHODOLOGY 81 4.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 81 4.2 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY 81 4.2.1 PARADIGM 81 4.2.2 PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS 82 4.2.2.1 Ontological assumption 84 4.2.2.2 Epistemological assumption 84 4.2.2.3 Axiological assumption 85 4.2.2.4 Methodological assumption 85 4.3 RESEARCH STRATEGY 86 4.3.1 RATIONALE FOR ADOPTING QUALITATIVE APPROACH 86 4.3.2 RESEARCH METHODS 87 4.3.2.1 Focus group interview 90 4.3.2.2 Critical Incident Technique 92 4.3.2.3 Semi-structured interview 97 4.3.3 SAMPLING 98 4.3.4 DATA ANALYSIS 106 4.3.4.1 Focus group interview 106 4.3.4.2 Critical Incident Technique 108 4.3.4.3 Semi-structured interview 111 4.4 RESEARCH EVALUATION AND ETHICS CONSIDERATIONS 112 4.4.1 RESEARCH EVALUATION 112 4.4.1.1 Trustworthiness and authenticity 113 4.4.1.2 Language and rigour 115 4.4.2 ETHICS CONSIDERATIONS 116 4.5 LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH METHODS 117 4.5.1 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW 117 4.5.2 CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE 117 4.5.3 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 119 4.6 SUMMARY 120 CHAPTER – FINDINGS FROM FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 121 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FINDINGS CHAPTERS 121 5.2 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER – FINDINGS FROM FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 121 5.3 CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING VIETNAMESE HOTEL WORKERS’ EMOTIONS 122 5.3.1 POSITIVE SIDES OF HOTEL WORK 122 5.3.1.1 Working hours 122 5.3.1.2 Working environment 124 5.3.1.3 Advancement opportunities 125 5.3.2 INTERACTION IN THE WORKPLACE 127 5.3.2.1 Emotional expression and regulation 127 vi 5.3.2.2 Language barrier 131 5.3.2.3 Handling conflicts and feedback 133 5.3.2.4 Sense of teamwork 137 5.4 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE OF CUSTOMER SERVICE AND EMOTIONAL MANAGEMENT 138 5.4.1 HIGHER EDUCATION 138 5.4.2 HOTEL TRAINING 140 5.4.3 SELF-STUDY 143 5.5 THE UNDERSTANDING OF CUSTOMER BEHAVIOURS AND THEIR EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS BASED ON THEIR COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN 146 5.6 SUMMARY 151 CHAPTER – FINDINGS FROM CIT 153 6.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER – FINDINGS FROM CIT 153 6.2 INTERACTIONS WITH CUSTOMERS 154 6.2.1 FAVOURABLE INCIDENTS OF INTERACTIONS WITH CUSTOMERS 154 Group A – Understanding and meeting customers’ needs 155 Group B – Building relationship with customers 157 Group C – Regulating customers’ emotions 162 Group D – Going an extra mile 167 6.2.2 UNFAVOURABLE INCIDENTS OF INTERACTIONS WITH CUSTOMERS 171 Group A – Lack of communication 172 Group B – Lack of experience 175 Group C – Conflict between EI practice and hotel revenue 178 Group D – Ineffective emotion regulation 178 Group E – Support needed from managers 182 Group F – Follow-up after service failures 185 6.2.3 SUMMARY OF INTERACTIONS WITH CUSTOMERS 189 6.3 INTERACTIONS WITH COLLEAGUES 192 6.3.1 FAVOURABLE INCIDENTS OF INTERACTIONS WITH COLLEAGUES 192 Group A – Emotional support and empathy 193 Group B – Support with work-related tasks 195 Group C – Sense of commitment 198 Group D – Consultation or guidance 200 6.3.2 UNFAVOURABLE INCIDENTS OF INTERACTIONS WITH COLLEAGUES 203 Group A – Lack of cooperation and communication 204 Group B – The role of personality 208 Group C – The role of managers 211 Group D – Expression of negative emotions 215 6.3.3 SUMMARY OF INTERACTIONS WITH COLLEAGUES 219 6.4 SUMMARY 222 CHAPTER – FINDINGS FROM SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS 224 7.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER – FINDINGS FROM SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS 224 vii 7.2 VIETNAMESE HOTEL WORKERS’ MANAGEMENT OF THEIR OWN EMOTIONS 225 7.2.1 STRATEGIES ADOPTED IN THE WORKPLACE 226 7.2.1.1 During the interactions 226 7.2.1.2 After the interactions 229 7.2.2 EMOTIONAL GROWTH 231 7.2.2.1 Working experience 231 7.2.2.2 From workplace to daily practice 233 7.3 VIETNAMESE HOTEL WORKERS’ MANAGEMENT OF CUSTOMERS’ EMOTIONS 236 7.3.1 RECOGNITION OF CUSTOMERS’ EMOTIONS 237 7.3.1.1 Differences in customers’ emotional expressions based on their country of origin 237 7.3.1.2 Differences between northern and southern Vietnamese customers 244 7.3.2 REGULATION OF CUSTOMERS’ EMOTIONS 246 7.3.2.1 Generating positive emotions 246 7.3.2.2 Calming down customers 249 7.3.2.3 Understanding and analysing customers’ emotions 249 7.3.2.4 Detaching or engaging customers’ emotions depending on the situations 251 7.4 VIETNAMESE HOTEL WORKERS’ MANAGEMENT OF COLLEAGUES’ EMOTIONS 253 7.4.1 INTERACTIONS AT WORK 253 7.4.1.1 From the perspective of bottom-line workers 253 7.4.1.2 From the perspective of supervisors and managers 254 7.4.2 SOCIALISATION AFTER WORK TO ENHANCE THE RECOGNITION AND REGULATION OF COLLEAGUES’ EMOTIONS 257 7.4.3 THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE AND RELIGION ON THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH COLLEAGUES 259 7.5 CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING VIETNAMESE HOTEL WORKERS’ EMOTIONS 263 7.5.1 THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF HOTEL WORK AND CUSTOMERS 263 7.5.2 THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF THE WORKPLACE 267 7.5.3 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A HIERARCHY-BASED CULTURE 268 7.5.3.1 The hierarchy of the prestige associated with each department 268 7.5.3.2 The conflicts between age-grading and position-grading hierarchy 270 7.5.4 THE ROLE OF FAMILY AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 272 7.6 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE OF RECOGNITION AND REGULATION OF OTHERS’ EMOTIONS 275 7.6.1 WORK-RELATED EXPERIENCES 275 7.6.2 PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 276 7.6.3 TEACHINGS FROM BUDDHISM AND VIETNAMESE CULTURE 277 7.7 SUGGESTED WAYS TO IMPROVE EI 278 7.7.1 TRAINING ISSUES 278 7.7.1.1 Topics for training 279 7.7.1.2 Forms of training 281 7.7.2 WORKING ENVIRONMENT 284 viii 7.7.3 DESIRED QUALITIES OF MANAGERS 285 7.8 SUMMARY 287 CHAPTER – CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 289 8.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 289 8.2 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RESEARCH 289 8.2.1 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS 289 8.2.2 METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS 300 8.2.3 PRACTICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS 300 8.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 302 8.4 LIMITATIONS 303 8.5 PERSONAL REFLECTION 303 8.6 FINAL CONCLUSION 305 REFERENCES 306 APPENDICES 339 ix List of Tables Table Definitions of EL proposed by key authors in the field 27 Table Studies on EI in the hospitality sector 40 Table Summary of six models of cultural dimensions 58 Table Common themes across six cultural models 61 Table Vietnamese culture through the lens of Hofstede's cultural models 72 Table Phases of data collection of the study 88 Table Pros and cons of two approaches to collecting CIT data 96 Table Demographics of participants in CIT and semi-structured interviews 103 Table Summary of customers' behaviours and emotional expressions based on their countries of origin 148 Table 10 Favourable incidents of interactions with customers 154 Table 11 Unfavourable incidents of interactions with customers 171 Table 12 Favourable incidents of interactions with colleagues 192 Table 13 Unfavourable incidents of interactions with colleagues 204 Table 14 Emotional expression of customers based on their countries of origin 239 x