Without doubt, one of the dominant trends of our times is globalization—the accelerating interconnectedness of human activities, ideas, and cultures. For centuries, global connections have brought people together through migration, trade, and the exchange of ideas. What is new about the current scene is the increasing intensity, speed, extent, and impact of connectedness, to the point where its consequences are profoundly changing many human enterprises. These changes are most evident in the globalization of economies, cultural patterns, political arrange- ments, environmental resources, and pollution.
For many in the world, globalization has brought un- deniable improvements in well-being and health: economic exchanges have connected people to global markets, infor- mation exchanges have improved public health practices, and agricultural research has improved crop yields. For others, however, globalization has brought the dilution or even destruction of cultural norms and religious ideals while doing little to improve economic well-being. Whether helpful or harmful, globalization is taking place, so it is important to recognize its impacts and to identify where those impacts are harmful or undesirable. Moving toward a sustainable future will occur in the context of globalization.
Social Changes
The major elements of globalization may be the economic reorganization of the world and the changes wrought by social media. These transformations have been facilitated by the globalization of communication, whereby people are in- stantly linked through the Internet, satellite, and cable. Other components of the global economic reorganization are the relative ease of transportation and financial transactions and the dominance of transnational corporations, such as Nokia, Roche, Philips Electronics, and Nestlé. All of these changes occur within the context of the demographic patterns of ur- banization, mass migration, and aging populations in some countries. Moreover, economic changes bring cultural, envi- ronmental, and technological changes in their wake. Western diet, styles, and culture are marketed throughout the world, to the detriment of local customs and diversity.
Environmental Changes
On the one hand, the increased dissemination of information has made it possible for environmental organizations and gov- ernment agencies to connect with the public and has enabled people to become politically involved with current issues. It has they do the things that are compatible with that care. These
include participating fully in recycling efforts, purchasing cars that pollute less and use less energy, turning off the lights in an empty room, refusing to engage in the conspicu- ous consumption constantly being urged on them by com- mercial advertising, supporting organizations that promote sustainable practices, staying informed on environmentally sensitive issues, and expressing their citizenship by voting for candidates who are sympathetic to environmental concerns and the need for sustainable development.
Justice and Equity
The stewardship ethic is concerned not only with caring for the natural world, but also with establishing just relation- ships among humans. This concern for justice is seen in the United States in the environmental justice movement. One major problem addressed by the movement is environmental racism—the placement of waste sites and other hazard- ous industries in towns and neighborhoods where most of the residents are nonwhite. The flip side of this problem is seen when wealthier, more politically active, and often pre- dominantly white communities receive a disproportionately greater share of facility improvements, such as new roads, public buildings, and water and sewer projects.
People of color are seizing the initiative to correct these wrongs, creating citizen groups and watchdog agencies to bring effective action and monitor progress. For example, the city of Chattanooga, Tennessee, recently underwent a huge renewal that changed its reputation from being “the dirtiest city in America” to the “Renaissance City of the South.” Yet most of this renewal bypassed Chattanooga’s Southside, an area that is populated largely by African Americans. In 2010, Southside community members formed Chattanooga Organized for Action (COA), a group that has quickly become a voice for social justice. Among other actions, COA has organized the restoration of funding for family-planning programs for low-income and minority women and forced a more thorough cleanup of a former chemical plant site in Southside.
Justice is not only about racial concerns. Injustices can oc- cur wherever people lack equal protection from environmental degradation. In some countries, extreme poverty is brought on by injustices within societies where wealthy elites maintain political power and, through corruption and nepotism, steal money and give corporations preferential treatment. It takes significant government reform to turn this situation around so that the poor can achieve justice in securing property rights and gain greater access to ecosystem goods and services.
Some of the poverty of the developing countries can be attributed to unjust economic practices of the wealthy indus- trialized countries. The current pattern of international trade is an example. The industrialized countries have maintained inequities that discriminate against the developing countries by taxing and restricting imports from the developing coun- tries and by flooding the world markets with agricultural products that are subsidized (and, therefore, priced below real cost). This is the number one issue at every meeting of the World Trade Organization, where global trade agreements
20 CHAPTER 1 Science and the Environment
also enabled consumers to find more environmentally friendly consumer goods and services, such as shade-grown coffee and sustainably harvested timber. On the other hand, globaliza- tion has contributed to some notoriously harmful outcomes, such as the worldwide spread of emerging diseases such as the SARS virus, H1N1 swine influenza, and HIV/AIDS; the global dispersion of exotic species; the trade in hazardous wastes; the spread of persistent organic pollutants; the radioactive fallout from nuclear accidents; the exploitation of oceanic fisheries;
the destruction of the ozone layer; and global climate change.
These outcomes must be addressed in the move toward a sus- tainable future.
A new Commitment
People in all walks of life—scientists, sociologists, workers and executives, economists, government leaders, and clergy, as well as traditional environmentalists—are recognizing that “business as usual” is not sustainable. Many global trends are on a collision course with the fundamental sys- tems that maintain our planet as a tolerable place to live. A finite planet cannot continue to grow by 80 million persons annually without significant detrimental effects. The cur- rent degradation of ecosystems, atmospheric changes, losses of species, and depletion of water resources inevitably lead to a point where resources are no longer adequate to sup- port the human population without significant changes in the way we live.
The news is not all bad, however. Food production has improved the nutrition of millions in the developing world, life expectancy continues to rise, and the percentage of in- dividuals who are desperately poor continues to decline.
Population growth rates continue to fall in many countries.
A rising tide of environmental awareness in the industrial- ized countries has led to the establishment of policies, laws, and treaties that have improved environmental protection.
Professional groups such as ecologists, climatologists, and engineers are proposing scientific and technological solu- tions to environmental problems. Figure 1–12 shows one such technological solution—one of the many types of fuel- efficient stoves developed for use in places where wood is used for cooking.
Numerous caring people are beginning to play an im- portant role in changing society’s treatment of Earth. For example, in January 2011, a group of 70 engineers pro- duced a report proposing engineering development goals and stated, “. . . the engineers of today, and the future, will need to be innovative in the application of sustainable solutions and increasingly engaged with the human fac- tors that influence their decisions.”9 Likewise, people in business have formed the Business Council for Sustainable Development, economists have formed the International Society for Ecological Economics, religious leaders have formed the National Religious Partnership for the
Environment, and environmental philosophers are calling for a new ethic of “caring for creation.” Higher education is involved in transforming society as well. The Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) promotes sustainability and its teaching in thou- sands of institutions.
The movement toward sustainability is growing as peo- ple, businesses, and governments slowly but surely begin to change direction. Some examples include: wind energy is the fastest-growing source of electricity; cap-and-trade markets are being established to curb carbon emissions; car-sharing companies are springing up in our cities; chemists have embraced the initiatives of “green chemistry”; and microfi- nance is opening up opportunities for small-scale businesses, thereby helping very poor people. In addition, “green invest- ments” are attracting increasing capital, and the nations of the world are working on agreements to bring down green- house gas emissions. These developments show that people’s behavior toward the environment can be transformed from exploitation to conservation.
ConCEPt CHECk Name two patterns of globalization that make environmental sustainability more difficult and two mod- ern developments that make it easier. ☐ ✓
9Institution of Mechanical Engineers, “Population: One Planet, Too Many People?”
(2011), accessed September 21, 2011, http://www.imeche.org/Libraries/ 2011_
Press_Releases/Population_report.sflb.ashx.
Figure 1–12Innovative technologies helping sustainability.
WorldStove is one organization that is producing innovative technologies that meet realworld needs. This Rwandan woman is cooking with one of their stoves; the stove is designed to use local waste products for fuel and to produce smokeless heat.
Review Questions 21
reviSiting the themeS
It will be our practice in each chapter to revisit the three themes that we have introduced in the chapter, summarizing the ways in which the chapter topics have connected to the themes and sometimes adding editorial comments.
SuStainability
many unsustainable practices result from a combination of cumulative impacts and the unintended conse
quences of human actions. The story of DDT and other chemicals broadcast over vast areas of land is a great example of an unsustainable action. at first, spraying the land with DDT seemed a wise way to protect food supplies and eliminate malaria; we did not expect that DDT would affect the food chain. as we gathered more information, we discovered the unintended consequences of those actions. likewise, as the human population expands, the effects of individuals are multiplied. Both natural and managed ecosystems are being pressed to provide increasing goods and services. We may have reached the limit of some resources, and most of the ways we use the other resources are currently unsustainable. For example, we extract and burn fossil fuels much faster than they could ever be replenished, bringing on global climate change. In addition, we tolerate the contin
ued loss of biodiversity. many individuals suffer from hunger and other effects of poverty. The millennium Development Goals moved us in a better direction, but there is still a great deal to do, thus the need for the post2015 development agenda and the Sustainable Develop
ment Goals. a movement toward sustainability is under way, and it will occur within the context of globalization.
SOund SCienCe
Our brief look at the global environment was based largely on the information uncovered by sound
science. The millennium Ecosystem assessment and other assess
ments demonstrate the crucial value of scientific study of the status of and trends in global ecosystems and the ways in which human systems affect them. Environmental science itself is a multidisci
plinary enterprise, one that can readily lead to disputes and misuse.
To understand these, it is essential to understand the scientific method as a disciplined way to investigate the natural world. Rachel Carson is a good example of a scientist who communicated sound science to popular audiences. The research done at the Whiskey Creek Hatchery is another example of the way science can be used to answer a question. The issue of “junk science” points to the importance of a functioning scientific community and the need for an educated public able to evaluate opposing claims of scientific support for a given issue.
StewardShiP
although current cultures and religions place some value on stewardship, it is not always a fundamental part of the way we think about caring for the natural world and for our fellow humans. If it were, there would not be the widespread degradation of essential ecosystems and the devastat
ing impacts of poverty and injustice. However, many people care deeply about the natural world and its human inhabitants. Rachel Carson is an example of a person using her expertise to promote stewardship and to advocate for more sustainable policies. Ramesh agrawal and Wangari maathai also exemplify stewardship, as do the students studying forestry (see Stewardship, Protecting Forests p. 17). a s we will see throughout the book, it is no easy matter to establish a valid stewardship ethic to guide the actions and pro
grams that manage natural resources and human wellbeing for the common good.
8. Define sustainability and sustainable development. What is a sustainable society?
9. List five transitions that are necessary for a future sustain- able civilization.
10. Describe the origins of stewardship and its modern applications.
11. Give an example of an environmental injustice.
12. How does justice become an issue between the industrial- ized countries and the developing countries?
13. What is globalization? What are its most significant elements?
14. Cite some of the recent developments in the movement toward sustainability.
1. What information made Rachel Carson concerned about chemical pollution?
2. What is the paradox of human population and well-being?
3. Cite four global trends that indicate that the health of planet Earth is suffering.
4. Define environment, and describe the general development and successes of modern environmentalism.
5. What are the concepts behind each of the three unifying themes—sound science, sustainability, and stewardship?
6. Explain the role of assumptions, observation, experimenta- tion, and theory formation in the operation of scientific research and thinking.
7. Cite some reasons for the existence of controversies within science, and carefully distinguish between sound science and junk science.
review QueStiOnS
22 CHAPTER 1 Science and the Environment
3. Encourage sound science on a national level by research- ing and voting in favor of political candidates who support your environmental viewpoint. Share your views with your friends and relatives.
4. Investigate the placement of waste-treatment facilities and industrial plants in your city or community, especially if they are in the planning stage. If they are located in low- income or largely nonwhite communities, join the local population in protesting these situations.
1. Find out whether there is an environmental organization or club on your campus or in your community. Join it if there is, or help to create one if there isn’t. Once in the organiza- tion, join efforts to maintain awareness of important envi- ronmental issues and problems.
2. Write a letter to a local newspaper about an issue of sus- tainability, such as a bottle bill, curbside recycling, public transportation, or something else. Figure out what you recommend and briefly state your case.
making a differenCe
contradicting this opinion, and give your own opinion on sustainable development.
3. Study Table 1–1, pick one of the ecosystem services listed there, and investigate the reasons why it is placed where it is by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
4. Look for three articles about a current scientific issue where one reflects sound science, one reflects junk science, and one is hard to distinguish as either. Identify the fea- tures of the studies described that qualify as sound science or junk science.
1. Imagine a class debate between people representing the de- veloping countries and people representing the developed countries. Characterize the arguments of the two sides in terms of the issues surrounding population growth, en- ergy use, resource use, and sustainable development. Then describe what should be the common interests between the two.
2. Some people say that the concept of sustainable develop- ment is an oxymoron or that it represents going back to some kind of primitive living. Develop an argument
thinking envirOnmentally
Students Go to masteringEnvironmentalScience for assignments, the eText, and the Study area with animations, practice tests, and activities.
Professors Go to masteringEnvironmentalScience for automati
cally graded tutorials and questions that you can assign to your students, plus Instructor Resources.
By all measures, China has become the economic giant of the early 21st century. Take your pick: umbrellas, toys, shoes, appliances, electronics, souvenirs, clothes—chances are that they were made in China. In 2012, the Chinese econ
omy was growing at 7.8 percent, which represented a slowing from the massive growth from the late 1970s to the early 2000s, when it averaged 10% per year. In contrast, the U.S. economy grew only 2.5% in 2012 and averaged only about 3%
per year in the latter decades of the 20th century. A new Chinese middle class numbers between 100 million and 150 million. Middleclass Chinese citizens commonly own a car and an apartment and have opportunities to travel and purchase pricey consumer goods. With a population of 1.35 billion, China has a huge pool of labor. Each year millions of rural Chinese move to urban centers, attracted by jobs created by factories that spring up almost overnight. Chinese schools have created a workforce with a literacy rate that is over 95%. These changes have not come without stress. Traditions are being overthrown by the Internet, by the fierce drive to learn English, and by the social mobility that accompanies the economic boom.
Toxic Air. There are clear signs that China’s race to achieve economic superpower status carries with it some costs that go well beyond a stretching of the social fabric.
Several Chinese cities are among the most polluted cities in the world. The air is loaded with sulfur and nitrogen oxides and particulates from burning fuels, especially coal. In the last 10 years, the number of lung cancer patients has increased by 60%, although smoking rates have not increased. According to one estimate, 750,000 premature deaths occur annually because of air pollution.
Learning Objectives
2.1 Economics and the Environment:
Describe how economic activity relates to envi- ronmental goods and services, and differentiate between green and brown economies.
2.2 Resources in a Sustainable Economy: Summarize the components of the wealth a nation draws on to establish and maintain an economy, and identify new efforts to measure true economic progress.
2.3 Economy, Environment, and Ethics: Explain several examples of ethical dilem- mas posed by the eco- nomics of environmental goods and services.
2.4 Environmental Public Policy: Explain the kinds of policies employed to regulate the use of natu- ral resources and deal with pollution, and describe a typical policy life cycle.
2.5 Cost-Benefit Analysis of Environ- mental Public Policy:
Discuss how cost-benefit analysis is applied to envi- ronmental policy regula- tions, and give examples of the effects of regulations.
2.6 Getting Society to Agree on Policy:
Describe how citizens are involved in public policy, and list several interna tional policies and innovative ways in which economies can be changed in order to make them environmentally sound.
Economics, Politics, and Public Policy
Chapter
2
Harbin, Heilongjiang Province
China
▲ Chinese citizens walk through heavy smog in Harbin, northeast China’s Heilongjiang province, in October 2013.
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