It is self-evident that experience gained through life, education and work should play a central role in learning; this, constructivist, perspective on learning is called experiential learning. The most widespread theory of learning from experience is associated with David Kolb (1984), who developed ideas from earlier models of experiential learning;
the Kolb model appears most frequently in the literature.
An appreciation of experiential learning is a necessary underpinning to many of the different types of teaching and learning activity discussed elsewhere in this book, including work-based (or placement) learning, action learning, teaching laboratory workand reflective practice. The provision of vicarious experience, such as by using case studies or role play, and many types of small group use experiential learning as an underlying rationale.
Experiential learning is based on the notion that understanding is not a fixed or unchangeable element of thought and that experiences can contribute to its forming and re-forming. Experiential learning is a continuous process and implies that we all bring to learning situations our own knowledge, ideas, beliefs and practices at different levels of elaboration that should in turn be amended or shaped by the experience – if we learn from it.
The continuously cycling model of learning that has become known as the ‘Kolb Learning Cycle’ requires four kinds of abilities/undertaking if learning is to be successful (see Figure 2.1).
Understanding student learning ❘ 15
Concrete experience (CE)
Active experimentation (AE)
Reflective observation (RO)
Abstract conceptualisation (AC)
Figure 2.1 The Kolb Learning Cycle
First, learners are involved fully and freely in new experiences (CE). Second, they must make/have the time and space to be able to reflect on their experience from different perspectives (RO). Third, learners must be able to form, re-form and process their ideas, take ownership of them and integrate their new ideas and understanding into sound, logical theories (AC). It is these middle two elements in the cycle that can be strongly influenced by feedback from others. This moves towards the fourth point (AE), using the enhanced understanding to make decisions and problem-solve, and test implica- tions and usage in new situations. The experiential cycle does not simply involve having an experience, or ‘doing’, but also reflecting, processing, thinking and furthering understanding, and usually ‘improvement’ the next time something is encountered or done.
By extension, this cyclical process has a part to play in even the most abstract and theoretical disciplines where the academic is concerned to help the learner acquire the
‘tools of the trade’ or the modes of thinking central to the discipline, such as in philosophy or literary criticism.
The teacher needs to be aware that in practice learners do not cycle smoothly through the model, but may get stuck, fail to progress or ‘jump about’. The way in which the learner resolves these tensions will have an effect on the learning outcome and the development of different types of strength in the learner and, as will be seen, may pertain to personality traits and/or disciplinary differences.
Reflectionis a key part of experiential learning as it ‘turns experience into learning’
(Boud et al., 1985). Because of misunderstanding, overuse and its passive and negative connotations, reflection has had a worse press than it deserves, but it is also true that the research evidence about how it works is lacking. To learn from experience we need to examine and analyse the experience; this is what reflection means in this context. It may be a similar action to the one that we may consciously or subconsciously use when taking a deep approach to learning.
Reflection and reflective practice are not easy concepts. With regard to higher education they may be applied to the learning of students, and equally to the professional development of the lecturer (see Part 3). Schửn (1987), in examining the relationship between professional knowledge and professional competence, suggests that rather than looking to another body of research knowledge, practitioners should become more adept at observing and learning through reflection on the artistry of their own particular profession. ‘Reflection on practice’ (on experience) is central to learning and development of knowledge in the professions. Recognised ‘experts’ in the field exhibit distinct artistry.
This artistry cannot be learned solely through conventional teaching methods – it requires role models, observation of competent practitioners, self-practice, mentors, experience in carrying out all the tasks of one’s job and reflection upon that practice. Support in developing reflection is often necessary, for example by using prompts and feedback.
Such reflective practice is a key aspect of lifelong learning.
16 ❘ Teaching, supervising, learning
Teaching of patient-centred communication skills at Imperial is supported by repeated opportunities for students to practise, using role play. Role play provides a safe environment for students without risk of harm to a real patient. The effectiveness of role play is maximised by taking time for briefing (to put the role play in context and identify students’ individual needs) and debriefing (to provide opportunity for reflections and feedback) (Nestel and Tierney, 2007).
Towards the end of Year 1, we provide three occasions for role play, using these
‘concrete experiences’ to encourage experiential learning. Students role play with each other, perform three five-minute interviews with volunteers and interview a professional ‘simulated patient’ (SP).
After each role play, students are encouraged to reflect. For the role plays with each other and volunteers, they complete ‘boxes’ in their notes in response to the following questions:
• What communication skills did you use effectively?
• What communication skills did you use less effectively?
• How will you maintain your strengths?
• How will you develop your weaknesses?
Reflection is supported by feedback. Students are given guidance on giving and receiving feedback so that they can provide effective feedback to each other; the volunteers give feedback on a short rating form.
However, the richest opportunity for students to receive feedback (and thus be guided in their reflections) is after their interview with a professional SP.
Each student has 20 minutes with an SP and an experienced facilitator. After interviewing the SP, the student is encouraged to reflect on his or her own perfor- mance before receiving feedback from the SP. SPs and facilitators are trained to give feedback that is high challenge/high support to maximise benefit. The facilitator then summarises the students’ reflections and the SP’s feedback and
Understanding student learning ❘ 17
Interrogating practice
Call to mind some occasions when conscious reflection on something has enhanced your understanding or ability to carry out a particular task.
Case study 2: Using experiential learning and reflection with first year medical students
learning communication skills
encourages the students to consider how they will maintain and develop their skills and apply them in future interviews with patients (Kolb’s abstract conceptualisation, active experimentation). To encourage active experimentation, students may be offered the chance to repeat sections of the role play to see if a different approach would have been more effective.
By encouraging reflection after role plays we aim to develop students’ attitudes to reflective practice so that they will continue to use it in encounters with real patients, not only while they are studying, but throughout their professional lives.
(Dr Tanya Tierney, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London)