Tài liệu chuong 1-6Practical English Usage_ Part 1.6_ Michael Swan pdf

two-part verbs (2):prepositional verbs 600 I'm looking forward to the party. For details of particular two-word verbs, see a good dictionary. 600 two-part verbs (2): prepositional verbs 1 verb + preposition: listen to; look at Many English verbs are regularly followed by prepositions before objects. You never listen to me. (NOT You ne1:lerlisten me.) Alan walked down the road without looking at anybody. Prepositions are not used when there is no object. Listen! (NOT Listen m.0 2 idiomatic meanings: look after, get over The meaning of a two-word verb can be very different from the meanings of the two parts taken separately. Could you look after the kids while I'm out? (Look after is not the same as look + after.) It took him six months to get over his illness. (Get over is not the same as get + over.) 3 word order: What are you thinking about? When an object comes at the beginning of a clause (e.g. in a question or relative clause), a two-word verb usually stays together, so that a preposition can be separated from its object and go at the end of the clause. For details of this and other preposition-final structures, see 452. What are you thinking about? (NOT About what are yolt thinking?) I've found the book which I was looking for. (More natural in an informal style than the book for which I was looking.i For the difference between prepositions and adverb particles, see 20. For prepositional verbs in the passive, see 416. 601 unless meaning Unless has a similar meaning to if not, in the sense of 'except if'. Come tomorrow unless I phone. (= if I don't phone / except if I phone.) I'll take thejob unless the pay is too low. (= if the pay isn't too low / except if the pay is too low. ) I'll be back tomorrow unless there's a plane strike. Let's have dinner out - unless you're too tired. I'm going to dig the garden this afternoon, unless it rains. 2 when unless cannot be used 1 Unless means 'except if'. Unless is not used when the meaning is more like 'because not'. Compare: - OK So we'll meet this evening at 7.00- unless my train's late. (= except if my train's late.) page 592 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. until 602 My wife will be angry if I'm not home by 7.00. (NOT lriy wife will be angry unless I get home by 7.00. - She will be angry because I'm not home.) - I'll drive over and seeyou, unless the car breaks down. (= except if the car breaks down.) I'll be surprised if the car doesn't break down soon (NOT I'll be surprised unl:essthe ettr breaks dOtfJnsoon. - I'll be surprised because it doesn't break down.) 3 tenses In clauses with unless, we usually use present tenses to refer to the future (see 580). I'll be in all day unless the office phones. (NOT unless the office wiU -ptwn-e,) For more about sentences with if, see 256-264. 602 until 1 until and till These two words can be used both as prepositions and conjunctions. They mean exactly the same. Till (AmEalso 'til; is informal. OK, then, I won't expect you until/till midnight. I'll wait until/till I hear from you. The new timetable will remain in operation until June 30. 2 until/till and to To can sometimes be used as a preposition of time with the same meaning as until! till. This happens after from I usually work from nine to five. (OR from nine until/till five.) We can also use to when counting the time until a future event. It's another three weeks to the holidays. (OR until/till the holidays.) In other cases, to is not generally used. I waited for her until six o'clock, but she didn't come. (NOT I waited far her to six o'dock ) For AmE from through, see 592. 3 distance and quantity: until/till not used Until! till is used only to talk about time. To talk about distance, we use to, as far as or up to; up to is also used to talk about quantity. We walked as far as /up to the edge of the forest. (NOT tiU the edge ) The minibus can hold up to thirteen people. (NOT until t"'firteenpeople.) You can earn up to £500 a week in this job. 4 tenses with until Present tenses are used to refer to the future after until (see 580). I'll wait until she gets here. (NOT until she wiU get here.) page 593 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. up and down 603 Present perfect and past perfect tenses can emphasise the idea of completion. You're not going home until you've finished that report. I waited until the rain had stopped. 5 structure with Not until In a literary style it is possible to begin a sentence with Not until I using inverted word order in the main clause (see 302). Not until that evening was she able to recover her self-control. Not until I left home did I begin to understand how strange my family was. 6 until and by: states and actions We use until to talk about a situation or state that will continue up to a certain moment. We use by (see 117) to say that an action or event will happen at or before a future moment. Compare: - Can I stay until the weekend? Yes, but you'll have to leave by Monday midday at the latest. (= at twelve on Monday or before.) - Can you repair my watch if I leave it until Saturday? No, but we can do it by next Tuesday. (NOT ltntil next Tttestl:tty.) 7 until and before Not until/till can mean the same as not before. I won't be seeing judy until/before Tuesday. And both until and before can be used to say how far away a future event is. It'll be ages until/before we meet again. There's only six weeks left until/before Christmas. 603 up and down 1 'towards/away from the centre' up and down are not only used to refer to higher and lower positions. They can also refer to more or less important or central places. (Trains to London used to be called 'up trains', and trains from London 'down trains'.) The ambassador walked slowly up the room towards the Queen's throne. She ran down the passage, out of the front door and down the garden. We'll be going down to the country for the weekend. But in the US downtown refers to the central business/entertainment area. 2 north and south People often use up and down for movements towards the north and south (perhaps because north is at the top of a map page). I work in London, but I have to travel up to Glasgow euery few weeks. 3 'along' Sometimes both up and down are used to mean 'along', 'further on', with little or no difference of meaning. The nearest post office is about half a mile up/down the road. page 594 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. used + infinitive 604 604 used + infinitive 1 meaning We use used + infinitive to talk about past habits and states which are now finished. I used to smoke, but now I've stopped. (NOT 1 was used re smoke ) That bingo hall used to be a cinema. past habits and states which are now finished I used to smoke, but now I've stopped. \ _ A I!!I • 2 only past Used to has no present form (and no progressive, perfect, infinitive or -ing forms). To talk about present habits and states, we usually just use the simple present tense (see 462). He smokes. (NOT Ne uses re smoke.) Her brother still collects stamps. 3 questions and negatives When questions and negatives are written, they often have did used instead of did use. What did people use (d) to do in the evenings before TV? I didn't use(d) to like opera, but now I do. The contraction usedn't is also possible. I usedn't to like opera. But the most common negative is never used I never used to like opera. In a formal style, questions and negatives without do are possible, but these are not very common. I used not to like opera, but now I do. (OR I used to not like opera ) Used you to play football at school? These forms are not used in tags. You used not to like him, did you? (NOT used you?) 4 when used to is not used Used to refers to things that happened at an earlier stage of one's life and are now finished: there is an idea that circumstances have changed. It is not used simply to say what happened at a past time, or how long it took, or how many times it happened. I worked very hard last month. (NOT 1 used re work very htlrtlltlst month.) I lived in Chester for three years. (NOT 1 used to live in Chester for three ~) ~ page 595 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. [be] used to 605 I went to France seven times last year. (NOT I used to go to France seven times l:ttst year.) 5 word order Mid-position adverbs (see 24) can go before or after used. The position before used is more common in an informal style. I always used to be afraid of dogs. (informal) I used always to be afraid of dogs. (formal) 6 pronunciation Note the pronunciation of used /ju:st/ and use /ju:s/ in this structure. 7 used + infinitive and be used to .ing Used + infinitive has a quite different meaning from be used to ing (see next section). Compare: I didn't use to drive a big car. (= Once I didn't drive a big car, but now I do.) (NOT J wasn't used to drive a big Cttr.) I wasn't used to driving a big car. (= Driving a big car was a new and difficult experience - I hadn't done it before.) For the difference between used to and would, see 633.8. 605 [be] used to 1 meaning If a person is used to something, it is familiar; he or she has experienced it so much that it is no longer strange or new. I've lived in Central London for six years now, so I'm used to the noise. At the beginning I couldn't understand Londoners because I wasn't used to the accent. 2 structures Be used to can be followed by -ing forms, but not infinitives (see 298.2). I'm used to driving in London now, but it was hard at the beginning. (NOT I'm used to drive in London ) It was a long time before she was used to working with old people. Used is an adjective in this structure, and can be modified by quite or very. I'm quite used to her little ways. 3 get used to .ing etc Get, become and sometimes grow (see 128) can also be used before used to (. ing). You'll soon get used to living in the country. Little by little, he became used to his new family. It took them a long time to grow used to getting up in the night. 4 pronunciation Note that used is pronounced /ju:st/ in this structure. page 596 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. verb complementation: what can follow a verb? 606 606 verb complementation: what can follow a verb? 1 different verbs, different structures Different verbs can be followed by different kinds of word and structure. This is partly a matter of meaning: after a verb like eat or break, for instance, it is normal to expect a noun; after try or stop, it is natural to expect a verb. It is also partly a matter of grammatical rules that have nothing to do with meaning. Before an object, wait is followed by for; expect has no preposition. One can tell somebody something, but one cannot explain somebody something. One hopes to see somebody, but one looks forward to seeing somebody. One advises somebody to see the doctor, but one does not suggest somebody to see the doetor. Unfortunately there are no simple rules for this kind of problem; it is necessary to learn, for each verb, what kind of structures can follow it. A good dictionary will normally give this information. 2 verb + object; transitive and intransitive verbs Some verbs are usually followed by nouns or pronouns that act as direct objects. In grammars these verbs are called 'transitive'. Examples are invite, surprise. Let's invite Sally and Bruce. (BUT NOT Let's invite.) You surprised me. (BUT NOT You surpliseti.) Some verbs are not normally followed by direct objects. These are called 'intransitive'. Examples are sit, sleep. Do sit down. (BUT NOT Do sit that chair.) I usually sleep well. (BUT NOT She slept the baby.) Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive. England lost the match. Let's eat. England lost. I can't eat this. Some transitive verbs can be followed by two objects (indirect and direct). For details, see 610. I'll send you the form tomorrow. I'm going to buy Sarah some flowers. For verb structures used as objects, see paragraphs 8-10 below. For structures with object complements, see paragraph 10 below. 3 She opened the door / The door opened Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively with different kinds of subject; the intransitive use has a meaning rather like a passive (see 412) or reflexive (see 493) verb. Compare: - She opened the door. - The wind's moving the curtain. The door opened. The curtain's moving. For more examples, see 609. 4 verbs with prepositions and particles Many verbs need prepositions before their objects. Why are you looking at me like that? (NOT V/hy a/'€!you looking me ?) I'd like you to listen to this. (NOT to listen this.) ~ page 597 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. verb complementation: what can follow a verb? 606 Let's talk about your plans. (NOT Let's talk your plans.) The preposition is dropped when there is no object. Look! (NOT Look atn Other verbs can be used with adverb particles (see 20). Some of these combinations are transitive; others are intransitive. We'll have to put off our visit to Scotland. It's time to get up. For more about two-part verbs like these, see 599-600. 5 complements of place Usually, a preposition is necess my before an expression of place. She arrived at the station last night. (NOT She arrived the station ) Don't walk on the grass. (NOT Don't walk the grass.) A few verbs can be used with direct objects referring to place. I like climbing mountains. (NOT [like climbing on mountains.) Some verbs are incomplete without an expression of place. He lives in York. (BUT NOT He lives.) She got off the bus. (BUT NOT 5he-got.) 6 link verbs Some verbs are followed not by an object, but by a subject complement - an expression which describes the subject. These are called 'link verbs'. For details, see 328. Your room is a mess. The toilets are upstairs. That looks nice. I felt a complete idiot. 7 verb + verb: auxiliaries Many verbs can be followed by forms of other verbs. Auxiliaryverbs are used with other verbs to make questions and negatives, progressive forms, perfect forms, and passives. For details, see 85. Do you want some tea? Where have you been? It doesn't matter. These are made in France. Modal auxiliary verbs are used with other verbs to add ideas such as certainty, probability, futurity, permission and obligation. For details, see 353-354. You must be tired. The lecture will start at ten. The car may need a new engine. Can I borrow your paper? We ought to invite the Maxwells this weekend. 8 verb + verb: other verbs Many verbs besides auxiliaries can be followed by forms of other verbs (or by structures including other verbs). This can happen, for example, if we talk about our attitude to an action: the first verb describes the attitude and the second refers to the action. The second verb structure is often rather like the direct object of the first verb. I enjoy playing cards. I saw that she was crying. I hope to see you soon. Different structures are possible, depending on the particular verb. Some verbs can be followed by infinitives with or without to (see 282-283), some verbs can be followed by -ing forms, with or without a preposition (see 296), and some by clauses. Many verbs can be followed by more than one of these structures, page 598 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. verb + object + complement 607 often with a difference of meaning or use. For each verb, it is necessary to know which structures are possible. We seem to have a problem. (NOT Vie seem rtafJinga problem.) Can I help wash up? It's not very easy to stop smoking. (NOT to stop to smoke.) We're thinking of moving. (NOT We're thinking to mOt!e.) I suggest that you see a solicitor. OR I suggest seeing a solicitor. (NOT 1 sttggest you to see a solicitor.) Sometimes the first verb does not give information about the subject - it says more about the action which the second verb refers to. I happened to see Alice the other day. We're starting to get invited to some of the neighbours' parties. My keys seem to have disappeared. It is possible to have 'chains' of verbs following each other. I keep forgetting to go shopping. Don't let me stop you working. He seems to be trying to sit up. I don't want to have to get her to start telling lies. 9 verb + object + verb Many verbs can be followed by an object as well as a verb structure. Can I help you wash up? I'd like you to meet Sally. We all want you to be happy. (NOT Hie all want that you are happy.) We've got to stop him making a fool of himself. When are you going to get the clock repaired? Nobody told me that you were here. For more about verb + object + infinitive, see 283. For structures with object + -ing form, see 296. 10 verb + object + complement Some transitive verbs can be followed by an object together with an object complement (an expression that gives more information about the object). For details, see 607. You make me nervous. Let's paint it blue. See the Index for problems with the structures after some common verbs. For information about other verbs, see a good dictionary. 607 verb + object + complement 1 adjective and noun complements Some transitive verbs can be followed by an object together with an object complement (an expression that gives more information about the object). This is often an adjective or noun phrase. You make me nervous. She's driving us crazy. Let's cut it short. I find her attitude strange. Don't call me a liar. page 599 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. verb + object + complement 607 I don't know why they elected him President. Would you like to join the committees>- I would consider it an honour. A long and heavy object may come after the complement. Compare: He painted the wall red. (NOT He painted retl the wall.) He painted red all of the kitchen walls as well as the window frames and ceiling. 2 see, describe etc: structure with as After some verbs, an object complement is introduced by as. This is common when we say how we see or describe somebody/something. I see you as a basically kind person. She described her attacker as a tall dark man with a beard. His mother regards him as a genius. After tests, they identified the metal as gold. The structure is also possible with as being. The police do not regard him as (being) dangerous. 3 verbs of thinking and feeling: structure with to be Some verbs that refer to thoughts, feelings and opinions (e.g. believe, consider, feel, know, find, understand) can be followed by object + infinitive (usually to be) in a formal style. In an informal style, that-clauses are more common. I considered him to be an excellent choice. (Less formal: I considered that he was ) We supposed them to be married. (Less formal: We supposed that they were ) They believed her to be reliable. (Less formal: They believed that she was reliable.) This structure is very unusual with think. I thought that she was mistaken. (More natural than I thought her to he mistaken.) To be can be dropped after consider. I considered him (to be) an excellent choice. Passive forms of these structures may be less formal than active forms (see paragraph 6 below). For more details of structures with [eel, see 202; for know, see 313; for think, see 588. 4 They found her (to be) After find + object, to be suggests the result of a test or investigation. Compare: - Everybody found her very pleasant. The doctors found her to be perfectly fit. - I found the bicycle very comfortable to ride. The testersfound this bicycle to be the best value for money. S structures with preparatory it When the object of a verb is a clause, infinitive structure or -ing structure, and there is an object complement, it is common to use it as a preparatory object. Compare: She made her views clear. She made it clear that she disagreed. (NOT She made that she disagreed eiettF.) page 600 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. verbs with both active and passive meanings 609 For details of this structure, see 447. 6 passive structures Passive versions of these structures are common. It was painted blue. He was elected President. Her attacker was described as a tall man with a beard. The metal was identified as gold. He is not regarded as being dangerous. For a long time he was thought to be a spy. She was believed to belong to a revolutionary organisation. Seven people are understood to have been injured in the explosion. It was considered impossible to change the date. For the structures that are possible after a particular verb, see a good dictionary. 608 verbs of movement: she ran in etc When we want to talk about a movement, its direction and its nature, there are several possibilities. We can use three separate words for the three ideas: She came in running. We can use a verb which includes the idea of direction, and describe the nature of the movement separately: She entered running. Or we can use a verb which makes clear the nature of the movement, and describe the direction separately: She ran in. In English, the third of these solutions is the most common. She danced across the garden. (More natural than She crossed the garden dancing.) I jumped down the stairs. (More natural than I came down the stairs jumping.) They crawled out of the cellar. We flew past Mont Blanc. 609 verbs with both active and passive meanings 1 She opened the door / The door opened Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively with different kinds of subject. The intransitive use has a meaning rather like a passive (see 412) or reflexive (see 493) verb. Compare: - She opened the door. The door opened. - The wind's moving the curtain. The curtain's moving. - Marriage has really changed her. She's changed a lot since she got married. - We're selling a lot of copies of your book. Your book's selling well. - Something woke her. Suddenly she woke. - I can't start the car. The car won't start. page 601 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. [...]... modifying made) It's a good car (adjective modifying car) - He teaches very well I like that teacher He's good (NOT ne's well.) - She speaks English well (NOT She Sf3etlks English good.) She speaks good English Her English is good Note that we cannot say She sfJetllcswell English (Adverbs cannot usually go between the verb and the object - see 21.1.) 2 well = 'in good health' There is also an adjective well,... were very surprised when Pete passed his exam (More common than very much surprised ) 4 very much (adverb) Very much can be an adverb We very much enjoyed the party (NOT We liel)' enjoyed.) page 604 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this waterma want 613 We do not normally put very much between a verb and its object I very much like mountains (NOT I like very much mountains.)... or past participle) to express ideas such as change or result They wanted him dead She doesn't want him back I want her out of there now We want the job finished by Tuesday To be or as is used before a noun complement I want you to be my friend (OR as my friend NOT [want yOU m:yfriend.) 3 want meaning 'need' In informal British English, we can say that a thing 'wants' (= needs) something, particularly... He's not very imaginative (NOT He's little imaginative.) 3 past participles: very much loved, very worried Before past participles we normally use uery much She was very much loved by her grandchildren (NOT She was vel)' loved.) Journey times will be very much reduced by the new road (NOT -very I etlucetl ) But we use very with some past participles that are used as adjectives For details, see 410.4... objects of the verbs in their clauses (Note that whomever is not used in modern English. ) Whoever directed this film, it's no good (subject of directed) Whoever you marry, make sure he can cook (object of many) Whatever you say, I don't think he's the right man (object of say) ~ page 613 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this waterm whoever, whatever etc 625 Whichever and whatever... There's somebody coming up the stairs ~ That'll be Mary Tomorrow will be cloudy, with some rain Will have + past participle refers to the past Dear Sir, You will recently have received a form We can't go and see them now - they'll have gone to bed page 616 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this waterma will: various uses 629 4 willingness and decisions Will can express the speaker's... himself all the time Stressed would can also be used to criticise a single past action - the meaning is 'that's typical of you' You WOULD tell Mary about the party - I didn't want to invite her page 622 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this waterm yes and no 634 8 would and used to Used to (see 604) can refer to repeated actions and events in the past, in the same way as would... forward, the form without -S is always used I look forward to hearing from you She put forward a very interesting suggestion 3 other words Towards and afterwards are the usual forms in British English; in American English, toward and afterward are also common 615 1 way preposition dropped In an informal style, we usually drop the prepositions in or by before way You're doing it (in) the wrong way Come... an informal style, we often say the way (that) instead of the way in/ by which I don't like the way (that) you talk to me Let's go the way (that) we went yesterday page 606 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this waterm weak and strong forms 616 3 infinitive or -ing After way (meaning 'method'l'manner') we can use an infinitive structure or of ing There is no important difference... sentence: there is no other word to be stressed.) ~ Where have lav I you been? You might have lavl told me What did you have [tue»] for breakfast? (non-auxiliary verb) ~ page 607 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this waterm weak and strong forms 616 Contracted negatives always have a strong pronunciation mustn't j'mAsnt/ can't /ka:nt/ wasn't /'wDznt/ 3 list of words with weak and . example, She's a well girl. For ill and sick, see 266 . For well as a discourse marker, see 15 7 . 16 ,17 ,20. 61 8 when and if A person who says when (referring. we went yesterday. page 60 6 Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark. weak and strong forms 61 6 3 infinitive or -ing After way (meaning