1 Steven Seidman and Jeffrey C. Alexander (eds.). The N ew Social Theory Reader. New York: Routledge. 2001. Tr. 29.
Nhiem vu phe phan kep cua khoa hoc. Ve mat ly luan, Habermas co dong gop quan trong trong viec lam r5 ban chat va nhiem vu kep cua ly thuyet phe phan. Theo ong, ly thuyet khoa hoc xa hoi co nhiem vu phe phan kep1, mot mat, nham vao hien thiic xa hoi va mat khac nhltm vao chinh cac khoa hoc dang phan anh cai hien thiic xa hoi do. Ly thuyet phe phan b&ng cach chi ra nhiing thieu sot, nhting nghich ly, nhting cai phien dien trong ca hai mat nghien ciiu do. Tinh than phe phan neu tren the hien ro trong quan niem cua Habermas ve hang loat cac chu de quan trong cua ddi song xa hoi hien dai tti cach to chiic lao dong den he tii tiidng va he van hoa.
Habermas nghien ctiu hoc thuyet Marx va diia ra cach phan loai xa hoi co nhting diem gan giong vdi Marx.
Habermas phan biet: (1) hinh thai xa hoi khong co giai cap - xa hoi nguyen thuy va (2) hinh thai xa hoi co giai cap. Nhiing
1 Jurgen Habermas viet: (ly thuyet) “No phe phan cac khoa hoc xa hoi dUcfng dai va hien thiic xa hoi ma cac khoa hoc do c in n im bat. No phe phan hien thiic cua cac xa hoi phat trien do cac xa hoi do khong phat huy day du tac dung cua cac tiem nang hoc tap s in co trong van hoa xa hoi, nhiing lai tap trung s ic life vao viec lam tang sU p h ic tap mot cach khong kiem soat diidc... Ly thuyet cung phe phan cac cach tiep can khoa hoc-xa hoi da khong co kha nang lam sang to nhiing ngich ly cua sU duy ly hoa xa hoi boi vi chung bien cac he thong xa hoi phiic tap thanh doi tiidng nghien ciiu t i goc do triiu tiidng nay hoac goc do triiu tudng kia m a khong tinh den boi canh lich s i hinh thanh linh \oic doi tiidng nghien c i u (vdi nghia la xa hoi hoc phan tii). Ly thuyet phe phan xa hoi khong co hen quan gi t6i cac diidng hii6ng nghien c iu da diidc thiet lap vdi tu cach la ngUdi canh tranh;
xuat phat t i quan niem c ia no ve s i xua't hien cua cac xa hoi hien dai, no co nhiem vu giai thich n h in g han che cu the va n h in g quyen tUdng doi c i a cac cach t;iep can do”. Jurgen Habermas. The Tasks o f a Critical Theory o f Society, trong James Farganis. Readings in Social Theory: the Clasic Transition to Post-Modernism. M cGraw-Hill, Inc. 1993. Tr. 339.
khac vdi Marx, Habermas chia xa hoi co giai cap thanh hai loai la (1) xa hoi truyen thong gom xa hoi cd dai - xa hoi chiem hufu no le va xa hoi phong kien, va (2) xa hoi hien dai gom xa hoi tu ban chu nghia tii do, xa hoi tii ban chu nghia co to chutc va xa hoi hau tii ban chu nghia.
Habermas cho rang Marx mdi chi phan tich loai xa hoi tii ban chu nghia tii do d the ky 19 ma chiia biet tdi nhufng hinh thiic xa hoi tii ban chu nghia phat trien trong the ky 20.
Habermas cho rang cac cuoc cach mang xa hoi la san pham cua nhiing cuoc khung hoang, nhiing mau thuan nay sinh trong long he thong xa hoi.
TUOng tu nhu Weber, Habermas phe phan cai xa hoi dang bi quan lieu hoa den mufc bien thanh cai “cui sat” (Iron Cage) - theo cach noi cua Weber, bop nghet con ngUdi. Trong cai xa hoi do, kieu thong tri quan lieu diia vao to chiic thay the cho kieu thong tri diia vao uy liic cua ca nhan va kieu thong tri diia vao truyen thong. Trong xa hoi hien dai, cac ca nhan khong phai phuc tung ngUdi khac theo kieu thong tri truyen thong ma phuc tung va tuan thu cac quy dinh va luat phap theo kieu thong tri duy ly.
Habermas de cao vai tro cua he tu tudng, y thiic va he gia tri, chuan miic trong viec duy tri sii on dinh xa hoi. Ong cho rang cac mau thuan tham chi sii doi khang trong xa hoi khong nhat thiet tao ra sii bien doi cua he thdng xa hoi neu nhu he cac gia tri va chuan miic khac nhau van cd the cung ton tai ma khdng gay ra tac dong nguy hai nao ddi vdi sii on dinh cua he thong xa hoi. Dieu nay cd ve duy tam chu nghia theo cach ndi cua triet hoc, nhUng lai giai thich dUdc vi sao cd kieu cau true xa hoi tri tre keo dai rat lau va v in ton tai dUdc
bat chap nhiing biidc thang tram, khung hoang cua no.
Phan loai hanh dong xa hoi. Can cti vao nhu c iu xa hoi, Habermas phan biet ba loai hanh dong. Thii nhat, xa hoi co nhu cau san xuat vat chat va tai san xuat xa hoi nen tat yeu co lao dong san xuat vdi tu cach la phUdng tien song, la hanh dong san xuat tao ra cac san pham dap iing loai nhu cau nay.
Thii hai, xa hoi cd nhu cau ly giai, thdng hieu cac trang thai y thiic, do dd tat yeu xuat hien hoat dong giao tiep vdi phUdng tien cd ban la ngon ngii. Thti ba, xa hoi cd nhu cau thuc hien nhiing Udc nguyen ve sU tu khang dinh ca nhan, tu do ca nhan va phat trien nang luc, do dd tat yeu xuat hien hoat dong chinh tri vdi phUdng tien chu yeu la quyen lUc.
Tudng iing vdi ba loai hanh dong neu tren la ba loai tri thiic: (1) tri thiic khoa hoc (diia vao quan sat), (2) tri thiic lich sti (diia vao su cam thu) va (3) tri thtic phe phan (diia vao sii dau tranh).
Tuy nhien, theo thuyet duy ly, Habermas chia toan bo hanh dong cua con ngudi thanh hai loai la: (1) hanh dong duy ly muc dich ttic la lao dong va (2) hanh dong tUdng tac bieu trung dua vao ngon ngti hudng vao sii hieu biet li n nhau ttic la hanh dong giao tiep. Lao dong hudng vao san xuat vat chat va tuan thu cac quy tic ky thuat, con giao tiep thi hudng vao ddi song van hoa-xa hoi va tuan thu cac chuan mUc da dUdc xa hoi tao ra.
Habermas con goi loai hanh dong thti nhat la hanh dong cdng cu (Instrumental action) dac trUng bdi sii phan biet rd rang phUdng tien vdi muc dich va loai hanh dong thti hai la hanh dong giao tiep (Communicative action) vdi dac trUng la
muc tieu khong tach rdi khoi cac qua trinh ngon ngii ma thong qua no muc tieu dat dUdc. Tudng iing vdi hai loai hanh dong xa hoi la hai the gidi: the gidi he thong (System world) va the gidi cuoc song (Life w orld)1.
Theo Parsons va Durkheim, Habermas cho rin g xet cho cung thi trat tii xa hoi dUdc thiet lap thong qua hanh dong giao tiep va quyen lUc kinh te, chinh tri2. NhUng xuat hien mot van de nghiem trong can phe phan trong xa hoi hien dai la giao tiep trd thanh mot bo phan cua he thong hanh dong duy ly muc dich. Nghia la giao tiep bi tha hoa, bi bien chat va xa hoi bi chi phoi bdi loai hanh dong thuan tuy duy ly nhu Weber da tiing ndi tdi.
Chu nghia duy ly ky thuat/cong cu, ndi theo thuyet hanh dong xa hoi cua Weber, tao ra loai sung bai ky thuat, sung bai khoa hoc. Chu nghia duy ly dd cho rin g moi van de xa hoi deu cd the giai quyet b in g nhiing thu tuc ky thuat, b&ng thu tuc cua to chiic quan lieu ky thuat (Bureaucrat-tecnocrat).
Chu nghia duy ly doi lap vdi tu duy, vdi ly tri. Duy ly chi quan tam tdi liia chon phUdng tien, cdng cu de dat muc dich cuc bo; trong khi ly tri ddi hdi phai xac dinh dUdc muc tieu chung, ldi ich chung va van de chung can giai quyet.
1 Craig Calhoun and Joseph Karaganis. Critical Theory, trong George Ritzer and Barray Sm art (eds.). Handbook o f Social Theory. London: Sage Pubhcations Inc. 2001. Tr. 192; Richard Harvey Brown and Douglas Goodman. Jurgen Habermas' Theory o f Communicative Action: A n Incomplete Project, trong Ritzer, G. and Barry Smart (eds.). Handbook o f Social Theory. London: Sage Publications. 2001. Tr. 204.
2 Jurgen Haberm as. Contribution to Discourse - Theory o f Law and Democracy, trong S. Seidman and J. C. Alexander (Eds.). The N ew Social Theory Reader. New York:: Routledge. 2001. Tr. 30-38.
Cdi nhin phe phan sii phat trien xa hoi. Habermas chi ra mot sd xu hudng phat trien xa hoi hien dai. Trong so dd, quan trong nhat la: (1) linh vUc cdng ngay mot thu hep, (2) sU can thiep cua nha nUdc vao kinh te ngay mot tang len, (3) Uu the va vai trd cua khoa hoc ngay mot ldn trong viec kiem soat lao dong xa hoi. Tuy nhien, sU bieu hien cua nhiing xu hudng nay khac nhau tuy vao mdi xa hoi cu the.
Trong qua trinh phat trien cua minh, xa hoi khdng tranh khoi nhiing cuoc khung hoang. Tudng iing vdi ba tieu he thong cd ban cua cau true xa hoi la kinh te, chinh tri-hanh chinh va van hoa, Habermas chi ra ba loai khung hoang la:
(1) khung hoang kinh te" khi he thong nay khdng cung cap du cac san pham dap iing nhu cau cua moi ngUdi, (2) khung hoang tinh duy ly khi he thong chinh tri-quan ly khi khdng cd du cac quyet dinh c in thiet, va (3) khung hoang nhu cau dong cd khi tieu he thong nay khdng sti dung dUdc cac bieu tudng can thiet de tao ra y nghia can thiet cho moi ngudi tham gia day du vao cac qua trinh cua xa hoi.
Tuy nhien, khung hoang kinh te trong xa hoi hien dai khdng phai la khung hoang thieu, ma la khung hoang thiia keo theo sU ro'i loan san xuat. Do dd, su bien do’i xa hoi cd the bat nguon tti viec chan hung linh vUc cdng trong khu vUc chinh tri-hanh chinh-quan ly de lam sao kh&c phuc dUdc khung hoang ve mat phap ly. Dong thdi tang cUdng hanh dong giao tiep trong cac linh vUc lao dong, cung cd" quan he xa hoi va gia dinh, ttic la khac phuc sU khung hoang ve dong cd, nhu cau xa hoi.
Mot dieu rat ro rang la, theo Habermas, ldi ich vat chat (tai chinh) khdng con la dong cd duy nhat thtic day su bien
doi kinh te-xa hoi va dong cd ca nhan, cu the la dong cd lam giau cho ban than khong con la dong liic phat trien duy nhat cua xa hoi. Linh vUc dich vu cong (giao due, y te, the thao, giai tri, cd sd ha tang, v.v.) trd thanh cd sd va nguon luc cua sU phat trien xa hoi. Khoa hoc - nhat la sU sung bai khoa hoc khong chi co chiic nang hdp phap hoa yeu to' duy ly cong cu ma no con dong vai tro thiet che hoa vi the quyen uy cua nhom cac chuyen gia, cac nha chuyen mon, cac nha tri thiic.
Xa hoi hien dai phUdng Tay khong tranh khoi nhiing mau thuan noi tai cua no, nhving mau thuan nay thay hinh, doi dang do co nhiing thay doi ve noi dung va cach to chiic xa hoi. Theo Habermas, nhiing mau thuan mdi chu yeu nay sinh trong linh vUc tai san xuat xa hoi, linh vUc van hoa-tinh than cua xa hoi1.
Mau thuan mdi ddi hdi phai cd cach giai quyet mdi thich
1 Habermas viet: ‘Trong mot hay hai thap ky qua, cac mau th u ln nay sinh trong cac xa hoi phat trien phuong Tay da bien dang theo nhieu cach khac nhau so vdi mau thuan dUdc thiet che hoa ve sU phan phoi theo kieu nha nUdc phuc ldi. Cac mau thuan nay khong con nam trong linh vUc san xuat vat chat; chung cung khong con dien ra theo kenh dang phai va cac hiep hoi;
va chung cung khong con diu di bang cach den bu nQa. M a nhiing mau thuln mdi nay xuat hien trong linh vUc tai san xuat van hoa, hoi nhap xa hoi va xa hoi hoa; chung dien ra dudi hinh thiic dau tranh can thiet che - hay it nhat ngoai nghi triidng; va nhiing thieu sot cd ban phan anh sii cu the hoa cac linh viic hanh dong diidc cau true hoa theo kieu giao tiep se khong cd phan iing gi doi vdi dong tien va quyen luc niia. Van de khong phai la sii den bu ma nha midc phuc ldi cd kha nang thiic hien ma la bao ve va phuc hoi nhiing loi song dang bi de doa. Ndi n g ln gon, cac mau thuan mdi khong b i t nguon tii nhiing van de phan phoi ma tii nhiing van de hen quan tdi trat tu, cdng th ic cua loi song”. Jurgen Habermas. The Tasks o f a Critical Theory o f Society, trong James Farganis. Readings in Social Theory: the Clasic Trandition to Post-Modernism. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1993.
Tr. 351.
hdp. Habermas cho rang nhiing mau th u ln mdi khong hoan toan nay sinh tti sii bat binh ding ve ldi ich kinh te ma tti nhieu linh vUc khac1. Dieu do co nghia la cau true phan tang xa hoi da thay doi theo hiidng khoang cach giau ngheo dan ra nhiing so" ngiidi thuoc tang day xa hoi giam va so ngiidi trung liiu tang hdn so vdi triidc day. Do vay, cac mau thuan mdi trong xa hoi tii ban chu nghia diidng dai dUdc giai quyet theo cach mdi goi la kieu “chinh tri mdi” vdi sii ting ho chu yeu tti phia tin g ldp trung lUu trong xa hoi.
Tom lai, theo cac ly thuyet thuoc triidng phai phe phan xa hoi, trong sii phat trien xa hoi va trong ddi song lao dong sinh hoat cua con ngiidi tdn tai nhting mau thuan, nhting van de can cd cai nhin phe phan. Trong sd" dd, dang chti y nhat la:
• Thti nhat, mau thuan do mot ben la sii duy ly- cong nghe tim cach khai thac tdi da cac nguon liic va giam chi phi va mot ben la sii duy ly-van hoa tim cach md rong quyen tii do ca nhan va giam ap liic bi tri.
1 Habermas viet tiep: “Kieu mau thuan m6i nay la sU bieu hien cua “mot cuoc cach mang im lang” trong he cac gia tri va thai do ma R. Inglehart da quan sat trong toan bo cac bo phan dan ctf. Cac nghien ciiu cua Hildebrandt va Dalton, va Barnes va Kaase, khang dinh co sii thay doi trong cac chu de tii "chinh tri cu” (xoay quanh cac van de kinh te va an ninh xa hoi, an ninh noi vu va an ninh quan sii) sang “chinh tri m d i'. Cac van de mdi phai giai quyet hen quan tdi chat liidng cuoc song, quyen binh dang, sU khang dinh ca nhan, sii tham gia va quyen con ngUdi. Theo ngon ngul cua thong ke hoc xa hoi, kieu “chinh tri cu" diidc sii i n g ho manh me cua gidi chu, cong nhan va cac thiidng gia trung liiu, trong khi do kieu “chinh tri m&T dude stf ung ho chu yeu t i phia cac tang ldp trung lUu mdi, t i the he tre hdn va t i cac nhom cd trinh do hoc van”. Jurgen Habermas. The Tasks o f a Critical Theory o f Society, trong James Farganis. Readings in Social Theory: the Clasic Trandition to Post-Modernism. M cGraw -Hill, Inc. 1993. Tr. 351.
• Thii hai, mau thuan nay sinh tii Uu the cua sU duy ly ky thuat-cong nghe gan lien vdi vi the vUdt troi va ap dao cua giai tang tren so vdi cac giai tang dudi trong cau true phan tang xa hoi.
• Thii ba, mau thuan bat nguon tijf sU duy ly ky thuat-cong nghe dUdc thiet che hoa mot cach co he thong thong qua he tu tUdng cua giai cap cam quyen luon co xu hudng bop meo thuc tai khach quan vi ldi ich rieng cua giai cap ho.
• Thii tu, mau thuan nay sinh tii thuc te la cac thiet che va cac hinh thiic to chiic lao dong trd thanh cong cu the hien tmh duy ly ky thuat-cong nghe va ban than sU duy ly nay trd thanhTethuoc vao cac cong cu, phUdng tien do.
Nhin chung, cac quan niem va cac ly thuyet phe phan deu hudng vao vach tran nguyen nhan sau xa cua cac mau thuan xa hoi la dong cd lam giau, dong cd ldi nhuan cua cach to chiic ddi song xa hoi noi chung va sU phan cong lao dong xa hoi noi rieng. Cac ly thuyet nay phe phan cach giai quyet mau th u ln giiia hanh dong lao dong va hanh dong giao tiep sao cho co ldi cho loai hanh dong lao dong chti khong phai la co ldi cho loai hanh dong giao tiep. Tiic la phe phan cai xu hudng vi ldi nhuan cua gidi chu, gidi tu ban ma coi nhe loai hanh dong giao tiep. Do do, nay sinh mau th u ln giiia mot ben la sU giau co ve ddi song kinh te tieu dung va mot ben la sU ngheo doi ve ddi song tinh than cua con ngUdi.
Can ghi nhan va danh gia cao tinh than cdi md day tinh