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Chapter
5
Design Procedures: Part 3
Air-Handling Systems
5.1 Introduction
In most HVAC systems, the final energy transport medium is moist
air—a mixture of dry air and water vapor. This is conveyed through
filters, heat exchange equipment, ducts, and various terminal devices
to the space to be air-conditioned. The power to move the air is sup-
plied by fans. This chapter discusses fans and duct systems, together
with related subjects such as grilles, registers, diffusers, dampers, fil-
ters, and noise control.
5.2 Fans
According to Air Moving and Conditioning Association (AMCA) Stan-
dard 210,
1
‘‘A fan is a device for moving air which utilizes a power-
driven, rotating impeller.’’ The three fan types of primary interest in
HVAC systems are centrifugal, axial, and propeller. The fan motor
may be directly connected to the impeller, directly connected through
a gearbox, or indirectly connected by means of a belt-drive system.
5.2.1 Fan law equations
The fan law equations are used to predict the performance of a fan at
some other condition than that at which it is tested and rated. The
HVAC designer is particularly interested in the effects on horsepower,
pressure, and volume consequent to varying the speed of the fan in a
system.
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96 Chapter Five
The fan laws expressed in the following equations relate only to the
effect of varying speed, assuming that fan size and air density remain
constant.
RPM
2
CFM ϭ CFM (5.1)
21
RPM
1
2
RPM
2
SP ϭ SP (5.2)
ͩͪ
21
RPM
1
2
RPM
2
TP ϭ TP (5.3)
ͩͪ
21
RPM
1
3
RPM
2
BHP ϭ BHP (5.4)
ͩͪ
21
RPM
1
3
where CFM ϭ airflow rate, ft / min
SP ϭ static pressure
TP ϭ total pressure
BHP ϭ brake horsepower, bhp
Expressed in simple language, the fan laws say that when fan size
and air density are unchanged, the airflow rate varies directly as the
change in speed, the pressure developed by the fan varies as the
square of the change in speed, and the power required to drive the
fan varies as the cube of the change in speed.
The complete fan laws also include terms for changes in fan size
and air density. The laws are valid only when fans of different sizes
(diameters) are geometrically similar.
3
CFM RPM D
222
ϭϫ (5.5)
ͩͪ
CFM RPM D
111
22
TP SP VP RPM Dd
22 2 222
ϭϭ ϭ (5.6)
ͩͪͩͪ
TP SP VP RPM Dd
11 1 111
35
BHP RPM Dd
2222
ϭ ⅐ (5.7)
ͩͪͩͪ
BHP RPM Dd
1111
where D ϭ fan diameter and d ϭ air density.
For further variations, see ASHRAE Handbook, 2000 HVAC Systems
and Equipment, Chap. 18, Table 2, p. 18.4.
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Design Procedures: Part 3 97
Figure 5.1 Principle of operation of centrifugal fan.
Figure 5.2 Cutaway view of centrifugal fan.
5.2.2 Centrifugal fans
A centrifugal fan creates pressure and air movement by a combination
of centrifugal (radial) velocity and rotating (tangential) velocity. As
shown in Fig. 5.1, these two effects combine to create a net velocity
vector. When the fan is enclosed in a scroll (housing) as shown in Fig.
5.2, some of the velocity pressure is converted to static pressure. The
fan characteristics can be changed by changing the shape of the blade.
Typical shapes (Fig. 5.3) are forward-curved, straight radial, back-
ward-inclined (straight or curved), and airfoil.
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98 Chapter Five
Figure 5.3 Centrifugal fan blade types. A. Forward curved. B. Radial. C. Backward-
inclined. D. Airfoil.
The geometry of the fan wheel, inlet cone, and scroll also has an
effect on fan performance and efficiency. Figure 5.4 shows a typical
cross section for a backward-inclined (BI) or airfoil (AF) fan wheel.
For a given wheel or diameter, as the blade gets narrower and longer,
higher pressures can be generated but flow rates are reduced. The
inlet cone is shown curved (bell-mouth) to minimize air turbulence.
Straight cones are also used, at the cost of some reduction in perform-
ance. The clearance between the inlet cone and the wheel shroud must
be minimized for efficiency, because some air is bypassed through this
opening. The forward-curved (FC) wheel (Fig. 5.5) usually has a short,
wide blade and a flat shroud. The inlet cone is curved or tapered and
is mounted to minimize the clearance between the inlet cone and
shroud. This type of fan handles large air volumes at low pressures.
The illustrations show single-width, single-inlet (SWSI) fans. Double-
width, double-inlet (DWDI) fans are also made.
5.2.3 Fan testing procedures
Fans for HVAC applications should be tested and certified for perform-
ance rating in accordance with AMCA Standard 210,
1
promulgated by
the Air Moving and Conditioning Association. Also, ASHRAE Stan-
dard 51 prescribes the test setup and data-gathering procedures for
fan testing. For a line of several sizes of geometrically similar fans,
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Design Procedures: Part 3 99
Figure 5.4 Cross section of BI, radial, or airfoil fan.
Figure 5.5 Cross section of FC fan.
only the smallest fan in the line is actually tested. Performance of all
other sizes is calculated, by using formulas based on the fan laws. The
testing setup and procedures are designed for ideal inlet and outlet
conditions, with a minimum of turbulence. Later in this chapter we
discuss the effect of the nonideal conditions usually found in HVAC
system installations.
The test procedure includes measuring the airflow and horsepower
against varying pressures, for a constant fan speed. Pressure is mea-
sured in inches of water, by using an oil- or water-filled manometer.
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100 Chapter Five
Figure 5.6 Normalized curves for a BI fan.
Figure 5.7 Normalized curves for an FC fan.
Airflow is measured in cubic feet per minute. The data can then be
plotted as a series of curves similar to Fig. 5.6. This figure contains
‘‘normalized’’ typical curves for a BI fan. Airfoil fan curves are similar
with slightly higher efficiencies. The curves for an FC fan have a dif-
ferent shape, as shown in Fig. 5.7. When the fan speed is varied, the
result is a family of parallel curves, as shown in Fig. 5.8.
5.2.4 Fan performance data
The HVAC system in which a fan is to be installed has a system-curve
characteristic relating to the HVAC system geometry. In accordance
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Design Procedures: Part 3 101
Figure 5.8 Fan performance at various speeds.
with the laws of hydraulics, the system pressure loss varies as the
square of the change in airflow rate. The system curve can be super-
imposed on a fan curve, resulting in something like Fig. 5.9. For pur-
poses of illustration, this shows two different system curves. These
two curves are the recommended limits between which the fan can be
efficiently and safely used. The manufacturer’s performance tables
normally cover this area of the graph. Operation at conditions outside
the recommended limits can result in inefficiency, noise, and instabil-
ity (surge).
The point of intersection of the fan curve and the system curve de-
termines the actual operating condition—flow rate versus pressure.
This assumes that the system resistance has been accurately esti-
mated and that the fan is installed so that inlet and outlet conditions
are comparable to those used in the laboratory test. In fact, this is
seldom or never the case. AMCA Publication 201,
2
Fans and Systems,
discusses system effects in detail and includes a great deal of data on
multipliers to be used for various system effects which are too volu-
minous to include in this book. The effect is illustrated in Fig. 5.10,
which is taken from AMCA Publication 201. The theoretical fan se-
lection would be at condition 1 on the calculated duct system curve.
However, if the actual system curve is as shown by the dashed line,
then the fan selected at condition 1 will actually perform at condition
4, with a higher pressure and lower flow than the design values. To
get the design airflow rate, the fan will have to be speeded up to get
to condition 2. This might not be possible with the original fan and
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102 Chapter Five
Figure 5.9 Recommended performance of a typical centrifugal fan. (Reprinted from
AMCA Publication 201-90, Fans and Systems, with written peermission from Air Move-
ment and Control Association, International, Inc.)
horsepower selection, and a different size fan will be needed. If the
problem is discovered after installation, it could be very costly to fix.
The most common design and installation errors relate to fan inlet
and outlet conditions. The ideal in both cases is a gradual transition
with no turns close to the fan. Turning vanes must be provided in
inlet duct elbows. An inlet condition that creates a swirling motion in
the direction of rotation will reduce the pressure-volume curve by an
amount depending on the intensity of the vortex; this is the principle
used by inlet vane dampers. A condition that causes a swirl opposite
to the direction of rotation will cause a substantial increase in horse-
power.
Installation in an intake plenum (as in most packaged HVAC sys-
tems) or discharging directly into a plenum (as in most multizone and
dual-duct systems) will affect fan performance adversely.
The performance curves indicate fan classes. Classes I, II, III, and
IV relate to structural considerations required to accommodate higher
speeds and pressures. These include stronger frames and wheels and
larger shafts and bearings. The fact that a fan has a class rating
means that it can be operated at any or all possible points within that
class. However, if a selection approaches the upper pressure limit of a
class, it would be prudent to specify a fan design in the next higher
class.
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Design Procedures: Part 3 103
Figure 5.10 Deficient duct system performance, system effects ignored. (Reprinted from
AMCA Publication 201-90, Fans and Systems with written permission from Air Move-
ment and Control Association, International, Inc.)
5.2.5 Inlet vane dampers for fan
volume control
A common method of fan volume control employs the inlet vane
damper. This consists of a ring of pie-shaped elements which open and
close in parallel. Control may be manual or automatic. When properly
installed to provide an inlet swirl in the direction of fan rotation, the
damper alters the fan performance curve as shown in Fig. 5.11. The
fan horsepower is also reduced, although not as much as would be
predicted by the fan laws, because the damper increases the system
pressure loss. Use of discharge dampers is not recommended for vol-
ume control, only for fan isolation. A variation of the inlet vane
damper concept is a cone at the fan inlet which can be moved in or
out, thereby varying the size of the fan inlet.
5.2.6 Mechanical and
structural considerations
The mounting and driving mechanism for the fan wheel entails many
mechanical and structural considerations. The bearings which support
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104 Chapter Five
Figure 5.11 Typical normalized pressure-volume curve-inlet vane control for a centrif-
ugal fan. (Reprinted from AMCA Publication 201-90, Fans and Systems with written
permission from Air Movement and Control Association, International, Inc.)
the shaft come in many kinds, depending on the speed of rotation,
weight of the fan wheel, belt tension, power transmitted, and whether
the fan wheel is overhung (Fig. 5.12) or supported between bearings
(Fig. 5.13). Sometimes three bearings are used; then alignment must
be precise. Bearing supports must be strong enough to support the
bearings without flexing. The drive shaft must be strong, true, and
rigid enough to support the fan wheel between the bearings and to
transmit the required power without undue flexing over a specified
rotational speed. All rotating shafts have a critical speed at which
excessive vibration, noise, and possible failure will occur. Many shafts
have two or more critical speeds. Sometimes the lower critical speed
is less than the normal speed range of the fan. This is satisfactory
when the fan is accelerated quickly through the critical speed. It will
not be satisfactory if the fan is to be used in a speed-controlled VAV
application.
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[...]... 22 46 23 48 24 50 25 32 14 32 14 34 15 36 16 36 16 38 17 38 17 41 18 43 19 43 19 45 20 47 21 47 21 50 22 50 22 54 24 33 13 35 14 35 14 38 15 38 15 40 16 43 17 43 17 45 18 45 18 48 19 50 20 50 20 53 21 53 21 58 23 36 13 36 13 39 14 39 14 41 15 41 15 44 16 44 16 47 17 50 18 50 18 52 19 52 19 55 20 55 20 61 22 36 12 39 13 39 13 42 14 42 14 45 15 45 15 48 16 48 16 51 17 54 18 54 18 57 19 57 19 60 20 63... ASHRAE Handbook, 1997 Fundamentals, Chap 32, Table 2 38 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 39 11 42 12 42 12 46 13 46 13 49 14 49 14 53 15 53 15 56 16 56 16 60 17 60 17 63 18 63 18 67 19 44 11 44 11 48 12 48 12 52 13 52 13 56 14 56 14 60 15 60 15 60 15 64 16 64 16 68 17 68 17 72 18 50 10 50 10 55 11 55 11 55 11 60 12 60 12 65 13 65 13 70 14 70 14 75 15 75 15 75 15 80 16 85 17 54 9 54 9 60... Design Procedures: Part 3 Design Procedures: Part 3 TABLE 5. 3 123 Equivalent Spiral Flat Oval Duct Dimensions Major axis (a), in Duct diameter, in 5 5 .5 6 6 .5 7 7 .5 8 8 .5 9 9 .5 10 10 .5 11 11 .5 12 12 .5 13 13 .5 14 14 .5 15 16 17 18 Minor axis (b), in 3 8 9 11 12 15 19 22 4 7 9 10 12 13 15 18 20 21 5 8 10 — 11 13 14 18 19 21 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16 8 9 — 11 12 14 15 17 19 20 23 25 28 30 33 36 39 45 52 59 ... 29 13 2. 25 15 6 17 7 18 7 20 8 20 8 23 9 23 9 25 10 28 11 28 11 30 12 30 12 2 .50 17 6 17 6 19 7 19 7 22 8 25 9 25 9 28 10 28 10 30 11 30 11 33 12 2. 75 Aspect ratio 18 6 21 7 21 7 24 8 24 8 27 9 27 9 30 10 30 10 33 11 33 11 3.00 21 6 21 6 25 7 25 7 28 8 28 8 32 9 32 9 35 10 35 10 39 11 3 .50 24 6 24 6 28 7 28 7 32 8 32 8 36 9 36 9 40 10 40 10 4.00 30 6 30 6 35 7 35 7 35 7 40 8 40 8 45 9 45 9 5. 00 36 6... 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 35 35 23 18 24 19 25 20 25 20 26 21 28 22 29 23 30 24 31 25 31 25 33 26 34 27 35 28 36 29 36 29 39 31 26 17 26 17 27 18 29 19 30 20 30 20 32 21 33 22 35 23 35 23 36 24 38 25 39 26 39 26 41 27 44 29 26 15 28 16 30 17 30 17 32 18 33 19 35 20 35 20 37 21 39 22 39 22 40 23 42 24 42 24 44 25 47 27 28 14 30 15 32 16 32 16 34 17... 14 11 14 11 15 12 16 13 18 14 19 15 20 16 20 16 21 17 1. 25 9 6 11 7 12 8 12 8 14 9 15 10 17 11 17 11 18 12 20 13 21 14 21 14 23 15 24 16 1 .50 Equivalent Rectangular Duct Dimensions 11 6 11 6 12 7 14 8 14 8 16 9 18 10 18 10 19 11 21 12 23 13 23 13 25 14 26 15 1. 75 12 6 14 7 14 7 16 8 18 9 18 9 20 10 20 10 22 11 24 12 24 12 26 13 28 14 2.00 14 6 14 6 16 7 16 7 18 8 20 9 20 9 23 10 25 11 25 11 27 12 27... website Design Procedures: Part 3 Design Procedures: Part 3 121 tions, and many equipment elements may contribute a large amount of leakage Any air leak means a loss of energy—not only the thermal energy required to heat or cool the air but also the fan work required to move the air 5. 3.8 Duct design velocities A very simple example of duct layout and sizing is shown in Figs 5. 24 and 5. 25 and Table 5. 4.. .Design Procedures: Part 3 Design Procedures: Part 3 1 05 Figure 5. 12 SISW centrifugal fan with overhung wheel 5. 2.7 Axial fans Axial-flow fans impart energy to the airstream by giving it a swirling motion Straightening vanes must be provided in the tubular housing to improve flow and efficiency for use with duct systems, as shown in Fig 5. 14 Belt or direct drive may be... Use as given at the website TABLE 5. 4 Calculations for Fig 5. 24 Design Procedures: Part 3 124 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies All rights reserved Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website Design Procedures: Part 3 Design Procedures: Part 3 1 25 As can be seen, even a simple system... 11 3 .50 24 6 24 6 28 7 28 7 32 8 32 8 36 9 36 9 40 10 40 10 4.00 30 6 30 6 35 7 35 7 35 7 40 8 40 8 45 9 45 9 5. 00 36 6 36 6 42 7 42 7 42 7 48 8 48 8 54 9 6.00 42 6 42 6 49 7 49 7 49 7 56 8 56 8 7.00 48 6 48 6 56 7 56 7 56 7 64 8 8.00 Design Procedures: Part 3 116 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies All . 95
Chapter
5
Design Procedures: Part 3
Air-Handling Systems
5. 1 Introduction
In most HVAC systems, the final energy transport. website.
Design Procedures: Part 3 1 05
Figure 5. 12 SISW centrifugal fan with overhung wheel.
Figure 5. 13 DIDW centrifugal fan with wheel between bearings.
5. 2.7
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