Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - N ppt

... these two individuals and their children. The traditional leader of each sib was the chief, who was the oldest brother or son of the oldest female clan member most closely related to the founding ancestress. The chief con- trolled land use and usufruct, organized work groups, ap- proved marriages, settled disputes, oversaw rituals, organized clan contributions to ceremonial exchanges, and...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... in continual evolu- tion, influenced in part by dynamic interaction with speakers of Papuan languages, and there is much controversy among linguists regarding lower-level groupings, especially for those Austronesian languages spoken in Melanesia. The largest and most complex major group of languages in Oceania consists of the Papuan languages. There are over 700 distinct Papuan langua...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... 60 'JUClrUxt by Western standards, children are indulged. Parents fre- quently play with children, and they do not order them about; even small children enjoy a considerable freedom of will and action. Children learn by watching and imitating the actions of their elders. They have very few 'duties." Young men pass through a series of age grades that traditionally included...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... a lesser extent than in the highlands. Although most Usino men have engaged in contractual labor on the coast for a year or two, at present Usino access to wage labor is minimal. Until the late 1980s, attempts at commercial pro- duction of coffee, rice, and peanuts were unsuccessful, and cattle projects have engendered few profits. Industrial Arts. Usino people traditionally manufactured ca...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... the repetitive agricultural chores such as weeding. Men worked with stone and wood, constructing tools and weapons, and women worked with clay and plant fi- bers, making pots, mats, baskets, and fiber skirts. Today, fam- ilies continue to cooperate in agriculture. Land Tenure. In traditional times Kanaks maintained in- dividual rights to land. They were of four types: (1) First occupation r...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... the islands when they wished to com- municate, and European missionaries chose Bau for transla- tion of the Bible. Europeanized Bauan, sometimes also called Old High Bauan, has now become the basis for Standard Fi- jian, which is in the Oceanic Branch of Austronesian languages. History and Cultural Relations Although Fiji has been inhabited for at least 3,500 years, much intervening histo...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... an able leader. Sociopolitical Organization Political Organization. In the precolonial era law and pol itics were dominated by competition, and often violent con- flict, between big-men who were at the centers of factions fo- cused on their own little sinangge. These men were expected to protect their followers from external violence and to assist them in getting revenge or compensation; th...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... has been continued and intensified by the Indonesian govern- ment since 19 62. ETHNONYMS: Akhuni, Konda, Ndani, Pesegem Orientation Identification. Dani is a general term used by outsiders for peoples speaking dosely related Papuan (Non-Austronesian) languages in the central highlands of Irian Jaya, Indonesia (formerly Netherlands New Guinea, West New Guinea, Irian Barat). Location. The va...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... a person leads to emo- tional distress among others and is spontaneously and cere- monially lamented, sometimes for months. The corpse tradi- tionally was placed in a tree and protected against rainfall with bark and leaves. After mummification the body was put under the roof of a garden house. Later, in a third ceremony, the bones were placed under rock shelters. The complete cycle of ce...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

... the early 1950s, a Lutheran mission was founded at Tarabo, the colonial government opened a patrol post at Okapa, and various new garden crops, domesticated animals, items of clothing, and other manufactured goods were intro- duced. Also, subsistence activities began to be augmented by a nascent commercial economy. The first coffee seedlings were planted in 1955, and Fore men began to ventu...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20