Types of language learning strategies

PART II DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

I.1.4. Types of language learning strategies

Over the years, a number of researchers have attempted to develop a classification scheme of language learning strategies. Rubin (1987) classified language learning strategies into three major kinds: learning strategies, (interactional) communication strategies, and social strategies. Learning strategies are further categorized into cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies include: clarification or verification, guessing or inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization, and monitoring. Metacognitive strategies involve a conscious overview of the learning process and making decisions about planning, monitoring, or evaluating the best way to study. Social strategies consist of questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, and listening to language media. (p. 23)

In contrast to Rubin's classification (1987), according to O'Malley and Chamot (1990), language learning strategies are differentiated into three primary categories: cognitive, metacognitive and social mediating. Cognitive strategies include inferencing, deducing, rehearsal, transfer, imagery, summarizing, organization, and elaboration. Metacognitive

(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research(LUAN.VAN.THAC.SI).UET.it.sophomores''.English.learning.strategies.for.reading.skills.an.exploratory.research

strategies include monitoring, selective attention, planning, and evaluation. Social mediating strategies include questioning for clarification. (p. 33)

However, the scheme of language learning strategies provided by Oxford (1990) is the most comprehensive detailed system of six primary strategies classified as direct or indirect (p.37 & p. 135). The reason is that Rubin's classifications (1987) were entirely empirically based. The system she proposed was based on interviews, classroom observations, diaries which the researcher analyzed and categorized subjectively. O'Malley and Chamot's classification (1990) emerged from interviews with experts and novices and theoretical analyses of reading comprehension and problem solving. However, there still exist some overlaps between identified strategies. Only Oxford (1990) provided a truly comprehensive overview with a (hierarchical) ordering of language learning strategies.

Furthermore, the experience of many teachers indicates that the strategy system which is going to be discussed below is a very useful way to examine such language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 22). This is also proved by a recent research conducted by Hsiao and Oxford (2002). They conducted a comparative study of three classification systems used in the field (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1981) and found that the Oxford (1990) system was superior in accounting for the variety of strategies reported by language learners.

Direct strategies

Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called direct strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the target language. They help learners store and retrieve new information in the target language, enable them to understand and produce the new language by many different means.

Direct strategies are divided into three main groups: memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies.

 Memory strategies

Memory strategies are language learning strategies helping learners store and retrieve new information of the target language. Memory strategies are subdivided into four main types.

 Creating mental linkages strategies include "grouping," "associating or elaborating," and "placing new words into the context."

 Applying images and sounds strategies include "using imaginary," "semantic mapping," "using keywords," and "representing sounds in memory."

 Reviewing well strategy includes only the strategy of "structured reviewing."

 Employing action strategies include "using physical response or sensation," and

"using mechanical techniques."

 Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies are unified by a common feature: manipulation and transformation of the target language by the learners. They are also typically found to be the most popular strategies with language learners. Cognitive strategies can be classified into four main types.

 Practicing strategies include "repeating," "formally practicing with sounds and writing systems," "recognizing and using formulas and patterns," "recombining and practicing naturalistically."

 Receiving and sending messages strategies include "getting the idea quickly," and

"using resources for receiving and sending messages."

 Analyzing and reasoning strategies include "reasoning deductively," "analyzing expressions," "analyzing contrastively," "translating," and "transferring."

 Creating structure for input and output strategies include "taking notes,"

"summarizing," and "highlighting."

 Compensation strategies

Compensation strategies enable learners to use the new language for either compensation or production despite limitations in knowledge. Compensation strategies are subdivided into two main types.

 Guessing intelligently in listening and reading strategies include "using linguistic clues," and "using other clues."

 Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing strategies include "switching to the mother tongue," "getting help," "using mime or gesture," "avoiding communication

partially or totally," "selecting the topic," "adjusting and approximating the message,"

"coining words," and "using circumlocution or synonym."

Indirect strategies

Language learning strategies that indirectly involve the target language are called indirect strategies. They are strategies that underpin the business of language learning, that allow learners to control their own cognition, help learners learn through interactions with others as well as regulate their emotions, motivations and attitudes.

Indirect strategies are divided into three main groups: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies.

 Metacognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies are used to plan, monitor, and evaluate language learning.

Metacognitive strategies are subdivided into three main types.

 Centering your learning strategies include "overviewing and linking with already known material," "paying attention," and "delaying speech production to focus on listening."

 Arranging and planning your learning strategies include "finding out about language learning," "organizing," "setting goals and objectives," "identifying the purpose of a language task (purposeful listening/ reading/ speaking/ writing,)" "planning for a language task," and "seeking practice opportunities."

 Evaluating your learning strategies include "self-monitoring," and "self- evaluating."

 Affective strategies

Affective strategies are strategies through which language learners can gain control over their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values. Affective strategies are classified into three main types.

 Lowering your anxiety strategies include "using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation," "using music," and "using laughter."

 Encouraging yourself strategies include "making positive statements," "taking risks wisely," and "rewarding yourself."

 Taking your emotional temperature strategies include "listening to your body,"

"using a checklist," "writing a language learning diary," and "discussing your feelings with someone else."

 Social strategies

Social strategies are those activities in which learners deliberately seek opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge. Social strategies are subdivided into three main types.

 Asking questions strategies include "asking for clarification or verification," and

"asking for correction."

 Cooperating with others strategies include "cooperating with peers," and

"cooperating with proficient users of new language."

 Empathizing with others strategies include "developing cultural understanding,"

and "becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings."

Relationship between direct and indirect strategies

Direct and indirect language learning strategies are said to support and interact with each other. Oxford (1990) compared the relationship between direct and indirect strategies to that between the performer and the director in the theater. (p. 14) Direct strategies are like the performers in a stage play, working with the language themselves in a variety of specific tasks and situations. Indirect strategies for general management of learning can be likened to the director of the play. The performer works closely with the director for the best possible outcome. Likewise, the director is an internal guide and support to the performer. The functions of both the performer and the director gradually become part of the learners since they accept increased responsibility for learning. Moreover, it is essential to note that the direct strategies work best when supported by indirect strategies and vice versa, indirect strategies work best when used in combination with direct strategies.

To sum up, it is important to remember that any current understanding of language learning strategies is in its infancy, and any existing system of strategies is only a proposal to be tested through practical classroom use and through research. At this stage in the short history of language learning strategy research, there is no complete agreement on exactly what language learning strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be

defined, demarcated and categorized; and whether it is - or ever will be - possible to create a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of language learning strategies. Therefore, classification conflicts are inevitable.

Affective strategies Lowering your anxiety