Orality and universality in search of a

Université Sorbonne Paris Cité Université Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris ED 514 : EDEAGE (Etudes Anglophones, Germanophones et Européennes) EA 4398 : PRISMES (Langues, Textes, Arts et Cultures du Monde Anglophone) Thèse de doctorat en études anglophones (traductologie) Tiffane LEVICK Orality and Universality: In Search of a Global Youth Speak in Translation VOLUME Thèse dirigée par Pr Clíona NI RIORDAIN Soutenue le 30 novembre 2018 Jury : Pr Christine BERTHIN, Université Paris Nanterre (rapporteur) Dr Leah GERBER, Monash University (rapporteur) Pr Duncan LARGE, University of East Anglia Pr Clíona NI RIORDAIN, Université Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris Pr Bruno PONCHARAL, Université Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris Résumé Oralité et universalité : la recherche d’un parler jeune global en traduction Cette thèse est le fruit d’un projet de recherche qui mêle la pratique et la théorie de la traduction Divisée en deux volumes, elle étudie des questions liées la traduction de l’argot tel qu’utilisé dans des œuvres de fiction Le premier comprend un commentaire critique composé de trois parties, et le second une traduction en anglais du roman Moi non (P Goujon, Gallimard, 2003) L’intrigue du roman se déroulant en banlieue parisienne, le commentaire explore la faỗon dont les jeunes adultes marginalisộs peuvent sexprimer par l’emploi de l’argot, une variété linguistique non-standard Cette variété est souvent représentative d’un lieu précis et d’une identité particulière, participant un ensemble de formes d’expression qui sert distinguer la jeunesse marginalisée de groupes dominants Une telle utilisation de la langue soulève des questions concrètes et abstraites quand on décide de la transcrire et de la traduire dans une œuvre de fiction Souvent, le traducteur a recours l’emploi d’une langue standard ou l’utilisation d’un argot dit « équivalent » La traduction proposée de Moi non s’inscrit dans une méthode alternative qui s’inspire d’un style informel ainsi que de procédés créatifs que l’on peut notamment employer dans le rap et dans l’élaboration de nouvelles expressions argotiques Préférant éviter de situer la traduction dans une aire géographique spécifique, cette traduction invite explorer les points communs de l’ensemble des parlers jeunes du monde anglophone Ce projet représente ainsi une opportunité de vérifier la cohérence et la logique de cette démarche alternative de la traduction de l’argot d’un roman, et de la comparer avec l’approche empruntée par les traducteurs de textes similaires Mots-clés : traduction, sociolinguistique, banlieue, argot, rap, langue non-standard, oralité Abstract Orality and Universality: In Search of a Global Youth Speak in Translation This thesis is the fruit of a research project which marries translation practice and theory Separated into two volumes, it explores questions related to the translation of slang in fictional texts The first volume is a critical commentary composed of three parts, and the second a translation from French into English of the novel Moi non by Patrick Goujon (Gallimard, 2003) Since the plot unfolds in the banlieue of Paris, the critical component investigates the way in which marginalised youth can express themselves through slang, a variety of non-standard language Often representative of a specific place and identity, slang constitutes one of many forms of expression that contribute to setting marginalised youth apart from dominant groups Such use of language raises a number of questions, both concrete and abstract in nature, when one decides to transcribe and translate it in a work of fiction Translators often employ standard language to render this voice in the translated text or otherwise make use of an “equivalent” slang The proposed translation of Moi non embodies an alternative method inspired by an overall informal style of writing, as well as by the creative devices employed in rap lyrics and in the creation of slang words and expressions In an effort to avoid suggesting a specific setting outside of the banlieue, this translation seeks to identify and harness features of English shared by young people throughout the Anglosphere This thesis thus represents an opportunity to ensure the coherence and the logic of this alternative approach to translating slang in an entire novel, and to compare this approach with that adopted by the translators of similar texts Keywords: translation, sociolinguistics, banlieue, slang, rap, nonstandard language, orality Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to… …to my supervisor Clíona Ní Ríordáin Thank you, so very much For your unwavering commitment to both my project and my wellbeing; for guiding me without ever directing me, couching criticism in hints or humour; and for constantly reassuring me that my quiet voice was worth raising I feel immensely privileged to have been your first PhD student …to the Conseil de l’Ecole Doctorale 514 for awarding me a doctoral contract in 2015 and for providing me with additional funding to attend conferences in France and abroad over the three years of this PhD …to Leah Gerber, for first introducing me to theories of translation at Monash University in 2011, and to Isabelle Génin, Yves Lefevre, Anne Mounic, Clíona Ní Ríordáin, Bruno Poncharal, Christine Raguet, and Jessica Stephens who taught the thème, version, and traductologie classes I attended at the Sorbonne Nouvelle in 2009-10, and between 2012 and 2014 Your teaching laid the foundations for the thoughts I have thread through this thesis …to Patrick Goujon, for encouraging me to pull his novel to pieces, literally and figuratively, and for always offering stimulating conversation …to the people who took the time to proofread parts of the translation or the thesis, especially Elizabeth Bryer, Jemma Dunnill, Lamia Dzanouni, Yann Garandel, Camille Hanuise, Fleur Heaney, Blair Hunniford, Morgan Levick, Marine Riou, and Sally Whittler McCallum, as well as to the academics and/or translators who offered invaluable feedback on my work, especially Bill Johnston, Catherine Lanone, Duncan Large, Aliyah Morgenstern, Susan Pickford, Bruno Poncharal, Alexandra Poulain, and Rita Wilson …to the Société des Anglicistes de l’Enseignement Supérieur for funding my trip to attend the Bread Loaf Translators’ Conference at Middlebury College, where I met so many people who offered advice and encouragement for my translation of Moi non …to all of my friends and colleagues at the Sorbonne Nouvelle – from the ED 514, PRISMES, and TRACT, the translation studies team which truly is a team, from the Département and Institut du Monde Anglophone and the Maison de la Recherche – as well as to the people at Monash University alongside whom I was fortunate enough to work on this thesis for a semester in 2016 Thank you for showing me that writing a PhD thesis can be quite the opposite of an isolating experience …to Lamia Dzanouni and Marine Riou, who provided so much advice, encouragement, and chocolate when it was needed most, and who answered and anticipated my questions from before the beginning of the application process right up until submission day Merci For your expertise and for your friendship …to Gaia Aragrande and Frances Egan, the ultimate transatlantic-transpacific-translation thesis writing friends …to my parents, for bringing me up to believe that I could something like this, and for not minding that I did most of it on the other side of the world; to Yann, Laetitia, Anouk, and Romane, for offering a home away from home away from home; and to Camille Hanuise, for introducing me to Patrick, and for being the best of best friends …to Oly Botzaris and Claude Minervois Thank you for your ongoing support …last, but certainly not least, to my friends and family, in France, in Australia, and in other parts of the world, who distracted and entertained me outside of working hours and always helped me to put things into perspective Contents Introduction 11 Part One: Slang and Rap 19 Chapter 1: Theorising Slang 23 Chapter 2: Practising Slang 57 Chapter 3: Rap and the Hip-hop Movement 87 Part Two: Translating Slang in Fiction 115 Chapter 4: Translating Slang in Fictional Texts 119 Chapter 5: An Alternative Typology for Translating Slang 155 Chapter 6: The Banlieue 183 Part Three: Translating the Banlieue 211 Chapter 7: The Banlieue in English 215 Chapter 8: Approaching the Translation of Moi Non 257 Chapter 9: Translating Moi Non 283 Conclusion 309 Bibliography 319 Appendices 337 Index 377 Terminology The terms below are frequently repeated throughout the thesis, and I have chosen to provide a brief explanation to clarify the spelling, italicisation, or usage of each in the context of my discussions Hip-hop: In the various texts I cite in this thesis, the term “hip-hop” is spelt either as one hyphenated word or as two separate words I have chosen to use the hyphenated form, but some quotes and titles will include the two-word version When used at the beginning of sentences or in “The Hiphop Movement”, the first H is capitalised but not the second, since I view it as one hyphenated word Again, some titles and citations adopt a different form and capitalise the two Hs Banlieue: I have chosen not to italicise the word “banlieue” in this thesis since it has become a key term, borrowed in such a way that its foreignness need not be highlighted The words “verlan” and “cité” are less frequently used and less central to the questions related to language use in the banlieue and as such have been italicised In this way, the formatting decisions to distinguish foreign words in italics are consistent throughout the thesis, and the only French word not systematically highlighted is that which lies at the very core of the sociolinguistic questions raised Author/reader: The discussions of fictionalised slang in this thesis pertain mostly to its written form but this should not invalidate the applicability of most of the comments to the spoken slang used in film texts Although cinema has its own codes, the slang used is also modified to a certain extent to fit the aesthetic needs of a fictional text As such, the terms “reader” and “author” can be interpreted in a broader sense in many of my discussions to encompass the viewer and director/producer of film texts, where relevant I will address more directly the specificity of film texts and subtitles in Chapter when analysing Entre les murs and La Haine I use three main terms in my analyses of translated texts to describe the way the translation is undertaken: approach, strategy, and technique Approach: According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), one definition of the term “approach”, preceded by the abbreviation “fig.” is: “a way of considering or handling something, esp a problem” Approach is the most general and conceptual of the three terms I employ It indicates the overall idea or intention governing a particular translation and is more abstract than the two other terms Strategy: The OED states that a “strategy” can be “a plan, scheme, or course of action designed to achieve a particular objective, esp a long-term or overall aim” In this way, the word is slightly more specific than approach, and describes the general but concrete plan of how to translate a text I use the word strategy when describing the options available to the translator of slang as proposed within my typology Technique: Finally, the OED defines “technique” when used as a count noun as “a particular way of carrying out an experiment, procedure, or task, esp in a scientific discipline or a craft; a technical or scientific method” The techniques used in translation are therefore the more specific steps taken to translate a text, within a strategy, on a micro level Such techniques might include modulation, transposition, or the use of relaxed syntax, for example 10 franỗais, si on y ajoute “sandwich” car c’est plutôt un synonyme en forme de nom de code, mais c’est difficilement traduisible Pour “Dieu est né in vitraux”, j’étais curieux de voir comment tu pourrais le transposer mais là, je crois que c’est mission impossible Le jeu de mots avec “In vitro” (dont je dois dire j’étais assez fier) devient très premier degrộ, perdant le double sens mais renforỗant limage, selon laquelle Dieu aurait ộtộ conỗu par les hommes et leur imagerie, dont les vitraux font partie… p 180 Quand je finis de chanter mes textes, Jay me donne son avis En général, il me trouve trop catégorique, et puis aussi, trop « classique » Il pense que je devrais plus réfléchir par moi-même et nuancer mes propos, me forger ma propre opinion quoi Selon lui, je peux faire autant de pirouettes que je veux si je reste droit Authentique, original, impertinent et juste, sans jamais suivre le troupeau, sans quoi j'en arriverais au même résultat, les trois quarts font de la merde pour la radio Ma haine, je l'ai là, du côté gauche, et faut que je m'en serve de la meilleure faỗon possible pour les rares que je reprộsente When I finish singing what I’ve written, Jay gives me his feedback In general, he finds that I’m too categorical, and also too “classic” He thinks I should think for myself a bit more and add depth to what I say – so basically we wants me to come up with my own opinion According to him, I can as many pirouettes as I want if I stay straight Genuine, original, impertinent and fair, without ever following the crowd – if this isn’t how I approach things, I’ll end up with the same stuff: three quarters of them just produce shit for radio My hate, I’ve got it right here, on the left, and I need to use it in the best way possible for the few people I’m speaking for Si je reste droit – je pense comprendre ce que tu veux dire – mais je pense aussi qu’il y a un jeu de mots ici que je ne traduis pas, dans le sens où (je pense…) tu joues avec le sens figuré et le sens propre du mot droit cest bien ỗa que tu fais ? Il a fallu que je le relise pour m’en rendre compte ! En effet, il y a bien un jeu de mots Faire des pirouettes, c’est un peu faire le malin avec des effets de style mais il faut pour autant rester droit, c’est-à-dire intègre quant sa pensée, et donc ses propos Par ailleurs, faire des pirouettes est un peu le contraire, au sens propre, physique, de rester droit 368 p 186 Jay interpelle El Mano, au sujet d'un scratch mortel qu'il aurait trouvé pour son refrain Le volume monte et tout le monde bouge la tête Tous complices, sauf moi Avril se roule un joint, l'allume et commence marmonner des bribes de rimes, pas sensationnelles mais bien assez carrées pour une mise en jambes C'est l'échauffement et tout le monde y passe par sessions de deux ou trois minutes El Mano explique dans son couplet pourquoi il rappe, le truc basique, sa technique consiste couper les mots pour faire rimer leur milieu Avril est inspiré alors il reprend le fil et tisse les phrases comme elles viennent, épaules voûtées, yeux furieux, comme une bombe retardement RAP (pas encore traduit) Le niveau commence grimper et j'imagine qu'ensuite les mecs vont débiter des textes écrits Avril me regarde, tire sur son joint et me fait signe d'y aller Je peux pas reculer Flex, c'est mon nom / je passe l'action / crache mes postillons / sur microsillons / mon flot est meurtrier et j'suis… j'suis Putain, j'suis comme un ! Dixxa se fout grave de ma gueule Je sais plus quoi dire, y a plus rien de génial dans ma tête et j'ai pas envie de phraser ma vie devant tous ces types Ma démo est giflée mais El Mano vient aussitôt ma rescousse Tous dans la même galère, tous avec la même toux sèche, / tous soudés et unis chaque fois qu'tombe cette putain d'panne sèche J'prêche la bonne parole dans le rap et c'est pour ỗa qu'j'repờche / mon prochain quand il dérape et dégringole en flèche / J'peux pas le laisser dans la dèche, j'peux pas le laisser sur la brèche, je suis El Mano rimes frches / Mc Ardent Narcissique Ouvertement j'empêche / le débutant de cramer quand j'ai allumé la mèche ! Jay asks El Mano about an awesome scratch he’s apparently found for his chorus The volume is turned up and everyone’s moving their head They’re all in it together Without me Avril rolls himself a joint, lights it and then starts mumbling bits of rhymes - they’re not brilliant but definitely solid enough for an intro They’re warming up and everyone has a go for two or three-minute sessions each In El Mano’s verse he explains why he raps – it’s basic, his technique is to split words so that their middle part rhymes Avril’s inspired so he takes over and weaves his words as they come to him, arched over, eyes furious, like a time bomb RAP (still to translate) 369 The level’s rising and I’m guessing the guys’ll start rolling out written texts soon Avril looks at me, tugs on his joint and gestures me to go for it I can’t back down Flex is my name / I play the game / Busting blame is my aim / Rap is my frame / My words flow and it’s killer / I’m… I’m… Fuck, I’m fucking lame! Dixxa is making fun of me I don’t know what else to say I’ve got no other bright ideas and I don’t feel like rapping my life in front of these guys I’ve messed up my demo but El Mano comes straight to my rescue Q; Giflé ỗa veut bien vouloir dire quil a ô merdộ » ? A: Oui Un autre terme qu’on utilise, c’est ô claquộ ằ Et ỗa sutilise un peu pour tout Une coupe de cheveux toute giflée, un tee-shirt claqué Il y a un cơté « faible », « ringard », « nul », côté de la plaque Donc c’est ça, il a merdé p 193 J'arrive pas ravaler ma fiertộ, c'est mon problốme, ỗa me fait dộfaut pour dénicher des issues de secours Je déteste la vie pour ne pas ressembler ses pubs de produits miracles Avant Après Quand tu vois la photo d'un gros chauve dans le journal, qui se retrouve en clou avec une touffe J'aimerais parler, et parler encore, pour me sentir maigre de mes problèmes l'instant d'après I can’t swallow my pride, that’s my problem, and it stops me from being able to find the best escape routes… I hate life for not being like ads for miracle Before/After products When you see the photo of a big fat bald guy in the newspaper, EN CLOU I want to talk, talk and then talk some more, to feel freed of my worries the very next minute Q: C’est “se retrouver en clou” qui me pose problème ici… A: Il s’agit d’une image, qui convoque celle des avant / après dans les pubs pour produits miracles Le gros chauve deviendrait, en utilisant un produit miracle, avec une touffe (beaucoup de cheveux) et en clou (maigre comme un clou) Le gros chauve se retrouve métamorphosé en clou avec une touffe 370 Appendix 7: Seizure Publication I have thus far been unable to secure a publishing contract for the translation as a whole, but a selection of extracts were chosen to represent romance languages in an edition of the Australian online literary journal entitled Seizure in August 2016 My translated extracts were published alongside the original French extracts and accompanied by a translator’s note which addresses the challenges of translating slang Below are three images that provide an idea of the presentation of the two texts and my note 371 372 Table of Contents Introduction 11 Part One: Slang and Rap 19 Chapter 1: Theorising Slang 23 1.1 Defining Slang 23 Sociolinguistics and Variation 1.2 The Status of Standard Language 30 Conformity and Power 1.3 Naming Slang 41 Register Orality -lects Cant, Argot, Jargon Youth Language Urban Language Terminology Adopted for Thesis Chapter 2: Practising Slang 57 2.1 Functions, Features, and Formation of Slang 57 Rebellion and Exclusion Competition and Novelty Slang as Lexis? Slang or Slangs? Lexis and Beyond: How is Slang Formed? 2.2 Spread and Lifespan of Slang 69 Can Slang be Global? 2.3 Slang in Fictional Texts Features of Slang in Fiction Concluding Remarks on Youth Slang 75 Chapter 3: Rap and the Hip-hop Movement 87 3.1 History and Context of Hip-Hop 88 Hip-hop and Politics Commercialisation of Hip-hop The Reputation of Hip-hop Recontextualising Hip-hop 3.2 The Language and Performance of Rap 102 Rap and (Slam) Poetry Features of Rap Music The Language(s) of Rap: Cross-Fertilisation A Performative Text Concluding Remarks Part Two: Translating Slang in Fiction 115 Chapter 4: Translating Slang in Fictional Texts 119 4.1 General Translation Theory 119 Deforming Tendencies Functional Theories The “Cultural Turn” in Translation Studies Translation and Systems 4.2 Literature on the Translation of Variety 137 Typology 1: Brigitta Eglund Dimitrova Typology 2: Alexandra Assis Rosa Typology 3: Sara Ramos Pinto Heterolingualism and Translation Translating Culture-Bound Terms 4.3 Translating Rap 149 Chapter 5: An Alternative Typology for Translating Slang 155 5.1 Standardisation 5.2 Equivalence 5.3 Invention 5.4 Borrowing 5.5 Non-Specific Colloquial Language 5.6 Translating Rap 374 Chapter 6: The Banlieue 183 6.1 Paris and its Banlieue 183 Banlieue: Dramatised-Lieu or Non-Lieu? Banlieue Versus Suburb 6.2 Jeunes de banlieue 192 Banlieue Youth Language Formation of Banlieue Slang Performing Banlieue Slang 6.3 Banlieue Fiction 205 Banlieue Literature: Fact or Fiction? Part Three: Translating the Banlieue 211 Chapter 7: The Banlieue in English 215 7.1 Banlieue Fiction in English 215 7.2 Kiffe kiffe demain 220 Kiffe kiffe demain in (Two) English(es) Framing the Foreign Reception of Kiffe kiffe demain, at home and abroad Accessibility of the Other 7.3 Entre les murs 231 Entre les murs: From Page to Screen Entre les murs Becomes The Class Subtitling Entre les murs 7.4 La Haine 248 Reception of La Haine at Home and Abroad Subtitling La Haine Chapter 8: Approaching the Translation of Moi Non 257 8.1 Moi Non: Style and Story 257 8.2 Translating Moi non for a PhD Thesis 263 The Translator’s Responsibility 8.3 My Typology and My Translation 268 Standardisation Equivalence Invention Borrowing 375 Non-specific Colloquial Style 8.4 Global Youth Speak 278 Chapter 9: Translating Moi Non 283 9.1 Features of Global Youth Speak 283 Grammar and Syntax Lexis Spelling and Standard Lexis Global Youth Speak in Context 9.2 Translating (with) Rap 293 Non-specific Colloquial Style v Global Youth Speak 9.3 The Translation Process 301 Contact with the Author The Translator or “The Subjective I” Conclusion 309 Bibliography 319 Appendices 337 Appendix 1: Translator’s Notes on Paper Appendix 2: Scrivener Appendix 3: Avoiding Marked Standard Lexis Appendix 4: Translating Proper Nouns Appendix 5: External Input Appendix 6: Clarifications from Patrick Goujon Appendix 7: Seizure Publication Index 377 376 Index agency, 11, 12, 33, 36, 53, 78, 108, 109, 178, 195, 263 argot, 3, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 32, 41, 45, 48, 60, 63, 64, 71, 109, 194, 198, 320, 329, 375 Assis Rosa, Alexandra, 79, 82, 140, 141, 142, 155, 156, 319, 320 authority, 12, 13, 32, 33, 36, 44, 58, 62, 63, 109, 195, 219, 245, 250, 325 banlieue, 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 28, 30, 33, 34, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 64, 65, 69, 70, 84, 88, 91, 93, 96, 97, 101, 118, 119, 132, 133, 146, 149, 150, 155, 160, 161, 162, 171, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195,196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 237, 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 283, 289, 299, 301, 305, 307, 309, 312, 314, 315, 325, 326, 331, 369, 375 Bassnett, Susan, 128, 138, 309, 320 Begag, Azouz, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 205, 209, 215, 216, 258, 318, 320 Bégaudeau, Franỗois, 17, 213, 217, 219, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 318 Bell, Anthea, 173, 174, 320 Berman, Antoine, 119, 120, 121, 126, 128, 142, 146, 156, 167, 170, 320 beur, 89, 205, 258, 323, 325, 328 borrow, 37, 144, 172, 226, 276 borrowing, 37, 74, 99, 146, 148, 155, 162, 169, 170, 171, 172, 177, 179, 199, 241, 244, 256, 275, 276, 277 Bourdieu, Pierre, 27, 38, 129, 321 Bradley, Adam, 89, 97, 103, 105, 106, 111, 151, 297, 321 Bronx, 88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 102, 104, 112, 162, 271, 272 Calvet, Louis-Jean, 12, 39, 45, 52, 53, 61, 89, 192, 321 Casanova, Pascale, 130, 135, 136, 321 cité, 9, 101, 188, 190, 196, 219, 220, 250, 259, 260 colloquial, 23, 42, 43, 44, 45, 58, 63, 64, 70, 71, 139, 140, 155, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 223, 245, 254, 256, 261, 276, 277, 278, 286, 287, 290, 293, 294, 299, 300, 301, 306 competition, 59, 62, 203 conformity, 30, 34, 35, 40, 50, 135, 356 creativity, 66, 109, 208, 274, 302, 310, 321, 326 culture-bound, 17, 119, 147, 148, 149 dialect, 41, 42, 47, 48, 68, 137, 138, 139, 140, 144, 158, 159, 163, 164, 173, 174, 176, 238, 322 dissidence, 53, 195, 244, 306 DJ Kool Herc, 88, 89, 94, 102 dynamic equivalence, 125, 162 equivalence, 123, 146, 147, 155, 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 168, 174, 176, 178, 179, 180, 204, 231, 244, 246, 252, 255, 269, 270, 271, 273, 276, 277 equivalent, 29, 66, 121, 123, 146, 148, 161, 162, 166, 167, 175, 179, 187, 191, 255, 272 Even-Zohar, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 323 flow, 75, 90, 106, 107, 202, 243, 263, 285, 291, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 302, 372 function, 16, 26, 32, 40, 44, 45, 59, 61, 63, 66, 68, 71, 77, 89, 101, 117, 118, 122, 124, 125, 126, 148, 156, 377 169, 171, 178, 179, 245, 264, 277, 278, 298, 302, 303, 310, 314 Gadet, 27, 28, 35, 36, 43, 44, 52, 64, 323 ghetto, 99, 101, 186, 188, 191 Global Youth Speak, 1, 4, 13, 14, 29, 119, 214, 267, 268, 274, 278, 279, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 299, 300, 301, 303, 304, 306, 307, 350, 351, 375 Goudaillier, Jean-Pierre,, 25, 33, 59, 70, 194, 195, 196, 198, 324 Goujon, Patrick, 5, 8, 11, 17, 203, 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 273, 279, 284, 289, 305, 318, 355, 367 Guène, Faïza, 17, 203, 206, 207, 213, 216, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 258, 318, 319, 328 heterolingualism, 17, 119, 145, 146 hip-hop, 7, 9, 12, 15-16, 39, 50, 75, 87, 88, 90-103, 106, 108, 149, 150, 209, 248, 262, 271-273, 279, 320-323, 327-328 informal, 26, 41-46, 64, 68, 71, 155, 179, 201, 223-224, 232, 233, 235, 241, 247, 263, 277-279, 284-285, 287, 290, 293, 300-301 informality, 23, 26, 70, 239, 247, 283 invention, 148, 155, 162, 168-169, 179, 246, 256, 273-275, 276 Kassovitz, Mathieu, 17, 213, 220, 248, 249, 318 Labov, William, 27, 36, 51, 74, 325 Lefevere, André, 128, 130, 134, 135, 151, 309, 325 lexical, 61, 64, 65, 69, 144, 147, 169, 170, 172, 174, 197, 198, 199, 224, 241, 254, 284, 286, 293 lexis, 8, 17, 23, 43, 63-66, 68, 145, 147, 168, 170, 171, 172, 179, 197, 199, 223, 224, 225, 226, 234, 241, 245, 246, 263, 275, 276, 278, 285-288, 290, 293, 299, 301, 303, 351, 354 marginalisation, 11, 16, 33, 88, 89, 105, 109, 168, 192, 265, 271, 272 marginalised, 12, 14, 15, 16, 23, 28, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 53, 54, 57, 59, 61, 76, 78, 80, 82, 88, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 110, 112, 113, 119, 138, 145, 149, 157, 160, 168, 171, 180, 183, 189, 194, 195, 199, 201, 203, 209, 218, 219, 230, 231, 237, 245, 247, 256, 259, 261, 264, 265, 266, 267, 271, 274, 276, 279, 287, 300, 301, 305, 307, 312, 313, 314 minority, 12, 21, 39, 59, 77, 92, 99, 110, 138, 160, 168, 180, 189, 190, 192, 193, 266, 267 Moi non, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 34, 59, 72, 75, 88, 107, 110, 111, 145, 150, 178, 200, 201, 209, 214, 256, 257, 258, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 283, 287, 288, 289, 295, 299, 300, 301, 307, 314, 315, 318, 368 Nida, Eugene, 125, 137, 144, 162, 327 non-standard, 3, 4, 11, 12, 14, 16, 21, 23, 24, 26, 28, 31, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 59, 60, 63, 72, 76, 78, 79, 83, 109, 112, 119, 130, 138, 139, 141, 143, 146, 153, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 195, 197, 235,268, 269, 276, 277, 280, 284, 285, 286, 295, 300, 307, 312, 375 Nord, Christane, 125, 127, 188, 242, 327 norms, 23, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 49, 50, 60, 74, 78, 97, 123, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139, 144, 164, 171, 179, 180, 195, 236, 237, 285, 329 novel, 5, 11, 15, 17, 26, 58, 76, 81, 102, 139, 145, 159, 166, 168, 171, 172, 173, 205, 206, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236, 238, 242, 245, 247, 256, 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 267, 269, 271, 273, 274, 278, 280, 283, 285, 378 287, 289, 291, 295, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304, 307, 311, 315, 350, 357, 367 novelty, 22, 23, 26, 57, 62, 66, 69 omission, 238, 254, 293, 139, 141, 148, 300 Parks, Tim, 136, 237, 311, 322, 327 perform, 31, 44, 104, 128, 129, 170, 180, 202, 203, 247, 310, 314 performance, 13, 44, 52, 60, 62, 72, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 111, 119, 133, 150, 152, 197, 201, 203, 204, 297, 307, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316 performative, 26, 59, 104, 111, 152, 177, 312 playful, 14, 45, 58, 63, 66, 68, 69, 93, 169, 177, 178, 247, 262, 265, 269, 273, 279, 293, 294, 299, 300, 301, 306 poetry, 89, 90, 103, 104, 105, 107, 150, 151, 260, 327-328 power, 23, 33-36, 38, 41, 47, 53, 92, 98, 104, 109, 112, 127-128, 135, 138, 141, 159, 164, 184, 189, 237, 265, 324 Pym, Anthony, 79, 81, 83-84, 117, 121, 327 Ramos Pinto, Sara, 77, 80, 142-144, 149, 155, 163, 328 rap, 1, 3, 4, 12, 14, 16, 17, 22, 34, 39, 51, 59, 61-62, 71, 75, 87-112, 118119, 149-152, 177-178, 199, 200, 201, 203, 209, 214, 257, 258, 262-263, 273, 274, 278-279, 280, 283, 291, 293-299, 301-302, 306, 307, 321-322, 326, 328, 340, 364, 371-372, 375 rebel, 38, 60, 157, 195 rebellion, 22, 37, 45, 59, 78, 93, 109, 157, 168, 171, 189, 204, 268, 312 register, 23, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 155, 158, 173, 179, 254, 276, 277 Reiss, Katharina, 122, 123, 124, 328 Rey, Alain, 50, 70, 71, 109, 328 skopos, 124, 128, 158, 172, 329 slam, 103, 104, 105 sociolect, 47, 58, 76 sociolinguistics, 4, 15, 21, 22, 23, 27, 30, 51, 59, 137, 319, 325, 329, 375 speech community, 30, 64, 65, 67, 72, 78 spoken word, 90, 103, 105 standard, 13, 14, 16, 23, 26, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 48, 49, 59, 60, 63, 66, 69, 71, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 97, 108, 109, 111, 112, 119, 126, 141, 143, 145, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 173, 174, 176, 179, 192, 195, 200, 203, 227, 230, 232, 268, 270, 276, 277, 284, 285, 293, 297, 300, 301, 306, 310, 325, 330, 351 standardisation, 38, 143, 146, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 167, 168, 176, 177, 179, 231, 242, 243, 244, 252, 255, 268-269, 273, 276, 306, 326 standardise, 159, 263 suburb, 190-191 syntax, 10, 29, 40, 43, 64, 77, 197, 223, 224, 225, 234, 241, 245, 254, 284, 290, 295, 296, 300, 301 Toury, Gideon, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 329 urban, 11, 12, 22, 26, 42, 51, 52, 53, 57, 75, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 95, 96, 108, 119, 149, 160, 162, 187, 188, 190, 191, 196, 200, 201, 203, 205, 209, 222, 223, 241, 247, 255, 260, 262, 263, 272, 289, 298, 325, 327-329, 332 Valdman, Albert, 32, 57, 58, 60, 64, 65, 195, 329 variation, 27, 28, 36, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 54, 63, 64, 79, 117, 140, 198, 319, 321-323, 327 variety, 15, 17, 21, 23, 24, 28, 30-31, 33-38, 40, 42-44, 50, 53, 63, 66, 69, 78-79, 80, 83, 84, 109, 112, 117-119, 122-123, 127, 137-147, 149, 155-156, 159, 160-161, 164, 168, 170, 171, 173, 192, 194-196, 198, 215, 221, 241, 247, 268, 270, 279-280, 306 Venuti, 12, 120-122, 124-126, 130, 133, 148, 156, 162, 179, 320, 323, 327-329 379 verlan, 9, 60, 61, 64, 89, 189, 197, 198, 205, 223, 227, 234, 235, 241, 246, 254, 263, 273, 355 Vermeer, Hans J., 124, 329 vernacular, 33, 51, 64, 120, 121, 142, 270 visibility, 94, 98, 104, 112, 141, 170, 227, 312 young, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 28, 30, 34, 35, 39, 42, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 69, 70, 75, 80, 84, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 104, 110, 112, 118, 119, 145, 146, 160, 162, 166, 183, 184, 188, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 207, 209, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 244, 248, 249, 252, 253, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 265, 271, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 286, 290, 292, 293, 300, 301, 313 youth, 1, 4, 12-16, 22-23, 26, 28-29, 38, 42, 44, 46, 48-51, 53-55, 64, 66, 68, 70, 75-76, 78, 80, 84, 88, 90-92, 95-99, 108-109, 112, 113, 119, 145, 149, 161, 183, 194-195, 197, 203-204, 206, 208, 218-219, 220, 223, 229-230, 232, 234, 236-237, 241, 244-245, 247, 248, 252, 255-256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 271, 273, 274, 276, 279, 280, 283, 285-287, 300, 301, 305, 307, 312, 314, 329, 350-351, 375 ZEP, 232, 237, 238 380 Résumé Oralité et universalité : la recherche d’un parler jeune global en traduction Cette thèse est le fruit d’un projet de recherche qui mêle la pratique et la théorie de la traduction Divisée en deux volumes, elle étudie des questions liées la traduction de l’argot tel qu’utilisé dans des œuvres de fiction Le premier comprend un commentaire critique composé de trois parties, et le second une traduction en anglais du roman Moi non (P Goujon, Gallimard, 2003) L’intrigue du roman se déroulant en banlieue parisienne, le commentaire explore la faỗon dont les jeunes adultes marginalisộs peuvent sexprimer par l’emploi de l’argot, une variété linguistique non-standard Cette variété est souvent représentative d’un lieu précis et d’une identité particulière, participant un ensemble de formes d’expression qui sert distinguer la jeunesse marginalisée de groupes dominants Une telle utilisation de la langue soulève des questions concrètes et abstraites quand on décide de la transcrire et de la traduire dans une œuvre de fiction Souvent, le traducteur a recours l’emploi d’une langue standard ou l’utilisation d’un argot dit « équivalent » La traduction proposée de Moi non s’inscrit dans une méthode alternative qui s’inspire d’un style informel ainsi que de procédés créatifs que l’on peut notamment employer dans le rap et dans l’élaboration de nouvelles expressions argotiques Préférant éviter de situer la traduction dans une aire géographique spécifique, cette traduction invite explorer les points communs de l’ensemble des parlers jeunes du monde anglophone Ce projet représente ainsi une opportunité de vérifier la cohérence et la logique de cette démarche alternative de la traduction de l’argot d’un roman, et de la comparer avec l’approche empruntée par les traducteurs de textes similaires Mots-clés : traduction, sociolinguistique, banlieue, argot, rap, non-standard, oralité Abstract Orality and Universality: In Search of a Global Youth Speak in Translation This thesis is the fruit of a research project which marries translation practice and theory Separated into two volumes, it explores questions related to the translation of slang in fictional texts The first volume is a critical commentary composed of three parts, and the second a translation from French into English of the novel Moi non by Patrick Goujon (Gallimard, 2003) Since the plot unfolds in the banlieue of Paris, the critical component investigates the way in which marginalised youth can express themselves through slang, a variety of non-standard language Often representative of a specific place and identity, slang constitutes one of many forms of expression that contribute to setting marginalised youth apart from dominant groups Such use of language raises a number of questions, both concrete and abstract in nature, when one decides to transcribe and translate it in a work of fiction Translators often employ standard language to render this voice in the translated text or otherwise make use of an “equivalent” slang The proposed translation of Moi non embodies an alternative method inspired by an overall informal style of writing, as well as by the creative devices employed in rap lyrics and in the creation of slang words and expressions In an effort to avoid suggesting a specific setting outside of the banlieue, this translation seeks to identify and harness features of English shared by young people throughout the Anglosphere This thesis thus represents an opportunity to ensure the coherence and the logic of this alternative approach to translating slang in an entire novel, and to compare this approach with that adopted by the translators of similar texts Keywords: translation, sociolinguistics, banlieue, slang, rap, non-standard, orality UNIVERSITE SORBONNE NOUVELLE-PARIS ED 514 : EDEAGE (Etudes Anglophones, Germanophones et Européennes) EA 4398 : PRISMES (Langues, Textes, Arts et Cultures du Monde Anglophone) Institut du Monde anglophone, rue de l’école de médecine 75006 Paris