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Sensors Applications Volume 1 Sensors in Manufacturing Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs: 3-527-29558-5 (Hardcover); 3-527-60002-7 (Electronic) Sensors Applications Upcoming volumes: · Sensors in Intelligent Buildings · Sensors in Medicine and Health Care · Sensors in Automotive Technology · Sensors in Aerospace Technology · Sensors in Environmental Technology · Sensors in Household Appliances Related Wiley-VCH titles: W. Göpel, J. Hesse, J. N. Zemel Sensors Vol. 1–9 ISBN 3-527-26538-4 H. Baltes, W. Göpel, J. Hesse Sensors Update ISSN 1432-2404 Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs: 3-527-29558-5 (Hardcover); 3-527-60002-7 (Electronic) Edited by H. K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Series Editors: J. Hesse, J. W. Gardner, W. Göpel Sensors Applications Volume 1 Sensors in Manufacturing Weinheim – New York – Chichester – Brisbane – Singapore – Toronto Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs: 3-527-29558-5 (Hardcover); 3-527-60002-7 (Electronic) Series Editors Prof. Dr. J. Hesse Carl Zeiss Postfach 1380 73447 Oberkochen Germany Prof. J.W. Gardner University of Warwick Division of Electrical & Electronic Engineering Coventry CV 7AL United Kingdom Prof. Dr. W. Göpel { Institut für Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie Universität Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 8 72076 Tübingen Germany Volume Editors Prof. Dr. H.K. Tönshoff Institut für Fertigungstechnik und Spanende Werkzeugmaschinen Universität Hannover Schloßwender Str. 5 30159 Hannover Germany Prof. I. Inasaki Faculty of Science & Technology Keio University 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku Yokohama-shi Japan Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Cataloguing-in- Publication Data A catalogue record is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek © WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH D-69469 Weinheim, 2001 All rights reserved (including those of translation in other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, mi- crofilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered na- mes, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. printed in the Federal Republic of Germany printed on acid-free paper Composition K+V Fotosatz GmbH, D-64743 Beerfelden Printing Betz-Druck, D-64291 Darmstadt Bookbinding Wilhelm Osswald & Co., D-67433 Neustadt ISBN 3-527-29558-5 n This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors and publish er do not warrant the information contained therein to be free of er- rors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate. Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs: 3-527-29558-5 (Hardcover); 3-527-60002-7 (Electronic) As the use of microelectronics became increasingly indispensable in measure- ment and control technology, so there was an increasing need for suitable sen- sors. From the mid-Seventies onwards sensors technology developed by leaps and bounds and within ten years had reached the point where it seemed desirable to publish a survey of what had been achieved so far. At the request of publishers WILEY-VCH, the task of editing was taken on by Wolfgang Göpel of the Univer- sity of Tübingen (Germany), Joachim Hesse of Carl Zeiss (Germany) and Jay Ze- mel of the University of Philadelphia (USA), and between 1989 and 1995 a series called Sensors was published in 8 volumes covering the field to date. The material was grouped and presented according to the underlying physical principles and reflected the degree of maturity of the respective methods and products. It was written primarily with researchers and design engineers in mind, and new devel- opments have been published each year in one or two supplementary volumes called Sensors Update. Both the publishers and the series editors, however, were agreed from the start that eventually sensor users would want to see publications only dealing with their own specific technical or scientific fields. Sure enough, during the Nineties we saw significant developments in applications for sensor technology, and it is now an indispensable part of many industrial processes and systems. It is timely, therefore, to launch a new series, Sensors Applications. WILEY-VCH again commis- sioned Wolfgang Göpel and Joachim Hesse to plan the series, but sadly Wolfgang Göpel suffered a fatal accident in June 1999 and did not live to see publication. We are fortunate that Julian Gardner of the University of Warwick has been able to take his place, but Wolfgang Göpel remains a co-editor posthumously and will not be forgotten. The series of Sensors Applications will deal with the use of sensors in the key technical and economic sectors and systems: Sensors in Manufacturing, Intelligent Buildings, Medicine and Health Care, Automotive Technology, Aerospace Technology, Environmental Technology and Household Appliances. Each volume will be edited by specialists in the field. Individual volumes may differ in certain respects as dic- tated by the topic, but the emphasis in each case will be on the process or system in question: which sensor is used, where, how and why, and exactly what the ben- efits are to the user. The process or system itself will of course be outlined and V Preface to the Series Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs: 3-527-29558-5 (Hardcover); 3-527-60002-7 (Electronic) the volume will close with a look ahead to likely developments and applications in the future. Actual sensor functions will only be described where it seems neces- sary for an understanding of how they relate to the process or system. The basic principles can always be found in the earlier series of Sensors and Sensors Update. The series editors would like to express their warm appreciation in the col- leagues who have contributed their expertise as volume editors or authors. We are deeply indebted to the publisher and would like to thank in particular Dr. Peter Gregory, Dr. Jörn Ritterbusch and Dr. Claudia Barzen for their constructive assis- tance both with the editorial detail and the publishing venture in general. We trust that our endeavors will meet with the reader’s approval. Oberkochen and Conventry, November 2000 Joachim Hesse Julian W. Gardner Preface to the SeriesVI Manufacturing technology has undergone significant developments over the last decades aiming at improving precision and productivity. The development of nu- merical control (NC) technology in 1952 made a significant contribution to meet- ing these requirements. The practical application of NC machine tools have stim- ulated technological developments that make the tools more intelligent, and al- lows the machining process to be carried out with higher reliability. Today, thanks to the significant developments in sensor and computer technologies, it can be said that the necessary tools are available for achieving the adaptive control of manufacturing processes, assisted by monitoring systems, which was a dream in the 1950’s. For the following reasons, monitoring technology with reliable sensors is be- coming more and more important in modern manufacturing systems: · Machine tools operate with speeds that do not allow manual intervention. How- ever, collisions or process failures may cause significant damage. · Manufacturing systems have become larger in scale, and monitoring of such large-scale systems is already beyond the capability of human beings. · Increase of labor costs and the shortage of skilled operators calls for operation of the manufacturing system with minimum human intervention; this requires the introduction of advanced monitoring systems. · Ultra-precision manufacturing can only be achieved with the aid of advanced metrology and process monitoring technology. · The use of sophisticated machine tools requires the integration of monitoring systems to prevent machine failure. · Heavy-duty manufacturing processes with higher energy consumption should be conducted with minimum human intervention, from the safety point of view. In addition, · Environmental consciousness in the manufacturing of today requires monitor- ing emissions from the process. This book deals with monitoring technologies in various manufacturing pro- cesses, and aims to provide the latest developments in those fields together with VII Preface to Volume 1 of “Sensors Applications” the necessary principles behind these developments. We are convinced that the readers of this book, both in research institutes and in industry, can obtain infor- mation necessary for their research and developmental work. The editors wish to thank the specialists who contributed their expertise and forbearance during the various stages of preparation. In addition to the assistance of the authors, we would like to thank the staff of Wiley-VCH for their support. Hannover and Yokohama, November 2000 Hans Kurt Tönshoff Ichiro Inasaki VIII Preface to Volume 1 of “Sensors Applications” List of Contributors XVII 1 Fundamentals 1 1.1 Roles of Sensors in Manufacturing and Application Range 1 I. Inasaki, H. K. Tönshoff 1.1.1 Manufacturing 1 1.1.2 Unit Processes in Manufacturing 2 1.1.3 Sensors 3 1.1.4 Needs and Roles of Monitoring Systems 4 1.1.5 Trends 5 1.1.6 References 6 1.2 Principles of Sensors for Manufacturing 6 D. Dornfeld 1.2.1 Introduction 6 1.2.2 Basic Sensor Classification 10 1.2.3 Basic Sensor Types 13 1.2.3.1 Mechanical Sensors 13 1.2.3.2 Thermal Sensors 17 1.2.3.3 Electrical Sensors 17 1.2.3.4 Magnetic Sensors 18 1.2.3.5 Radiant Sensors 18 1.2.3.6 Chemical Sensors 18 1.2.4 New Trends – Signal Processing and Decision Making 19 1.2.4.1 Background 19 1.2.4.2 Sensor Fusion 21 1.2.5 Summary 23 1.2.6 References 23 1.3 Sensors in Mechanical Manufacturing – Requirements, Demands, Boundary Conditions, Signal Processing, Communication 24 T. Moriwaki 1.3.1 Introduction 24 1.3.2 Role of Sensors and Objectives of Sensing 24 1.3.3 Requirements for Sensors and Sensing Systems 27 IX Contents Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH ISBNs: 3-527-29558-5 (Hardcover); 3-527-60002-7 (Electronic) 1.3.4 Boundary Conditions 31 1.3.5 Signal Processing and Conversion 32 1.3.5.1 Analog Signal Processing 32 1.3.5.2 AD Conversion 34 1.3.5.3 Digital Signal Processing 36 1.3.6 Identification and Decision Making 39 1.3.6.1 Strategy of Identification and Decision Making 39 1.3.6.2 Pattern Recognition 40 1.3.6.3 Neural Networks 41 1.3.6.4 Fuzzy Reasoning 42 1.3.7 Communication and Transmission Techniques 43 1.3.8 Human-Machine Interfaces 44 1.3.9 References 45 2 Sensors for Machine Tools and Robots 47 H.K. Tönshoff 2.1 Position Measurement 47 2.2 Sensors for Orientation 58 2.3 Calibration of Machine Tools and Robots 60 2.4 Collision Detection 62 2.5 Machine Tool Monitoring and Diagnosis 65 2.6 References 70 3 Sensors for Workpieces 71 3.1 Macro-geometric Features 71 A. Weckenmann 3.1.1 Mechanical Measurement Methods 72 3.1.1.1 Calipers 72 3.1.1.2 Protractors 73 3.1.1.3 Micrometer Gages 73 3.1.1.4 Dial Gages 75 3.1.1.5 Dial Comparators 76 3.1.1.6 Lever-type Test Indicators 76 3.1.2 Electrical Measuring Methods 76 3.1.2.1 Resistive Displacement Sensors 77 3.1.2.2 Capacitive Displacement Sensors 77 3.1.2.3 Inductive Displacement Sensors 78 3.1.2.4 Magnetic Incremental Sensors 81 3.1.2.5 Capacitive Incremental Sensors 81 3.1.2.6 Inductive Incremental Sensors 82 3.1.3 Electromechanical Measuring Methods 83 3.1.3.1 Touch Trigger Probe 84 3.1.3.2 Continuous Measuring Probe System 84 3.1.4 Optoelectronic Measurement Methods 86 3.1.4.1 Incremental Methods 86 ContentsX [...]... of sensing in manufacturing by way of a background and then the state of sensor technology in general The section finishes with some insight into the future trends in sensing technology, especially semiconductor-based sensors 1.2 Principles of Sensors in Manufacturing In- process sensors constitute a significant technology, helping manufacturers to meet the challenges inherent in manufacturing a new... manufacturing environment because of recent developments and trends in machining technology and machine tool design (high-speed machining and hard turning, for example) Numerous different sensor types are available for monitoring aspects of the manufacturing and machining environments The most common sensors in the industrial machining environment are force, power, and acoustic emission (AE) sensors. .. achievable has been increased as shown in Figure 1.1-2 [2] The increase in productivity in terms of cutting speed is depicted in Figure 1.1-3 [2] The development of new cutting tool materials has made it possible, together with the improvements in machine tool performance, to reach cutting speeds higher than 1000 m/min Fig 1.1-1 Unit processes in manufacturing 1.1 Roles of Sensors in Manufacturing and Application... Relating to Emission Measuring Techniques in Dry Machining 364 Sensor Principles 364 Description of Selected Measuring Techniques 365 Example of Application 366 Dry Machining and Minimum Lubrication 367 XV XVI Contents 5.4.2.1 5.4.2.2 5.4.3 5.4.3.1 5.4.3.2 5.4.4 5.4.4.1 5.4.4.2 5.4.4.3 5.4.5 Measuring Temperatures in Dry Machining Operations 367 Measuring Droplets in Minimal Lubrication Mode 368 Turning... for manufacturing process monitoring, a distinction is to be made on the one hand between continuous and intermittent systems and on the other between direct and indirect measuring systems In the case of continuously measuring sensor systems, the measured variable is available throughout the machining process; intermittently measuring systems record the measured variable only during intervals in the... machining and hard turning, for example) Numerous different sensor types are available for monitoring aspects of the manufacturing and machining environments The most common sensors in the industrial machining environment are force, power, and acoustic emission (AE) sensors This section first reviews the classification and description of sensor types and the particular requirements of sensing in manufacturing. .. parts using machinery, typically machine tools, are called unit processes Typical unit processes are casting, sintering, forming, material removing processes, joining, surface treatment, heat treatment, and so on Figure 1.1-1 shows various steps and unit processes involved in manufacturing which are dealt with in this book The unit processes can be divided into three categories [1]: · removing unnecessary... Developments in Manufacturing and Their Influence on Sensors 343 Ultra-precision Machining: Nanometric Displacement Sensors 343 E Brinksmeier Optical Scales 343 Laser Interferometers 348 Photoelectric Transducers 351 Inductive Sensors 352 Autocollimators 352 References 353 High-speed Machining 354 H K Tönshoff Micro-machining 357 M Weck Environmental Awareness 363 F Klocke Measurement of Emissions in the... Inasaki, I., JSME Int., Series 3 34 (4) (1991), 546–552 5 Sakakura, M., Inasaki, I., Ann CIRP 42 (1) (1993), 379–382 1.2 Principles of Sensors in Manufacturing D Dornfeld, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA 1.2.1 Introduction New demands are being placed on monitoring systems in the manufacturing environment because of recent developments and trends in machining technology and machine tool design... Problems in Cutting and Need for Monitoring 203 Sensors for Process Quantities 204 Force Sensors 204 Torque Sensors 209 Power Sensors 211 Temperature Sensors 211 Vibration Sensors 214 Acoustic Emission Sensors 215 Tool Sensors 220 Workpiece Sensors 225 Chip Control Sensors 228 Adaptive Control Systems 231 Intelligent Systems for Cutting Processes 233 References 234 Abrasive Processes 236 I Inasaki, . (Electronic) Sensors Applications Upcoming volumes: · Sensors in Intelligent Buildings · Sensors in Medicine and Health Care · Sensors in Automotive Technology · Sensors. Sensors Applications Volume 1 Sensors in Manufacturing Sensors in Manufacturing. Edited by H.K. Tönshoff, I. Inasaki Copyright © 2001