INISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY wy
AN INVESTIGATION OF VOCABULARY
LEARNING STRATEGIES OF THE ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT BACLIEU UNIVERSITY
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS (TESOL)
Trang 2STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
I certify that this thesis entitled “An Investigation of Vocabulary Learning Strategies of English Majors at BacLieu University” is my own work
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis does not contain material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution
Ho Chi Minh City, 2012
Trang 3ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation and deeply-felt words to all those concerned in my thesis
My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr NGUYEN VAN LOI, who read my manuscript with great care and devotion, gave thoughtful and insightful comments, and provided me with invaluable support and relevant materials in the preparation and completion this thesis, thus asserting his indispensable role as a wholehearted supervisor I would not have finished my study without his enthusiastic guidance
I am also grateful to the Faculty of Education at BacLieu University for their
help in offering opportunities for fulfilling my thesis
My special thanks are reserved for Mr Nguyen Thanh Duc who provided me useful information and reference books relating to my thesis, and my family, and classmates, who shared the happiness and difficulties with me during the
Trang 4ABSTRACT
Today in teaching and learning English, research has shifted from a focus on lecturers and teaching to learners and learning There have been many studies on how learners learn a language in general and vocabulary in particular
In some Asian countries like Japan, Taiwan, China, Iran, Hong-Kong, Malaysia,
Thailand, South Korea, plenty of research on vocabulary learning strategies has
been conducted However, in Vietnam little research has been done on
vocabulary learning strategies This present study, conducted in the context of a provincial university, investigates vocabulary learning strategies used by English major students to find out (1) the frequently used vocabulary of the English major students, (2) The difference in the frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies in terms of learners’ grade-level and achievement- level of English (3) the correlation between the achievement and the use of vocabulary learning strategies The research tools for this study are a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview The subjects of the study are one hundred and nine English- major students from 3 classes (forty six freshmen, thirty six
sophomores and twenty seven juniors) The data collected from the
Trang 5TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP :cssscsscsssesssssssesescescsrsesssenseensennsensezeeanees ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 55555ĂĂssẰ S99 9991190101188 n0 iii .V: ý 0:2 0 TS Ôn iv LIST OF FIGURES - <5 <5 < +5 239 995 8588580880818 viii LIST OF TABLLES -<5- << <2 3939558 3305199188800 1900 ix LIST OF ABBREVIA TION . << << <Ă55ĂSSĂ 595.0800194 X Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION -. -<«<5<<s+seseeeeeereeterterteresesesererree 1
1.1 Background to the Stud y scserersssssserersrenensensesenscnsserenenesenenensnenenenenes 1
1.2 Purposes of the study . -«-«eeeeeeesesesesessseieririiieseseressee 4
1.3 Research quesfÏOIS -. -5 =<=ss=seeseseseseeseseseeieriiesersesesee _ 1.4 Significance of the study . -e«e-«e-eeeeeeeeeestertrrertrtesesesereersee 5 1.4 Outline of the sfudly .- -<<-<<-<<=<eeeeeessessessesseieesssee 6
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEYW «.« eeeeeeeeeeerrrsrirrrrrseerreie 7 Inineariirorr 0 ố.ố aa 7 2.1 Definitions Language Learning Strategies . «-««-<««eseseseseeeeseereerseseersee 7 2.1.1 Features of language learning strategies - ‹ + V5 2.1.2 Classifications of language learning sfraftegles . - e
2.2 The importance of LLS in language learning and teaching 14 2.3 Vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning síratepies_ 16
2.3.1 Knowing a Word .- -+c+cscseeeierrrrerrrrrrrrirrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrirrirrrrree 16 2.3.2 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies - 21 2.3.3 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies - 22
2.3.4 Some studies on vocabulary learning strafeg1es - 26 2.4 Conceptual frame WOFÌK « ==<=sseseseseseetessseenesrreiiesrseseeee 32
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOG Y . -e-eceeeeeeeeeeeeereeee 35
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3.2 Parficipanfs ‹ -<<<eeeeeeeererereiririeiiieieiieiiiiiriesrseeeeee 36 3.3 Research đesign - << s5 s< «ss se *eeeeeeeeee10080000000000000000104 37
3.4 Research ins(rumenfS . -<<<<5<<555=<<<9558eeeesessssesseseeeeseeseseee 38
3.2.1 Vocabulary questiOnnia1Tâ - ô5+ +esetetteretrertrerrerrerrrrrre 38
Trang 63.6 The main study phase -. -5-s+stsetetertttttrtrtrtrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrre 40
3.6.1 Procedures of data colleCfÏOH - -<=<<<<<es<seseeeeeeeerterrseeesereee 40
3.6.1.1 Questionnaire proCedUT€ -++t+t+srterrrrrrtrrtrtrtrtrtrtrrrrrrrre 40 3.6.1.2 Interview DFOC€dUT€ - 5-5*++++teetrttetrrrererrrrrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrree 40
3.7 Analytical frameWOrFk -eeeeeeseeeeeeserersrsrrrrtrrreesrsrretrerrrrrrrsneee 41
Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 42 4.1.The frequently used VLS of the English major SfUderitS «.e.eeeeosseeeeee 42 4.2.1 The differences among the freshmen,sophomres and the juniors interms Of the use Of VILS - - 5-5 5+2 +3 *2E554589241 1231280104007 47
42.2 The difference between the high-fairly performers and average perfromers in terms of the use of VLŠ -+rrtrrrtrrrtrrrtrrrrrrrrrrtrrtrrrrre 52
43 The correlation between the use of VLS and the achievement - 60
Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . - 64
Trang 7LIST OF FIGURES
Trang 8LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 General aspects of word knowledge -+++++*++e+et+rrrrrreteert 18 Table 4.1: The five subcategory strategies by the English major students 43 Table 4.2: The three most frequently-used VLS of the English major students 44 Table 4.3: The post hoc test r€SuÏ - - «+55 «+ ++=+++####tetfrerretrtretrrrrrttrettrrte 48 Table 4.4: The comparison of five subcategory VLS among three classes 49 Table 4.5: The test of homogeneity OÊ VariaIC€S . -++++*++etetreree 32
Trang 9
LIST OF ABBREVIATION COG CONSO : DET DISCO VLS VLSs LLS EFL ESL FSL et al Ll L2 MEM MET SPSS SILL SOC VOLSI Cognitive strategy Consolidation : Determination strategy : Discovery
: Vocabulary learning strategy : Vocabulary learning strategies
Language learning strategies : English as a foreign language
: English as a second language
: French as a Second Language : And others : First language : Second language Memory strategy Meta-cognitive strategy : Productive : Receptive
: The statistics Package for the Social Sciences : Strategy Inventory for Language
: Social strategy
Trang 10Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
At present, learning another language beside mother tongue is compulsory for students Mastering a foreign language especially, English help people gain so many benefits in communication, doing business, working with foreign companies, learning abroad English plays an important role in social life Teaching and learning English are considerably cared for and develop quickly
Although English has developed with such a quick speed and the number of English learners has increased fast in quantity, their English basic knowledge has not yet met the demand In reality, they can hardly communicate with foreigners They met difficulties learning English One of the main reasons is their lack of vocabulary stock From the mentioned-above difficulties, the researcher carried out an interview to gain deep insights of what problems English-majors in Bac Lieu University faced most frequently Data obtained from the ten interviewees revealed that most of students lacked vocabulary
stock and they had difficulty reading, writing, speaking and listening English
In fact, vocabulary plays an important role in learning a language Widening vocabulary is the key to improving communicative competence In other words, vocabulary seems to be a fundamental step in learning any language Learners may experience this, “when people travel, they don’t carry strongly favored the essential role of vocabulary, stating that vocabulary constitutes major aspects of meaning in any language Verhallen & Schoonen
(1993) also confirmed the crucial role of vocabulary when pointing out that English learners who experience low vocabulary development are less able to
Trang 11comprehend texts of English at their grade level than their peers and more noticeably, they may be at risk of being diagnosed as disabled in learning due to their limited vocabulary and poor comprehension which results partly from
limitation of word knowledge Laufer’s (1996, P.20-22) summary of second
language research on the role of guessing in reading provides some interesting conclusions regarding the important role of vocabulary in reading comprehension and strategy use:
L2 language learners tend to rely heavily on words as landmarks of meaning in text, less so on background knowledge, and to virtually ignore syntax Vocabulary knowledge has been consistently shown to be more strongly related to reading comprehension than other components of reading Even if a reader has and uses good meta-cognitive strategies in L1, they won’t be able to use them in second language until the reader develops a solid language base (cited
from (Dycus, 1997, Thanh, 2010)
Though vocabulary is said to be basic to communication in any language, and especially necessary for success in real life, L2 learners have unexpectedly been shown to be impaired in word knowledge, even for frequently used words As a result, they meet difficulties in understanding English or even are seen as learning disabled (Verhallen & Schoonen, 1993)
Wilkin (1972, P.12) stated that “without grammar, very little can be conveyed Without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkin, 1972, Thanh, 2010)
Moreover, although vocabulary is of extreme importance and is in great
need, the teaching and learning of vocabulary has not been paid due attention or
taken into consideration It is considered as an extra part beside grammar, pronunciation, and other skills Because of that misconception, teaching vocabulary is strategically limited to Vietnamese translation Lecturers read new words, students listen repeat Seven years ago the Ministry of education and training initiated change in methods of teaching English towards a more
Trang 12significantly; the teacher has applied some new strategies to teach vocabulary
such as: games, contextualization, visuals, or aided software, but there is no
research for vocabulary learning strategies Until recently a growing interest in this field has led to a number of researches into this sub-category of second
language acquisition (e.g., Gu & Johnson, 1996; Hogben & Lawson, 1996; Schmitt, 1997; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999; Kudo, 1999; Fan, 2003)
In addition, many researchers have proved that to learn vocabulary
better, the use of vocabulary strategies should be considered Schmitt (2000)
suggested that learning vocabulary in the second language requires the use of vocabulary learning strategies which have received much attention in the field of second language learning However, expanding vocabulary isn’t always easy for all language learners without knowing and applying a variety of vocabulary
learning strategies That is why Nation (2001, P 222) insists “A large amount
of vocabulary can be acquired with the help of vocabulary learning strategies and that vocabulary learning strategies have been proved useful for students of different language levels”
Thus it seems undeniable that vocabulary learning strategies may, to a
substantial degree, be the determinant of success and failure in acquiring a language and it is improbable to segregate vocabulary learning from the development of language skills (Gu, 1997,Thanh, 2010)
More noticeable is that, in my teaching, I have experienced many cases in which learners at Bac Lieu University spent too much time learning English
vocabulary but could not use or remember it in a long-term Besides, they have
Trang 13Moreover, although vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies play
an important role in acquiring a language, researchers have ignored them for years Due to the fact that vocabulary learning is also the key problem of most learners and also a fundamental stage in any language learning, studying vocabulary learning strategies is promising to find out good ways that successful Vietnamese learners do to face unknown words and improve their stock of vocabulary in order to help poor language learners Thus having knowledge of what learners do to learn vocabulary gives lecturers a very important understanding of their students’ learning so that they can adjust their method and help weak students
In recent years, in accordance with the world trend of language learning strategies, Vietnamese lecturers and researchers have paid more attention to language learning strategies, specifically English learning strategies There have been more studies on the strategies that good language learners use as well as those that poor language learners lack The present study seeks to contribute to this field, expecting to expand understanding in vocabulary learning strategies
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of this study include:
- Investigating to what extent do the English major students at Bac Lieu University use vocabulary learning strategies?
- Investigating whether the frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies differ in terms of learners’ grade-level and achievement- level of English
- Determining whether there any correlation between the vocabulary learning
Trang 141.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In order to help to attain the goal of conducting the thesis, three research questions are set up:
1 To what extent do the English major students at Bac Lieu University use vocabulary learning strategies?
2 Does the frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies differ in terms of learners’ grade-level and achievement level of English?
3 Is there any correlation between vocabulary learning strategies use and the
achievement level of English?
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Trang 151.5 THE OUT LINE OF THE STUDY This thesis consists of the following parts:
Chapter one addresses the introduction, which introduces the background to the study, the aims of the study and research questions
Chapter two introduces and establishes a conceptual and theoretical framework for learning strategies, definitions, features and classifications of language learning strategies as well as vocabulary knowledge, definitions, classifications of vocabulary learning strategies Moreover, it reviews studies relating to the thesis
Chapter three specifies research methods related to the research design, the research questions, the participants, the instruments, the procedures of data collection
Chapter four presents data analysis about the quantitative and qualitative results and discussion
Chapter five offers conclusion, limitations, pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research
Trang 16Chapter 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the definitions, features and classifications of language learning strategies and of vocabulary learning strategies are presented Some studies on vocabulary learning strategies are also discussed Finally the conceptual framework was set
2.1 DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
Within second language or foreign language field, some definitions of language learning strategies have been presented by some famous researchers Tarone (1983) defined a language learning strategy as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language - to incorporate these into inter-language competence” (P.67) At first the product of LLS was stressed particularly in terms of linguistic and socio-linguistic competence whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1986) specified language learning strategies as
“ behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning which are
“intended to influence the learner’s encoding process” (Weinstein and Mayer
1986 , Takac, 2008) To make the term more clearly, Weinstein and al (1988)
stated “language learning strategies are considered to be any behaviors or thoughts that facilitate encoding in such a way that knowledge integration and
retrieval are enhanced,” (Weinstein and al 1988, Takac 2008) More concretely
these thoughts and behaviors constitute organized plans of actions designed to
achieve a goal For example LLS include actively rehearsing, summarizing,
Trang 17With the same viewpoint, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) presented a definition that has something similar to the one of the mentioned-above researchers (Weinstein, Mayer et al, 1989, Takac, 2008.) For these researchers,
LLS are behavioral and mental while Wenden (1987) confirmed LLS is behavioral Rubin (1981) conducted a study to show the distinction between direct and indirect LLS, and then Rubin (1987) gave a very general definition
that LLS “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language
system which learners construct and affect learning directly” (P.22) She also suggested that LLS should include any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information This definition focuses on direct and indirect impact of LLS on language learning
Oxford (1990) proposed a more specific definition of LLS as “specific actions taken by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more
self-directed, more effective, more transferable to new situations” (P.8)
MacIntyre (1994) shares some similarity with Oxford with the definition that “language learning strategies as the actions chosen by language students that are intended to facilitate language acquisition and communication” According to Stern (1992), “the concept of language learning strategies is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain
goals, and language learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived
intentional directions and learning techniques” This definition suggests that LLS are conscious and intentional Ellis (1994) said that “the concept of ‘strategy’ is somewhat fuzzy one not easy to tie down and brings to light many
problems” (P.22.)
The definitions presented above have some overlap and lack of precision
in their selection of crucial terminology and they are open for us to question
whether language learning strategies are behavioral, mental or both Oxford and
Trang 18behavioral and mental For Ridley (1997) and Purpura (1999), they share some
similarity with Stern with the definition that “TLS are conscious and unconscious techniques used by a person to reach a goal” (p.49.) The new trend can be recognized here that there is a shift from behaviorism to cognitive
theory
In brief, the definitions of LLS discussed above can be defined as
specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that learners often deliberately use to improve their progress in the development of their competence in the target language These strategies can have direct or indirect effect on language
learning, they are conscious, unconscious, observable and unobservable 2.1.1 Features of language learning strategies
Wenden and Rubin (1987: P 7-8) proposed very deliberately concrete features of LLS According to them, language learning strategies compose of following components:
They are specific actions or techniques
They can be observable or non-observable
They can be behavioral or mental They are problem-oriented
They can contribute directly or indirectly to learning They may be consciously employed and become automatic They are changeable
These two experts gave very deliberately specific features of LLS However,
Oxford (1990: P 9) offers a more comprehensive list of the features of language
Trang 19They contribute to the main goal of communicative competence They allow learners to become more self-directed
They expand the role of lecturers They are problem-oriented
They are specific actions taken by the learner
They involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive They support learning both directly and indirectly
They aren’t always observable They are often conscious They can be taught They are flexible
They are influenced by a variety of factors
From these two lists of features, it is clear that LLS are specific actions,
techniques taken by learners They support learning both directly and indirectly, they are problem-oriented, they are conscious, subconscious, observable and unobservable
2.1.2 Classifications of language learning strategies
Recently, a number of studies have been done on LLS There has been a shift in focus from lecturers to students in second language as well as foreign language learning Different authors will have different classifications of language learning strategies based on their personal viewpoints about LLS, and this necessitates an adequate taxonomy and classification of LLS O’Malley (1990) classified language learning strategies into three types:
Meta-cognitive strategies “beyond the cognitive” help learners to
regulate their own learning to set goals, make plans, monitor as well as evaluate
Trang 20new information Socio-affective strategies are frequently classified into the same set, so this is the reason why the concept “socio-affective” is formed
However, in Stern’s (1992) classification, he made some adaptation, and
divided language learning strategies into five main types: (1) Management and
planning strategies (2) Cognitive strategies (3) Communicative-experimental
strategies (4) Interpersonal strategies (5) Affective strategies
Management and planning strategies are similar to meta-cognitive strategies while communicative-experimental strategies help learners overcome limitations in communication However, interpersonal strategies also have some overlap with meta-cognitive strategies such as monitoring the learner’s development and evaluating their performance Affective strategies concern with managing emotions, anxiety both negatively and positively The relationship between affective strategies and learning is unclear, but a positively affective environment helps learning in general
However, the classification of LLS into cognitive, meta-cognitive, social
and affective is the most widely agreed and accepted (Cohen, 1998; William & Burden, 2001) According to Oxford (1990), all language learning strategies are oriented towards the broad goal of communicative competence, hence the development of communicative competence requires realistic interaction among learners using meaningful contextualized language Learning strategies help learners participate actively in authentic communication Such strategies operate in both general and specific ways to encourage the development of communicative competence
Oxford provided a very deliberately comprehensive classification of
LLS, dividing language learning strategies into two main kinds: direct and
indirect strategies which are further divided into 6 subgroups Direct strategies
consist of 3 main types: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation
Trang 21the new language directly are divided into memory, cognitive and compensation
strategies
Oxford (1990) said, “All direct strategies require mental processing of the language” (p 37) Memory strategies entail the mental process for storing new information in the memory and for retrieving them when needed These
strategies consist of four sets that include: (1).Creating mental linkages (2)
Applying images and sounds (3) Reviewing well (4) Employing actions
Cognitive strategies entail conscious ways of handling the target language
And fall into four sets which include practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating a structure for input and output
Compensation strategies enable learners to use the language either in speaking or writing despite knowledge gaps These strategies are divided into 2 sets: Guessing intelligently and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
According to Oxford (1990), compensation strategies are employed by learners when facing a temporary breakdown in speaking or writing Indirect strategies include meta-cognitive, affective and social-strategies These strategies provide indirect support for language learning by employing different
strategies such as focusing, arranging, evaluating, seeking opportunities and
lowering anxiety
Trang 22Affective strategies assist students to manage their emotions, motivation,
and attitudes associated with learning They can be achieved through lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself, and taking emotional temperature Oxford synthesized the classifications of all experts in the field so her classification was the most applicable and used in Language learning strategy researches Based on a number of studies in the field, Oxford provided strategies for inventory language learning (SILL), an instrument to assess language learning strategies This instrument is widely used and accepted by many researchers (Brown,
Robinson & Rosenjka, 1996; Cohen, Weaver & Li, 1998; Nyiko, 1990; Olivare
& Cuhat, 2002: Wharton, 2000) and vocabulary learning researchers (Schmitt, 1997 & Kudo, 1999) also adapted the classification of language learning
strategies as the framework for their studies
The reciprocal relationships between the direct and indirect strategies
and six strategies groups were displayed in Figure.2.1 (Adapted from Oxford,
Trang 23Compensation strategies (Direct) Memory strategies ( Direct) Affective strategies ( Indirect) Cognitive strategies (Direct) Social strategies (Indirect) Meta-cognitive strategies (indirect)
Figure 1 The interrelationships between the direct and indirect strategies and
among the six strategy groups (Oxford, 1995, P 15)
Trang 242.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING
Since the amount of information to be processed by language learners is high in classroom, learners use different kinds of language learning strategies in performing the tasks and processing the new input they face Language learning strategies are good indicators of how learners approach tasks or problems encountered during the process of language learning in other words, language learning strategies, while non-observable or unconsciously used in some cases, give language lecturers valuable clues about how their students access the situation, plan, select appropriate skills so as to understand, learn, or remember new input presented in the language classroom
According to Fedderholdt (1997, P.1), the language learners who is
capable of using a wide variety of language learning strategies can improve his language skills in a better way Meta-cognitive strategies improve organization of learning time, self-monitoring, and self- evaluation Cognitive strategies include using previous knowledge to help solve new problems Socio-affective strategies include asking native speakers to correct their pronunciation, or ask a classmate to work together on a particular language problem Developing skills in three areas, such as meta-cognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective help the language learners build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning
Lessard-Clouston (1997, P.3) states that language learning strategies
contribute to the development of the communicative competence of the students Being a broad concept, language learning strategies are used to refer to all strategies that language learners use in learning a target language and
Trang 25follows form this that language lecturers aiming at developing the communicative competence of the students and language learning should be familiar with language learning strategies
As Oxford (1990, P.1) states, “language learning strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.” Besides the developing communicative competence of the
students, lecturers who train students to use language learning strategies can
help them become better language learners Helping students understand good language learning strategies and training them to develop and use such good language learning strategies can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston, 1973 P.3)
2.3 VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
2.3 1 Knowing a word
It is usually believed that learning a word means simply knowing its meaning Vietnamese learners frequently learn words just by remembering their meaning They usually ignore spelling, pronunciation, and other aspects of word knowledge Because of this, they are not able to pronounce words correctly or use words appropriately Knowing a word requires learners to know more aspects of word knowledge than just its meaning Linguists have presented a number of definitions of knowing a word McCarthy and O’Dell (2001) make some guidelines for knowing a word It is insufficient to know only the meaning of a word It is also necessary to know its collocations, its
Trang 26O’Dell’s guidelines for knowing a word, Nation’s (2001) formulation made a clear-cut distinction between receptive and productive knowledge of a word as shown in table 2.1
Form Spoken R What does the word sound like? P How is the word pronounced? Written R What does the word look like?
P How is the word written and spelled? Word parts R What parts are recognizable in this word?
P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?
Meaning | Form and meaning R What meaning does this word form signal? P What word form can be used to express this
Meaning? Concept and referents
Trang 27P what other words could we use in stead of this one? Use
Grammatical functions R In what patterns does this word occur? P In what patterns must we use this word? R What words or types of words occur
with this one?
Collocations P What words or types of words must we use with this one
Constraints on use R Where, when, and how often would we expect to meet this word?
P Where, when, and how often can we use this
word?
Table 2.1 General aspects of word knowledge (adapted from Nation,
Trang 28The ability to understand a word in reading or listening is receptive or passive knowledge On the contrary, productive or active knowledge is associated with the ability to use word in speaking and writing This classification of word knowledge bears a resemblance to the distinction between receptive skills of listening and reading and the productive skills of speaking and writing In line with productive and receptive skills, three fundamental criteria of knowing a word are suggested involving knowing its form, its meaning, and its use (Nation 2001) Each criterion comprises separate aspects but they are closely interwoven with one another
2.3.1 1.Form
The term “form” not only refers to spoken but also written form of a word Knowing the form is considered as the ability to recognize the word through reading, and listening and the ability to pronounce word exactly with stress and to write it with correct orthography
Word parts deal with the ability to recognize the components of forming a word and to associate them with word meaning for example (overwork, under clothes ) students can see that these words compose of over- work, under- clothes and can link these parts with their meanings The ability to realize the connection between word parts and word’s meaning is essential in language
learning because it is ascertained that learners’ knowledge of word parts and
how the parts are built change as their achievement level of English develops
Trang 292.3.1.2 Meaning
Besides knowing form, it is worth knowing how to connect the form with the meaning of a word Baddeley (1990) posited that the strength of connection between the form and its meaning influences the retrieval of the meaning when seeing or hearing it
Relating to word concept and referent, it is claimed that the relationship between the two isn’t always one to one A Word has more than one meaning Words that have the same form but convey unconnected meanings are referred to as homonyms (book-book, see-see) Words that have the same form and their meanings are closely related, we call them polysemies, for example the noun “head” as in a person’s head and the head of a department (Nation, 2001) In order to cope with homonymous and Polysemous items well, it is necessary to be aware of the concept behind words and master words’ meaning in different contexts
Associations refers to the relationship between words such as synonym, words that have the same or closely similar meaning ( start-begin, right-true), antonym- words have opposite meaning (true-false, rich-poor, tall-short) and hyponymy referring to the hierarchical relationship between words ( bird is heteronym, a lark is hyponym) It is suggested that understanding these relations is helpful in explaining the meaning of a word and developing tasks to deepen learners’ understanding of words (Nation, 2001)
2.3.1.3 Use
In order to use words exactly, the learners must master knowledge of the
form and meaning as well as that of grammatical functions relating to the
Trang 30The way in which words are regularly used together is referred to as collocations including rules on how we use words together for instance which prepositions usually go with a particular verb or which verbs and nouns are used together For example the verb “perform” is used with the noun operation (
Richard & Schmitt, 2002)
Apart from these aspects of word knowledge, knowing whether a word has high or low frequency and how to use it properly Nation (2001) stated the importance of knowing the frequency constraint “If a teacher spends a lot of
time on a word and overuses it, this affects the learner’s use of this word If
time is given to words according to their usefulness, then this can be avoided”
(Nation, 2001, P.57)
The appropriateness of word use is sometimes contingent on culture
Nation (2001) concludes that constraint on use can’t be similar across cultures
Some words are appropriate in this culture but inappropriate in another
In short, in order to know and use words well, it requires being knowledgeable of form, meaning and use but other aspects of word knowledge
shouldn’t be ignored, McCathy’s & O*Dell (2001), Nation’s (2001) definition
of knowing a word is more specific and comprehensible
2.3.2 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies
Vocabulary learning strategies are a subset of language learning strategies There are a lot of various definitions of vocabulary learning strategies cited from the language learning strategies One of the definitions
adapted from Rubin (1987, cited in Schmitt, 1997, p 203) is that learning
strategies are defined as “the process by which information is obtained, stored,
retrieved, and used” and “therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any
Trang 31view-point of cognitive theory which considered LLS, especially VLS is a process Moreover, Cameron (2001) stated a very general definition that vocabulary learning strategies are “actions that learners take to help themselves
understand and remember vocabulary”
However, Nation proposed a definition that is different from Rubin with some adjustment but it is still broad According Nation (2001), vocabulary learning strategies are defined by the following important features:
They involve choice
They are complex (consisting of several steps) They require knowledge and benefit from training
They increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and use
On the contrary, Catalan (2003) proposed a more thoroughly concrete definition of VLS as “knowledge about mechanisms (process, strategies) used
in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions taken by students to find
the meaning of unknown words, to retain them in long-term memory, to recall them at will, to use them in oral or written mode” (P.25)
2.3.3 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies
Gu and Johnson (1996) classified vocabulary learning strategies into 7
subcategories:
Meta-cognitive strategies involve selective attention and self-initiation Guessing strategies require using background knowledge in wider context and using linguistic cues in immediate context
Dictionary strategies denote to the skills to use dictionary
Note-taking strategies include skills to take notes
Rehearsal strategies require the skills to use wordlists, oral repetition,
Trang 32Encoding strategies involve association, imagery, visual encoding, auditory encoding, using word-structure, semantic encoding, and contextual encoding
Activation strategies involve using words in different contexts (Gu and Johnson, 1996, P 25)
Nation (2001) proposed taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies These strategies are divided into three classes:
Planning strategies consist of the following strategies: (1).choosing words
(2).choosing aspects of word knowledge (3) Choosing strategies (4) Planning
repetition
Source strategies relate to the following strategies: (1) Analyzing words
(2) Using context (3) Consulting a reference source in first and second
language (3) Using parallels in first and second language
Process strategies can be specified as: (1) Noticing (2) Retrieving
(3) Generating
Lin (2001) classified vocabulary learning strategies into three broad category
strategies:
Meta-cognitive strategies refer to the following: (1) Advanced repetition (2)
Selective attention (3) Monitoring (4) Self-management
Cognitive strategies relate to the followings: (1) Written repetition (2) Verbal
repetition (3) Segmentation (4) Phonetics application (5) Association (6) Resource (7) Predicting (7) Elaborating (8) Recalling and Others
Social-affective strategies consist of the followings: (1) Asking for help (2)
Cooperation and Others
Trang 33Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
However, Schmitt’s (1997) classification of vocabulary learning strategy provides a useful framework for study about vocabulary learning strategies Based on Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategy, he added a
new category, determination to serve the purpose of describing and analyzing
vocabulary learning strategies as opposed to Oxford’s (1990) work which was generally constructed in service of depicting language learning strategies He divided vocabulary learning into two broad categories: discovery and consolidation strategies
* Discovery strategies which include nine determination strategies and five social strategies help learners to discover meaning of new words
* Consolidation strategies which include three social strategies, twenty
seven memory strategies, nine cognitive strategies, five meta-cognitive
strategies, help learners to consolidate new words that have been encountered Determination consists of nine strategies which can be characterized as:
1.Analyzing grammatical category, affixes and roots, pictorial presentation
2 Checking the L1 cognates
3 Guessing meaning from the context 4 Using dictionary
5 Using wordlist and flashcards
Social strategies refer to the interaction with lecturers, classmates, family
Trang 343 Pair-works or group-works
4 Interacting with native speakers, people around Memory strategies consist of the following:
1 Imaging word’s form and meaning
2 Associating word with its co-ordinates and a personal experience 3 Using synonyms and antonyms
4 Using semantic features
5 Using scales for gradable adjectives
6 Peg method
7 Loci method
8 Grouping words together to study them
9 Using new words in sentences
10 Studying the sound and spelling of a word 11 Saying new word aloud when studying 12 Underlining the initial letter of the word 13 Configuration
14 Using key word method
It is very difficult and complicated to make a completely clear-cut distinction between memory and cognitive strategies Both groups of strategies have some overlap that they recall words through some forms of language manipulation Cognitive strategies are not obviously linked to mental
manipulation (repeating and using mechanical means) and memory strategies
are similar to traditional mnemonic techniques (association, connecting to background knowledge and using imagery)
Cognitive strategies involve the followings: 1 Using verbal and written repetition
2 Using the vocabulary section in your textbook 3 Listening to tape of word lists
Trang 355 Using a vocabulary note book
Meta-cognitive strategies concern making a plan, reviewing, monitoring learning procedures, evaluating and testing the progress; they involve the followings:
1 Using English language media (songs, movies, news casts, etc)
2 Testing one with word tests 3 Making plans for learning
4, Evaluating the results
2.3.4 Studies on vocabulary learning strategies
The studies on vocabulary learning strategies in the world have been numerous The studies on effectiveness of key word method predominantly indicated its superiority over mechanical rote-learning (Atkinson, 1975;
Sagarra & Alba, 2006), when used by both advanced learners, who are believed to have developed strategies (Hogben &Lawson, 1994, 1997; Lawson &
Hogben, 1998) and by weaker learners (Alvila & Sadoki, 1996; Zhang & Schumm, 2000) Participants in the experiment groups mainly found the method
efficient and interesting and were actually using it, whereas learners in control
groups opted for mechanical learning or unsophisticated learning strategies
(Hogben & Lawson, 1997)
Thompson (1987) conducted an exhaustive survey and analysis of vocabulary memory strategies (mainly mnemonics) Although mnemonics are generally taken as facilitating faster learning and easier retrieval of lexical items, not all of them are equally appropriate to be used in learning vocabulary Their efficiency depends on numerous factors like the time the learners invest in acquiring the mnemonic, the learners’ capacity for creating images,
achievement, learning style, meta-memory, cultural element, and situation
Trang 36Luppescu & Day (1995) conducted an investigation into the use of a bilingual dictionary in reading The results indicated that, in addition to facilitating comprehension, this strategy affects learning and retention Indeed, the amount of memorized vocabulary can be doubled (Fraser, 1999) Learners find dictionary use strenuous but useful and necessary (Gonzalez, 1999) However, if they can’t use a dictionary appropriately such as looking up many words or not understanding the given information, they can become frustrated
Gu & Johnson (1996) conducted a study of vocabulary learning
strategies used by Chinese university learners of English and the relationship
between their strategies and outcomes in learning English They asked 850 sophomore non-English majors at Beijing Normal University to complete a vocabulary learning questionnaire They correlated replies to the questionnaire with results on a vocabulary size test and on the College English Test (CETBAND2) Participants reported using a wide variety of vocabulary
learning strategies In a multiple regression analysis, Self-Initiation and
Selective Attention, two meta-cognitive strategies, emerged as positive predictors of CETBAND2 scores Contextual guessing, skillful use of dictionaries, note-taking, paying attention to word formation, contextual
Trang 37Chin (1999) conducted a study to compare the strategy of guessing meaning from context, the strategy of word formation analysis and the
combination of the two strategies used while reading (Chin, 1999, Takac,
2008) The results showed that the efficiency of each strategy depended on the tasks used in testing In general, multiple choice tasks produced better results than gap filling tasks Word formation analysis requires certain knowledge of suffixes, prefixes, and their meanings, where as gap filling tasks require a deeper semantic —syntactic knowledge of the word Learners who inferred from the context and used the both context and word formation analysis strategies were more successful at such tasks Although the strategy of word formation analysis, especially if it includes attending to etymology, that is to cognates
(Bellomo, 1999, Takac, 2008 ), can be very useful, its contribution seems irrelevant if the learner has already successfully the word’s meaning from the
context
All the above-mentioned researchers seemed to conduct studies on
individual vocabulary strategy or a group of strategies like memory strategies No one conducted a study on vocabulary learning strategies as a whole
Studies on vocabulary learning strategies within five recent years almost happened in some Asian countries such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South
Korea, and Vietnam
Lee (2007) in South Korea conducted a study on English vocabulary learning strategies of Korean university students: strategy use, vocabulary size, and gender The result indicated that students with a large vocabulary size use more vocabulary learning strategies than students with a low vocabulary size and gender differences had no effect on the pattern and frequency of VLS use
In his study he just paid attention to the students with large and low vocabulary size, while he neglected the students with fairly large and medium vocabulary
Trang 38Unlike Lee, Lo (2007) conducted a qualitative study to find out the
perceptions of low-achieving Chinese EFL learners from a secondary school in
Hong Kong on what VLS they perceive were useful and frequently used The questionnaire contains a list of 19 vocabulary learning strategies adapted from
Cheung (2004) The students found the following strategies the most frequently
used and most useful: repeating spelling the words, taking notes in vocabulary text books, repeating and reviewing strategies, and analyzing strategies In this study the researcher exploited one aspect of the matter (the useful and frequently vocabulary learning strategies), the subject of his study is limited with low-achieving secondary students
In Chen (2008), vocabulary learning strategies used by 55 sixth graders in Fuan elementary school in Taipei city was investigated This study aimed find out the impact of gender on the use of vocabulary learning strategies and the difference among four groups of students (the good, fairly good, average, and below average students) The result indicated that more proficient learners
use more vocabulary learning strategies than less proficient learners, and gender
is found significantly related to the use of memory strategies; females use memory strategies more frequently than males
Trang 39Liu Zhi-lang (2010) conducted a survey study on English vocabulary
learning strategies for non-English majors in Independence College She wanted to find out the difference between male and female in the use of vocabulary learning strategies The results of this study indicated that female students used more strategies than male students and they were willing to pay more time to learning vocabulary and put them into practice The good learners studied harder and used more vocabulary learning strategies They were also good at using what they have learned in actual use instead of remembering words mechanically
In short, all five studies discussed above, the researchers exploited
many aspects of the matter and their subjects were non-English major students
In Vietnam, quite a few studies have been conducted Hang (2008) conducted
an investigation into vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at Hung Vuong gifted High School The result indicated that there was no significant difference between males and females in the use of VLS, and the English-majors used more VLS than non-English-majors The subjects were both major and non English major high school students Like other studies in
the world she also found that there was no significant difference between males
and females in the use of vocabulary learning strategies
Hoa’s (2009) study was conducted with 45 English- major freshmen in
the academic year 2008-2009 at An Giang University whose age ranged from eighteen to twenty one to investigate the often used vocabulary learning strategies and whether very high achievers, fairly high achievers, medium achievers and low achievers differed in their often used vocabulary learning strategies The result indicated that the English major freshmen in An Giang University often used a limited number of vocabulary learning strategies which related to rote-learning Moreover, the very high achievers, fairly high
Trang 40the frequency of reviewing and the sources of vocabulary learning strategies
Her result revealed some interesting findings for doing research in Viet Nam Thanh (2010) also investigated the use of vocabulary learning strategies and its interaction with achievement and gender among the tenth grade students The result indicated that the grade 10" learners at Nguyen Viet Dung High school used a limited range of vocabulary learning strategies Meta- cognitive strategies were rarely used for learning vocabulary, and the very good students, fairly good students, average students and under-average students actually differed in both quantities and types of vocabulary learning strategies Additionally, there was no significant difference between males and females in terms of the use of vocabulary learning strategies
Some studies have been introduced and some information about history of the research on the issue has been reviewed In all of the mentioned-above studies, there are two studies Lo (2007) and Lip Paul Chi Hong (2009) which
investigated the frequently- use and the most useful VLS The results showed that there was a significant difference between males and females in the use of
vocabulary learning strategies In Lee’s study, the students with higher vocabulary size used more vocabulary learning strategies than the ones with
lower vocabulary size In 3 studies from Tran (2008), Zhi Lang (2010), and Thanh (2010), the more proficient students used more vocabulary learning
strategies than less proficient students in spite of different contexts In Hang’s study the English majors used more vocabulary learning strategies than non English majors
In brief, there has been little research about the difference between the