Promoting language and literacy in young

CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES Promoting Language and Literacy in Young Dual Language Learners: Research, Practice, and Policy Dina C Castro,1 Mariela M Pa´ez,2 David K Dickinson,3 and Ellen Frede4 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2Boston College, 3Vanderbilt University, and 4Rutgers University ABSTRACT—Research evidence supports the importance of a high-quality early education to foster young children’s school readiness and success In particular, programs that focus on eliminating the readiness gap for young minority children, including dual language learners (DLLs), have increased in importance given the current demographic shifts in the United States and the need to promote learning in the early years This article discusses current knowledge about effective instructional strategies for promoting language and literacy development among young DLLs It presents a brief summary of research on the relationship between oral language and literacy development, reviews instructional practices and language of instruction approaches, and concludes with recommendations for policy and future research KEYWORDS—dual language learners; English language learners; bilingual learners; oral language and literacy; early education; instructional strategies; language of instruction; programing Prompted by recent policies and research on the importance of early education, the federal government and many states are making major investments in early childhood programs (Barnett, Hustedt, et al., 2007) This is occurring while enrollment of children whose primary language is not English is increasing dramatically in early childhood programs nationwide, a trend Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dina C Castro, FPG Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 105 Smith Level Rd., CB# 8180, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8180; e-mail: Dina_Castro@unc.edu ª 2011 The Authors Child Development Perspectives ª 2011 The Society for Research in Child Development projected to continue (Hernandez, 2004; Hernandez, Denton, & Macartney, 2007) This article discusses current knowledge about effective instructional strategies for promoting language and literacy development among young dual language learners (DLLs), offers policy recommendations, and identifies areas that need further research National studies show that DLL children from low-income families lag behind their peers when they enter kindergarten, even if they attended early childhood programs The gap in academic achievement widens as children grow older (e.g., Reardon & Galindo, 2006; U.S Department of Education, 2000) These findings suggest the need for high-quality early education focused on reducing the school readiness gap Such programs should utilize research-based instructional practices designed to address the specific needs of DLLs, promoting their school readiness and future school success (The Future of Children, 2005; National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics, 2007) IMPORTANCE OF ORAL LANGUAGE TO PROMOTE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Studies with monolingual English speakers have demonstrated the central role of oral language in reading and academic success Recently, some large and sophisticated studies have investigated oral language development in DLLs Reading comprehension is foundational for academic success and an important instructional goal in preschool and primary grades Comprehension becomes possible when children can decode unfamiliar words Skilled decoding requires phonemic awareness—the ability to attend to phonemes, knowledge of letters, and association between graphemes and phonemes (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998) Early decoding skills are fostered by strong oral language competence, and that language is key to subsequent reading comprehension (e.g., Dickinson, McCabe, Anastasopoulos, Peisner-Feinberg, & Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21 16 Dina C Castro et al Poe, 2003; Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard, & Chen, 2007) The size of a child’s vocabulary is important to reading comprehension, but deep knowledge of words may be particularly important (Ouellette, 2006) Bilingual children’s need for deep knowledge (Verhallen & Schoonen, 1998) may be met by teaching word meanings explicitly in different linguistic contexts, with repetition and multiple opportunities to use the words (Collins, 2005; Silverman, 2007) Longitudinal studies with monolingual English speakers find that children’s language abilities at a given time play a powerful role in shaping their subsequent reading success (Scarborough, 2001; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998, 2001) For example, research with monolingual English speakers revealed that kindergarten vocabulary predicts fourth-grade (Spira, Bracken, & Fischel, 2005) and seventh-grade (Tabors, Snow, & Dickinson, 2001) reading Likewise, preschoolers’ language skills were associated with third- and fourth-grade reading comprehension (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2005; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002) For DLLs, the development of language and literacy involves the integration of component skills (e.g., sound-symbol awareness, grammatical knowledge, vocabulary knowledge), as well as more elusive sociocultural variables Bilingual learners can and develop second language literacy while acquiring second language oral proficiency Furthermore, bilingual learners’ oral, reading, and writing skills interact with one another, creating complex relationships of mutual support (Brisk & Harrington, 2007) For example, children are exposed to language through listening and reading, which are receptive language uses, and this exposure leads to developments in speaking and writing, which are productive Moreover, reading is important for developing oral vocabulary, which in turn promotes speaking and can enhance writing Research with DLLs indicates that instruction should focus on developing oral language skills by providing rich and engaging language environments while simultaneously building early literacy skills A recent research review concluded that instruction in the key components of reading, as identified by the National Reading Panel (2000)—including phonological and phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension—benefits DLLs (August & Shanahan, 2006) However, the reviewers added: Instruction in the key components of reading is necessary—but not sufficient—for teaching language-minority students to read and write proficiently in English Oral proficiency in English is critical as well—but student performance suggests that it is often overlooked in instruction (August & Shanahan, 2006, p 4) Therefore, instruction of DLLs should emphasize the development of both oral language and early literacy skills In addition, various studies have shown that a strong basis in the first language promotes school achievement in the second language and is important to ensure that children not become alienated from their families and communities (Tabors, 1997; Wong Fillmore, 1991) Learning two languages does not cause confusion or language delays in young children, and teaching both languages actually facilitates English language learning (August & Hakuta, 1997; Bialystok, 2007) Research examining the precursors to literacy has also shown the importance of phonological awareness and print knowledge, in addition to oral language proficiency, in supporting second language development Investigations with DLLs indicate that phonological awareness skills transfer from the first to the second language (Chiappe & Siegel, 1999; Cisero & Royer, 1995) However, this transfer varies according to similarities and differences between the two languages Studies examining these relationships among bilingual children from different language groups (e.g., Chinese, Spanish, Hebrew) found that the extent of transferability of these skills depends on the relations between languages and between writing systems (Bialystok, Luk, & Kwan, 2005) Also, seeing that texts written in different ways can have the same meaning gives DLLs insight about the invariance of print Therefore, for DLLs, acquiring print knowledge in either language may facilitate the development of these abilities in the other language (Bialystok, 2007) We need further research to advance our understanding about how young DLLs from different language backgrounds develop language and literacy skills Nevertheless, there is already some knowledge that can guide the development of interventions for these populations We know, for example, that oral and written language experiences for DLLs should be regarded as an additive process, to ensure that children are able to maintain and develop their first language while learning to speak and read English We also know that there are specific language and literacy practices that can promote learning during the early years and provide a solid foundation for reading success INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES TO PROMOTE LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN YOUNG DLLS Several research syntheses have identified specific instructional practices to promote language and literacy of DLLs (August & Shanahan, 2006; Gersten et al., 2007; Slavin & Cheung, 2005) Although most of this research focuses on K–12 instruction, it has important implications for preschool education that can be summarized in three major recommendations (Goldenberg, 2008): (a) using the primary language in teaching reading skills is more effective for English reading achievement than immersing children in English; (b) high-quality early childhood practices are as beneficial for DLLs as they are for non-DLLs; however, they are not sufficient to support an equal level of academic success among DLLs; therefore, (c) instructional enhancements are necessary to support DLLs’ language and literacy development, especially when instruction is conducted only in English For most DLLs throughout the United States, language and literacy instructions occur within an English language environment, Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21 Promoting Language and Literacy in Young DLLs with monolingual English-speaking teachers If DLLs have no support in their first language, they might find it very difficult to become active classroom members This is what Tabors (1998) has defined as: the double bind of second-language learning: to learn a new language, you have to be socially accepted by those who speak the language; but to be socially accepted, you have to be able to speak the new language (p 22) General recommendations for promoting language and literacy development among DLLs include: (a) keeping consistent routines and classroom organization so that children can follow activities, feel comfortable, and become socially integrated; (b) creating language- and literacy-rich environments and using supportive methods: visual aids, gestures, emphasizing important words in a sentence, keeping the message simple, and repeating key vocabulary words; and (c) using a curriculum that helps DLLs actively participate by providing concrete experiences and materials, and being responsive to cultural and linguistic differences (Dickinson & Tabors, 2002; Tabors, 1998) Additionally, research has shown that the following general strategies can enhance and tend to be associated with improved language learning for all children: (a) extended talk on a single topic, (b) opportunities to converse with teachers, (c) exposure to sophisticated vocabulary, and (d) intellectually challenging group discussions (Dickinson, Flushman, & Freiberg, 2009) To be effective with DLLs, the implementation of these strategies should take into account children’s proficiency in English, using children’s first language as needed Considerable research evidence indicates that the use of bilingual children’s first language in instruction leads to higher social, cognitive, and academic achievement levels (for a review, see Garcia, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008) Supporting this approach is research demonstrating linguistic interdependence between languages, including linguistic factors, familiarity with language and literacy practices, and ways of using languages (Cummins, 1979, 1981, 2000) Use of the first language will depend on children’s developmental phase of second language learning and the goals of the instructional approach used (i.e., English-only, bilingual transitional, two-way instruction) Also, it will vary according to the availability of bilingual staff It may seem daunting for monolingual English-speaking teachers to consider supporting DLLs in their first language, but it is possible, and there is research documenting strategies to help teachers incorporate support for children’s first language For example, the primary language can be used to promote vocabulary development and oral language comprehension through systematically planned storytelling activities (Gillanders & Castro, 2007) Several studies have identified strategies to support DLLs: (a) conduct ongoing and frequent assessments to monitor children’s English language acquisition and development in the different developmental domains (Lesaux & Siegel, 2003); (b) provide focused small-group interventions, especially to DLLs 17 at risk for reading and math difficulties (e.g., McMaster, ShuHsuan Kung, & Cao, 2008; Vaughn et al., 2006); (c) provide explicit vocabulary instruction that can be done through readalouds and direct teaching of core vocabulary, using the primary language strategically (Carlo et al., 2004; Castro, Gillanders, Machado-Casas, & Buysse, 2006); (d) ensure development of academic English (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kiefer, & Rivera, 2006); and (e) promote socioemotional development through positive teacher–child relationships and facilitate children’s participation in the sociocultural group of the classroom (Gillanders, 2007; Howes & Ritchie, 2002) To implement these instructional practices, schools need program policies and resources, as well as teacher characteristics and a curriculum that will provide an adequate context for them For example, programs will need to allow the use of the primary language in instruction, hire qualified bilingual staff, provide ongoing professional development and materials (such as bilingual books and music), and engage families of DLLs in partnering with the program or teacher to support their children’s language and literacy development in both their primary language and English (Castro, Espinosa, & Pa´ez, 2010) Teachers, both bilingual and nonbilingual, will need to be knowledgeable about how language and literacy development unfolds in DLLs and about instructional practices that support development and learning among these children (see Zepeda, Castro, & Cronin, this issue, for a review on teacher preparation for working with young DLLs) The curriculum will need to support the use of first and second language development, providing opportunities to incorporate instructional enhancements targeting DLLs Many factors may affect the impact of these instructional strategies on promoting language and literacy in DLLs, including the amount of exposure to rich primary language, the amount of exposure to English, the extent of DLLs’ early literacy learning opportunities, the socioeconomic status and family resources available to support the child, and the timing and circumstances of immigration to the United States, as well as factors related to the child, such as personality, motivation, and learning style (Espinosa, Castro, Crawford, & Gillanders, 2007) LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION APPROACHES IN EARLY EDUCATION A key issue in the education of young DLLs is language of instruction Four major research reviews have recently concluded that children in bilingual programs typically score higher on tests of English than children in all-English immersion programs (Francis, Lesaux, & August, 2006; Genesse, Lindolm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005) Despite the accumulating evidence that bilingual and first language education are at least as effective as English immersion, these approaches remain controversial (Barnett, Yarosz, et al., 2007) Most studies reviewed in these publications concern students in early elementary and upper Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21 18 Dina C Castro et al grades, with limited research investigating language of instruction in preschool settings Studies of preschool DLLs suggest that bilingual programs and approaches that support and develop children’s first language skills may have important advantages (Barnett et al., 2007; Pa´ez, Tabors, & Lo´pez, 2007; Tabors, Pa´ez, & Lo´pez, 2003) Current research on the relationship between first and second language acquisition suggests that access to bilingual programing can assist young DLLs in their language and literacy development (August & Shanahan, 2006) For example, research with Spanish-speaking bilingual children has shown that first language skills and growth in Spanish contribute to the development of reading skills in English (Hammer, Lawrence, & Miccio, 2007; Pa´ez & Rinaldi, 2006; Rinaldi & Pa´ez, 2008) Among language of instruction approaches, two-way immersion (TWI) is emerging as an effective and common approach to address the needs of bilingual learners (Barnett et al., 2007; Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003) Also referred to as dual language programs, TWI provides DLLs and native English speakers with an education in two languages A recent study by Barnett et al used random assignment of DLLs and monolingual English speakers to either a TWI or an English immersion preschool program, to compare the educational effectiveness of these approaches Their findings indicate that both TWI and English immersion approaches boosted learning and development in English for all children, including DLLs More importantly, TWI also improved the Spanish language development of DLLs and native English speakers without losses in English language learning However, as Barnett et al (2007) noted, more research regarding the effectiveness of the TWI model is needed to provide a sound basis for policy and practice in early education others not For instance, although some states acknowledge and promote the development of DLLs’ primary language, others have banned the use of the primary language in the classroom We propose that to provide the appropriate context for the implementation of instruction that is effective in promoting language and literacy in DLLs, early learning standards and program policies should include provisions that promote and enhance dual language learning, including teacher preparation, family support, and availability of resources Examples of those provisions include the following: Institute teacher licensure regulations and teacher education accreditation criteria requiring coursework in second language acquisition and in specific teaching strategies to support DLLs and their families, combined with at least minimal proficiency in a second language Offer teachers ongoing support to implement early learning standards including systematic efforts to ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster children’s learning of the language used in the classroom, and use the children’s primary language to support instruction Ensure that curriculum models and teaching strategies are designed for, and evaluated with, the population with which they will be implemented, and include content and learning strategies that reflect the current state of knowledge Ensure the provision of resources for enhancing language and literacy-based materials, incorporating culturally relevant materials that inspire interesting conversations, as well as books in children’s first languages, and Incorporate strategies and resources to assist families in supporting DLLs first language development and maintenance that is linked to classroom instruction RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Policy recommendations derived from the research we discussed before involve establishing and implementing evidence-based curriculum and classroom practices in language and literacy, including differentiated instruction for all children We argue that to provide high-quality early education to an increasingly diverse child population, instruction should include specific classroom practices targeting DLLs, in addition to those known to enhance language and literacy development for all children Therefore, language and literacy early learning standards, and the curricula and classroom practices that derive from them, should reflect the current understanding of development and learning for all children, including DLLs Recently, the number of states establishing early learning standards has increased, but there is no consistency among states about how to support DLLs’ learning Some states’ early learning standards include provisions to support DLLs that reflect an understanding of the current knowledge base, but As we discussed above, there are gaps in our current knowledge about basic dual language and literacy learning and effective classroom practices To improve instruction for DLLs, researchers must address these gaps Some important research topics to advance our understanding of language and literacy development for young DLL are as follows: Language development of preschool children who are learning English for the first time after the acquisition of their first language Impact of English immersion programs on children’s first language development How learning early literacy skills in the first language affects literacy development in English Also, research studies are needed to examine strategies and interventions to improve outcomes for young DLLs Relevant research questions include the following: Child Development Perspectives, Volume 5, Number 1, Pages 15–21 Promoting Language and Literacy in Young DLLs What are the most effective instructional approaches to promote language and literacy in young DLLs? Do those instructional approaches have a long-lasting effect on children’s development and learning? To what extent does general program quality influence the effectiveness of language of instruction approaches and instructional practices? How language of instruction and specific instructional enhancements affect language and literacy development of DLLs from diverse language minority groups? To what extent factors related to the school, family, and child moderate the impact of instructional practices on DLLs’ language and literacy development? How teacher knowledge of language and literacy development and bilingual development relate to teaching strategies and child outcomes? What effect teacher and parent attitudes about first language maintenance have on child learning? 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