Traditionally, lectures have involved the one-way transmission of course content from academics to students often in large lecture groups. Many academics still see the lecture as an efficient way, in terms of time usage, to deliver large volumes of core knowledge.
If it is done well then it can be effective but the quality of the student learning is heavily dependent on the quality of delivery; Chapter 5 elaborates on some of these themes in more detail. Students can become passive recipients of information, leading to failure to engage with the subject or gain much from the learning experience. In response to this, and to make use of new technologies, the lecture format in engineering has seen some changes in recent years as many lecturers have introduced more opportunities for student interaction, participation and activities. For example, skeletal notes may be used to improve attention by the students, which have key pieces of information missing, such as parts of an equation, diagram or graph. Tests and quizzes can be effective in making the lecture a more interactive process and provide feedback on the students’
understanding. Personal Response Systems and facilities offered through Virtual Learning Environments(VLEs) can be used to give immediate feedback. Lectures should motivate and challenge students and relevant photographs and video clips may be useful, as demonstrated in Case study 1 from the University of Bath.
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Fluid Mechanics with Historical Perspective is part of a series of modules covering the broader subject of thermodynamics at the University of Bath. At the start of each hour-long lecture the tutor gives a 15-minute input on an aspect of discoveries and developments related to flight. This historical background usually consists of a five-minute PowerPoint presentation, followed by a short video clip providing the context for the formulae and calculations that are to be explained in the lecture. For example, at the start of a lecture on compressible flow of gases, the presentation is on the story of the first supersonic flight. The tutor developed 24 ‘mini-history lectures’ to accompany the lecture series which he hopes will make this largely theoretical-based subject more interesting for his students.
The lectures are supported by a set of notes given out at the beginning of each topic. The notes include visual images, as well as brief notes on the historical perspective shown and the theoretical concepts explored. The notes are not, however, complete and students are expected to bring them to the lecture each week to fill in the blanks.
A large collection of materials has been developed over a period of time, and the improved access to resources via the internet has helped to develop the library further. ‘Remembering back to the lectures that I enjoyed at university, I wanted to add something interesting to these lectures.’
Students traditionally regard mathematically based subjects as difficult. The tutor aims to expose students to the colourful history of engineering through using videos and images in the lectures. It is hoped that seeing real applications will help students to understand the fundamentals of the science and mathematics being taught. Feedback from students indicates that the inclusion of historical examples made the course more interesting and they welcomed the ‘real examples of theory in action’, which made the theoretical elements easier to understand. They felt more motivated and were keen to learn because they had more interest in the subject. Students also commented on the lectures expanding ‘beyond just engineering into social and political issues’, with the tutor being happy to discuss the impact of engineering on society.
The students also appreciated the good-quality, up-to-date notes produced by the tutor and found that the gaps in the notes made them concentrate in the lectures. The reference sections in the notes helped if they wanted to learn more or go back over theory, and as the notes were illustrated with pictures and anecdotes, the students were more likely to read through them again.
(Gary Lock, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath) Engineering ❘ 267
Case study 1: 21STcentury engineering with a historical perspective
Enquiry-based learning
Engineering is a practical subject and the engineering degree curriculum has for many years contained project work where students undertake substantive pieces of work either individually and/or in groups (see also Chapter 11). In recent years it has been recognised that students engage better with the student-centred learning which projects provide, and often develop a deeper approach to learning. It reflects an old adage that students learn by doing. Consequently there has been an increase in the proportion of the curriculum delivered through enquiry-based learning.
Approaches to enquiry-based learning include (CEEBL, 2007):
• project-based learning (research-based approach);
• problem-based learning (PBL)(exploration of scenario-driven learning experience);
• investigation-based learning (fieldwork or case study adapted to discipline context).
Project-based learning provides students with the opportunity to bring together knowledge-based skills from a number of subject areas and apply them to real-life problems. It also helps to reinforce existing knowledge and provides a context to the theory. Engineering is a subject which lends itself well to this type of learning where projects will typically address authentic, real-world problems (Crawford and Tennant, 2003; Project Squared, 2003).
Projects can operate within hugely diverse contexts and along a broad continuum of approaches. They may be used by a single lecturer or course team within a department that mainly uses more traditional methods of teaching, or they may be linked to a complete restructuring of the learning experience of all students. The choice of type of project work will depend on the intended learning outcomes, and on whether you are looking for depth or breadth of knowledge-based skills. Projects may be open or closed;
individual or group; conducted over a day or a year; multidisciplinary; or industry based.
Projects are often well suited to applied topics, where different solutions may have equal validity. Students will be required to discover new information for themselves, and to use that knowledge in finding solutions and answers, but students will need support to become independent learners.
Problem-based learninghas been introduced in some engineering departments on the grounds that for an equivalent investment of staff time, the learning outcomes of students are improved, as students are better motivated and more independent in their learning and gain a deeper understanding of the subject (see Case study 4). It is a style of learning in which the problems act as the context and driving force for learning (Boud and Feletti, 1997). It differs from ‘problem-solving’ in that the problems are encountered before all the relevant knowledge has been acquired, and solving problems results in the acquisition of knowledge and problem-solving skills. (In problem-solving, the knowledge acquisition has usually already taken place and the problems serve as a means to explore or enhance that knowledge.)
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The curriculum is organised around the problems. So problems have to be carefully matched to the desired learning outcomes. Where PBL has been fully taken on board there are no lectures; instead students, usually working in groups, engage in self-directed learning and the tutor acts as a facilitator, mentor or guide (see also Chapter 26).
There are some disadvantages to using a wholly PBL approach. The content covered in this way is reduced, compared to the amount that can be covered in lecture-based courses. In addition, many institutions may be short of the sort of space that helps PBL to work well (see Learning spaces, p. 272 below). It also requires considerable investment of staff time to manage the groups and to develop effective problems, but many academics think the initial investment is worth the effort.
The CDIO Initiative is an innovative educational framework for producing the next generation of engineers. In the education of student engineers it stresses engineering fundamentals set in the context of Conceiving – Designing – Implementing – Operating real-world systems and products. It was designed as a framework for curricular planning and outcome-based assessment that is universally adaptable for all engineering schools.
The framework was initially developed in the USA and has been adopted by a number of universities around the world either as part of a complete redesign of the curriculum or as new elements in a modified curriculum (CDIO Initiative, 2007).
Practical work
Laboratory classes have always been an integral part of the curriculum, reflecting again that engineering is a practical subject. Lab sessions range through simple routine testing to give hands-on experience of how materials behave, to tests that prove the validity and limitations of theoretical concepts and culminate in research projects where students are devising their own laboratory testing programmes to determine new knowledge.
Laboratory sessions are by their very nature student centred and deliver a wide range of learning outcomes that may include:
• gaining practical skills
• gaining experience of particular pieces of equipment/tools
• planning a testing programme
• making links between theory and practice
• gathering data
• analysis of data
• making observations
• forming and testing hypotheses
• using judgement
• developing problem-solving skills
• communicating data and concepts
• developing personal skills
• developing ICT skills
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• conducting risk assessments
• developing health and safety working practices.
Laboratories are expensive to provide, maintain and equip. They also require high levels of staff contact time. It is therefore important that laboratory sessions are well planned and integrated into the curriculum if maximum benefit is to be gained from this expensive resource. Learning materials such as virtual labs are becoming available which have an important role in supplementing lab work but are unlikely to replicate the full benefits of the hands-on practical session in the foreseeable future.
e-learning
Engineers have long been at the forefront of change, exploiting advances in technology and related innovations, and now the computer is very much an integral part of life for the professional engineer. Hence many engineering academics have embraced the concept of e-learning which is about facilitating and supporting student learning through the use of information and communication technologies. Many different approaches to learning and teaching are being taken within engineering to keep pace with rapidly changing technical developments. It is important to consider and evaluate the pedagogical benefits to both students and staff. Examples of good e-practice within engineering may be found on the Engineering Subject Centre’s website, such as: mobile and wireless technologies (use of PDAs, podcasts, mobile phones), online communication tools (e-mail, bulletin boards), flexible interactive computer-based learning (use of software, audio and video conferencing), and delivery through virtual learning environments (see also Chapter 7).
The VLE, BlackBoard, is used as the sole means for delivering content and most of the assessments for a course taken by students studying a variety of degrees in Electrical and Electronic Engineering or Communication Engineering.
The tutor wanted to find a flexible way of delivering his course without dis- advantaging students. The bulk of the content delivery is now through 40 short lectures, which comprise an audio-video recording of the lecturer, slides, and a transcript of the lecture, supported by handouts. The recordings are accessible at any time, and can be paused, rewound, replayed and so on under the control of the student. The online resources also include other video clips and animations, video contributions from an external expert, 35 formative 270 ❘ Teaching in the disciplines
Case study 2: Implementations of optical fibre communications module in a virtual learning
environment
assessments (quizzes), online summative assignments, links to selected external resources, and a message board for queries.
The feedback from the students indicates that they are appreciative of the flexibility offered by the online course and of being able to work at a time and pace that suits them, with the majority finding that using the VLE increased their motivation to learn. The VLE enabled the use of different resource types and greater interaction with the tutor through the discussion board than was typical in a lecture.
For further information see http://www.engsc.ac.uk/downloads/optical.pdf.
(John Fothergill, Department of Engineering, University of Leicester)
Web-based laboratories
As described above, practical work is a key component of engineering degrees and laboratory sessions are one of the principal ways that engineers learn how to apply theory.
However, with the increase in class sizes and the drain on resources to provide up-to-date equipment, universities and colleges are increasingly using web-based laboratories (also referred to as virtual or remote labs or e-practicals). Virtual labs can also help to develop laboratory skills in distance learning students and disabled students who may not be able to access traditional laboratories. The practical sessions can use a range of technologies including online movie clips, simulations and labs controlled over the internet. While virtual approaches cannot replace real-world experimentation in technology and engineering, if a sound pedagogic approach is adopted, they can be a valuable aid to understanding.
e-assessment or computer-aided assessment
There are plenty of examples of innovative and effective practice in e-assessment which can have advantages over traditional methods including greater speed of marking and immediate feedback, as well as increasing usability and accessibility for a diverse range of students. Case study 3 describes such an example.
In response to concerns about the poor examination pass rates and also about the students’ understanding of the subject in a first-year Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics module, the tutors introduced student-unique, weekly- assessed tutorial sheets. Each week a new set of assessment sheets, made unique
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Case study 3: Improving student success and retention through greater participation and tackling student-
unique tutorial sheets
by embedding random factors into each student’s tutorial sheet, are delivered to the students via the university’s bespoke Learning Environment. The students have one week to submit their answers to a dedicated computer program, written specifically to support the requirements of this assessment. The process of marking and providing feedback is automated, using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.
The use of computer technologies made the regular and student-unique approach a viable proposition. The tutors found that short and regular assessments with prompt group and individual feedback can have a positive impact on student learning. This is evidenced by the increased levels of student engagement with the subject and also in their improved performance in the final examination. The students are positive about this uniqueness of the assessment which also indicates their willingness to help combat collusion and answer sharing.
More information available from http://www.engsc.ac.uk/resources/wats/
downloads/wats_report.pdf.
(Mark Russell and Peter Bullen, School of Aerospace, Automotive and Design Engineering, and the Blended Learning Unit, University of Hertfordshire)
Learning spaces
The majority of university buildings were designed at a time when the delivery of the curriculum focused heavily on the lecture and so most have a stock of tiered lecture theatres with fixed seating. These will have been updated to provide better visual aids such as data projection and still allow appropriate space for the traditional lecture.
However, as we have described above, delivery methods have moved towards more student-centred practices that require flat-floored, well-resourced flexible spaces, and often these may be in short supply. It follows that if students are set more project and PBL work, often in groups, they need space for informal working sessions. New lecturers should consider the learning space available and its effective use when planning their teaching.
There has been a move to redesign learning spaces in recent years, for example the interactive classroom at Strathclyde (see Case study 4). The Centres for Excellence in Teaching and Learning initiative in England included funding for the provision of new learning spaces, and for research and evaluation into their use. Some examples relevant to engineering may be found at the Engineering CETL at Loughborough University (http://engc4e.lboro.ac.uk/); InQbate at the University of Sussex (www.inqbate.co.uk);
and the Reinvention Centre at the University of Warwick and Oxford Brookes (www.warwick.ac.uk/go/reinvention).
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The Department of Mechanical Engineering in the University of Strathclyde has embarked upon a radical change in its teaching methods for first-year students. The aim was to introduce active and collaborative learning in the large lecture room through the use of peer instruction – a version of Socratic Dialogue (‘teaching by questioning’) as developed by Professor Eric Mazur at Harvard University. The standard lecture/tutorial/laboratory format of traditional instruction was replaced by a series of two-hour active learning sessions involving short mini-lectures, videos, demonstrations and problem-solving, all held together by classroom questioning and discussion. A custom-built lecture theatre – the InterActive ClassRoom – was constructed in 1998 to enable this style of teaching. The classroom – which holds 120 students – was designed for group seating, and, to assist peer instruction, included the first Classroom Feedback System in Europe, now replaced by the Personal Response System (PRS). Peer instruction was initially used in introductory mechanics and thermo-fluids classes, but was quickly extended to mathematics. This accounted for half the compulsory engineering elements of the first year.
The following year a version of PBL (mechanical dissection) was introduced into the design classes. Now students work in groups of four in the design classes, and also work together in the same groups in the InterActive ClassRoom. Finally in 2000 Strathclyde built the first of its new Teaching Clusters – a managed suite of teaching rooms that includes the first Teaching Studio in the UK. The Studio is based on a design developed by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in the USA. The first-year students now use the studio for engineering analysis classes and their learning experience is a mix of peer instruction, PBL and studio teaching.
Overall the change to active teaching styles, with collaborative learning, has been a huge success – in terms of both student performance and retention.
An independent evaluation was carried out. Student reaction included the following:
‘With 100 people in the class you normally just sit there without being involved . . . and add to your notes. In that class everybody’s involved, you have to think about what’s being said . . . you have to stay awake…but it’s more fun, you get more from it . . . better than just sitting taking notes.’
‘What fun it can be, it can be light-hearted, yet you still learn a lot.’
‘How quickly a two-hour class passed compared to other one-hour lecture classes.’
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Case study 4: New approaches to teaching and learning in engineering (the NATALIE Project)