understand electronics second edition pdf

www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Understand Electronics www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com This Page Intentionally Left Blank www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Understand Electronics Second Edition Owen Bishop OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Newnes An imprint of Elsevier Science Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803 First published 1995 Reprinted 1996, 1998, 1999 Second edition 2001 Transferred to digital printing 2003 Copyright 1995, 2001 Owen Bishop All rights reserved The fight of Owen Bishop to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W 1T 4LP Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 7506 5391 I For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at www.newnespress.com www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Contents Introduction 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 vii Electrons and electricity E.m.f and potential Resistance Capacitance Inductance Simple circuits Semiconduction Transistors Semiconductor circuits Power supply circuits Sensors and transducers Optoelectronic sensors Light sources and displays Test equipment From components to circuits Oscillating circuits Amplifying circuits Operational amplifiers Logic circuits Audio electronics Computers Microcontrollers Telecommunications Microwaves Detection and measurement Electronic control Electronics and the future 12 24 38 49 58 68 8O 94 103 114 131 138 144 154 169 182 192 204 225 239 257 263 283 297 312 322 Acknowledgements 328 Index 329 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com This Page Intentionally Left Blank www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com INTRODUCTION his is a book for anyone who wants to get to know about electronics It requires no previous knowledge of the subject, or of electrical theory, and the treatment is entirely non-mathematical It begins with an outline of electricity and the laws that govern its behaviour in circuits Then it describes the basic electronic components and how they are used in simple electronic circuits Semiconductors are given a full treatment since they are at the heart of almost all modern electronic devices In the next few chapters we examine a range of electronic sensors, seeing how they work and how they are used to put electronic circuits in contact with the world around them T The methods used for constnlcting electronic circuits from individual components and the techniques of manufacturing complex integrated circuits on single silicon chips are covered in sufficient detail to allow the reader to understand the steps taken in the production of an item of electronic equipment This is followed by an account of the test equipment used to check the finished product The next few chapters deal with the electronic circuits that are used in special fields and serves as an introduction to amplifiers, logic circuits, audio equipment, computing, teleconummications (including TV and video equipment) and microwave technology Then we look at the ways in which electronics plays an ever-increasing role in measurement, detection and control in industry and other fields Throughout, the descriptions are intentionally aimed at the non-technical reader Finally, we outline some of the current research in electronics and point the way to future developments in this technology All the photographic illustrations in this book were taken by the author www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com This Page Intentionally Left Blank www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com lectricity consists of electric charge Though electricity has been the subject of scientific investigations for thousands of years, the nature of electric charge is not fully understood, even at the present day But we know enough about it to be able to use it in many ways Using electric charge is what this book is about E Electric charge is a property of matter and, since matter consists of atoms, we need to look closely at atoms to find out more about electricity But, even without studying atoms as such, we are easily able to discover some of the properties of electricity for ourselves The simplest way to demonstrate electric charge is to take a plastic ruler and rub it with a dry cloth If you hold the ruler over a table on which there are some small scraps of thin paper or scraps of plastic film, the pieces jump up and down repeatedly If you rub an inflated rubber balloon against the sleeve of your clothing then place it against the wall or ceiling, for a while, the balloon remains attracted to the wall or ceiling, defying the force of gravity The electric charge on the plastic ruler or wall is creating a force, an electric force In effect, the energy of your rubbing appears in another form which moves the pieces of paper, or prevents the balloon from falling www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 320 Understand Electronics Although most PLCs are capable of high-level functions, they are more often used in situations that require only elementary processing In such instances, they not need a computer expert to program them PLCs use special programming languages that are easily learned by the engineers on the site One such PLC, known as SPLat, can be programmed for most simple tasks using a BASIC-type language with only 11 different instructions in its set Electronic control systems relieve human operators of the tedious tasks of measuring, assessing and correcting equipment and, moreover, can operate at much faster speeds They also have the advantage that they can work for long hours without tiring They not forget to perform each step in their task As explained in the next section, many factory jobs such as painting, welding and assembling of parts can be performed exclusively by electronically controlled robots The social effects of this have been notable, bringing unemployment to some and new careers to others One of the lesser publicized consequences of automation is that large factories can no longer support the canteen where dozens or hundreds of workers formerly took their meals Now the canteen is shut down and the few remaining operatives eat in the local caf6 Robots Many people's idea of a robot is something like C-3PO, the humanoid creature featured in the film Star Wars In reality, a typical robot is of the articulated arm type shown in the photograph opposite This has a fixed base and an arm consisting of a number of segments The segments can rotate in six axes, giving the arm a high degree of flexibility The arm usually ends in a special tool such as a paint spray or a welding torch (as in the photograph), which can be positioned with a precision of less than a millimetre There are also moving platform robots, or rovers, that automatically find their way on the factory floor, delivering parts to the production line and receiving completed units They can also be used for operations in hazardous areas, such as in chemical plant, or on the surface of Mars, or for the secure transportation of drugs in hospitals Often rovers have or wheels, but wheels cannot negotiate rough surfaces For such terrain a robot may have a number of legs, but with these comes the problem of maintaining balance In spite of the problems, some very successful moving platform robots have been designed These include the underwater rovers that can explore wrecks or repair the underwater supports of oil drilling platforms They can reach depths of several thousand metres and relay video pictures to engineeers on the surface www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Electronlc control 321 The operation of a robot is controlled by a computer, which can be 'taught' the jobs the computer has to The robot is taken through the required routines by a human operator After one such 'training' session the robot 'remembers' the movements required (for example, to spray-paint the body of a car) and repeats the action on every subsequent occasion without the need for human guidance The essential feature of robots is that they are flexible; they can be programmed to perform a variety of different tasks, so that the same robot can be used in different parts of the production line, or can be re-programmed when the product design is altered At this point in our account of electronic control systems we are going beyond the province of electronics The action of robots is controlled by software, and their seeming skill is the result of the skill of the programmer Their reliability is the result of the skill of the engineer These are aspects which it would be out of place to discuss here, but the electronic sensors used by the robots are very similar to those described in earlier chapters in this book The electronic circuits of the robot are based on the transistors and logic gates we have already described Those who have read this far in the book will find nothing new in the electronic aspects of these apparently human machines www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com his chapter is the one that needs more revision than any other when the time comes for a new edition of the book Electronics changes rapidly and this chapter reflects the changes Developments which were new at the time of the previous edition may have come to fruition and are now transferred to the earlier chapters of the book In the 1995 edition we wrote about what was then referred to as the 'Information Superhighway' Now the Internet is firmly part of everyday life Today is the era of 'dot-corn' On-line banking, shopping, news reports, tutorials, MP3, and a mine of information are now available on the home computer, usually within a few seconds Working from home is becoming more of a practical proposition for many people The Internet facilities promised in the previous edition have all come about Fuzzy logic and neural networks, mentioned in this chapter in the previous editon, have also become well established and are used in a variety of domestic and industrial equipment T The trend toward miniaturization has continued too The range of SMT components expands daily Mobile telephones and video cameras shrink steadily in size The newly released Matchbox PC is claimed to be the smallest PC in the World Measuring only 70 mm x 50 mm x 24 mm, and weighing only 93 g, it performs most of the functions of its larger brethren, including running the Windows and Linux operating systems www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Electronics and the future 323 But, as always, some developments that were heralded as major break-throughs, subsequently fail to live up to expectation or are superseded by later developments Quadraphonic sound and bubble memories are two examples Another prediction, originating decades ago, has never been fulfilled This was the belief that the advent of computing on a wide scale would lead to the 'paperless office' Observation of the desks of most present-day offices shows that, far from reducing the amount of paper consumed, computing has increased the demand for paper A laser-jet printer can silently gush out reams of beautifully printed paper with little effort It is hard to explain the lack of enthusiasm for working solely with images on the monitor screen 'Hard copy' has a nice safe feel to it One can never quite trust the hard disk not to crash and lose all the data stored on it There are psychological aspects too It seems much easier to read and understand a document that is printed on paper When we were writing this book, most of the work was done directly on the computer However, it was printed out for close editing in the final stages The misspellings and other typographical errors seem to show up much more clearly on paper than on the monitor screen And a paper copy is just the thing to scribble on, crossing out errors and adding amendments Having partly explained away the failure of the paperless office, we might note a development that could help to bring it about Electronic ink has recently been demonstrated as a practical proposition A layer of microcapsules is sandwiched between two flexible, and transparent electrodes Each capsule contains a blue liquid dye in which are suspended fine white particles of titanium oxide The particles are negatively charged so that, when the front electrode is made negative and the rear electrode is made positive, the particles are attracted to the rear of each microcapsule When viewed from above, the capsule looks black www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 324 Understand Electronics If the charges on the electrodes are reversed, the particles move to the front of the capsule, which then looks white The charges are applied by an array of flexible transistors, one for each pixel The ink together with the transistor layer makes up what is called electronic paper Text and illustrations are 'printed' on the paper electronically and appear as a black and white image of high contrast, like a page printed in conventional ink The paper has a wide angle of view, unlike many LCD displays The image remains after the power is switched off, but can be cleared and replaced by a new image This technology is only in its infancy and the aim is to develop it to the stage of being able to produce electronic books Perhaps by the time of the next revision of Understand Electronics, electronic paper and ink will be familiar in our paperless offices Electronic ink and most other innovations in electronics are related to increasing computing power The Blue Gene programme undertaken by IBM is aimed at producing a new computer architecture that will comfortably out-perform all of today's machines The new architecture is called SMASH, which is an acronym for Simple, MAny and Self-Healing The system is simple because it is based on RISC (reduced instruction set) processors These processors have only 57 instructions compared with several hundred in a Pentium The term many, refers to there being as many as 30 processors on one chip, all working in parallel The chips will be mounted on boards, each carrying 36 chips The whole computer will have stacked arrays, each of 16 x 16 boards With so many processors all working at once, the Blue Gene will be about two million times more powerful than the best of today's PCs However, such a large system will inevitably be subject to failure of some of its parts at fairly frequent intervals This can be overcome by incorporating self-checking routines With serious failures, parts of the system can be shut off and the computation will proceed with the remaining sound processors This is the self-healing aspect of the computer's architecture Such are the foreseeable developments in computer architecture, but what of future developments in electronics itself? Here the most likely forecast can be summed up in three words: smaller, faster, and smarter The more significant aspect of size reduction is the miniaturization of the components themselves, to which we have already referred Much research is aimed at making transistors smaller than ever, with the aim of packing more and more of them on the chip New semiconductors, such as those based on gallium arsenide, promise to give us smaller, more densely packed transistors, leading to a new phase of largerscale integration Small size is not the sole aim of these researches; a denselypacked circuit has shorter connections between its components, which means that signals pass from one to the other more quickly www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Electronics and the future 325 Operating speed can be significantly increased A parallel effect arises because smaller transistors have lower capacitance and switch states more rapidly Power consumption is reduced too All of this encourages the use of microprocessors and other complex ICs in electronic systems, leading to an overall increase in 'smartness' of all our electronic equipment This trend is set to continue, and our smaller-sized circuits also will be both faster and smarter The three qualities go hand-in-hand Apart from enhancing the performance of semiconductors and looking for new ones, researchers are examining other ways of building components and circuits based on new technologies At present, the semiconductors in use in electronics are elements (silicon, germanium) or inorganic compounds (cadmium sulphide, gallium arsenide) Now the semiconducting properties of some of the organic compounds are under investigation For example, it has been shown that a film of phenylene vinylene emits a greenish yellow light when a p.d of 1.5 V is applied across it This organic LED has very low efficiency, but research is showing ways of increasing this Advances in this field will no doubt lead to the discovery of new organic semiconductors and eventually to a range of components based on this new technology Another branch of electronic research seeks to produce the smallest possible components, consisting of single molecules The behaviour of certain kinds of molecules is analogous to the behaviour of semiconductor materials It is feasible that we could design and build molecules that will perform the same functions as transistors and other semiconducting devices Molecular electronics, as it is called, would allow circuits to be made very much smaller than is possible with techniques for fabricating integrated circuits from semiconductors One of the biggest problems will be connecting such onemolecule devices to external circuitry This difficulty is one of the more important impediments to the development of molecular devices One line of research is aimed at producing chemically assembled electronic nanocomputers, or CAENs Already an electronic switch has been built from a single molecule of rotaxane This y-shaped molecule has a ring-shaped band of electrons on one of its arms The band can be positioned either at the end of one arm or further down the arm The molecule is located at a crossing point in a lattice of two sets of parallel wires The arrangement is similar to that of the transistors in the drawing on page 218 When the electrons are at the end of the arm, current can flow from a wire in one set of conductors (at positive potential) to a wire in the other set (at ground potential) No current can flow when the electrons are further down the arm Thus we have a molecular switch, which one day may be used as the basis of a microprocessor the size of a grain of salt www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 326 Understand Electronics This is some way off yet, but plans are in hand to build a circuit capable of simple mathematical calculations The circuit comprises five logic gates but its dimensions are only 0.2 tam If future computers are going to be able to process such enormous quantities of data, they will need correspondingly capacious memories IBM are working on a new form of data storage, known as Millipede Like CD recording, this is a mechanical technique in which data is stored as an array of pits in a film of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) This is coated on to a flat plate of silicon Conductive probes in a 32 x 32 array are scanned across the plate When storing data, some of the probes are heated by passing a current through them so that they penetrate the PMMA film to the substrate, forming pits Data is read by slightly warming the probes so that those contacting the substrate lose heat The heat loss is measured and indicates whether the bit stored at each point is a '1' or a '0' At present the density of magnetic data storage on a hard disk is just over gigabytes per square centimetre It seems that, with projected improvements, the top limit for hard disks is about 15 GB/cm With the Millipede technique, the density is in the order of 80 GB/cm Reduction in the size of components reached a new record in December 2000 when Intel released the news that it had built the World's smallest and fastest CMOS transistor The device measures only 30 nm across and 60 nm high (1 nanometre is one thousandth of a millionth of a metre) To obtain the high definition for printing the masks for this device, lntel used Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography This success opens the way to building a microprocessor with 400 million transistors running at a speed of 10 GHz, and operating on a supply of less than V This will considerably reduce power requirements However, there are still problems to overcome, particularly in reducing the 'on' resistance of the transistor Intel has suggested that, once these problems are conquered, we may well see a processor capable of driving a universal translator, to convert text from one language into a wide range of other languages Electron electronics is the name given to the technology of devices that operate using single electrons These could be the smallest and the fastest of all future components Not only would they be fast, but they would permit the highest possible density of data storage So far, IBM has developed a single electron storage of one bit of data The device consists of an ellipse of single cobalt atoms measuring about 20 nm x 10 nm arranged on a substrate It is not possible here to go into the way it works Indeed, there is still a lot for researchers to find out about this technology www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Electronlcs and the future 327 There will also be many problems to overcome - - how to connect the singleelectron devices together, and how to interface them to the outside world We hope that the next revision of this chapter will carry news of progress In the decades following the invention of transistors there was a period of exploitation of their properties In the nineteen-seventies, new designs of integrated circuits appeared almost daily Within a few years, the manufacturers had produced ICs to undertake almost all of the special functions that we could ever need More recently, there have been fewer really novel ICs Perhaps the most unusual have been the processors designed for implementing fuzzy logic and neural networks But most of the new designs have been simply improvements on the old ones Faster action, lower power consumption, and enhanced ability to work in hostile environments have been the main directions of improvement Now that microprocessors and microcontrollers are so versatile and cheap, the design and testing of a new system is easy If there is a function to be performed and there is no IC ready-made to perform it, take a general-purpose microcontroller, equip it with the necessary electronic sensors and output devices, then program it to perform that function Once this stratum of electronic circuit design has been reached, there is less need for new circuit designs and new ICs Software is taking over many of the functions formerly fulfilled by complex electronic circuits For example, instead of using capacitors and inductors to build an audio filter, we can perform the same task by letting a computer or microcontroller operate in real time on the digitized audio signal, and with superior performance From the above, and from the accounts of research in progress, it seems that the principal contribution of electronics in the foreseeable future will be to provide the means for building up massive computing power But, whatever the future holds, it is clear that electronics will continue to play a major part in all of our lives www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Acknowledgements The author thanks the companies and organizations concerned listed below for permission to take photographs on their sites: Bossong Engineering Pty Ltd., Canning vale, Western Australia (p 321) Eastern Generation Ltd., lronbridge, Shropshire (p 312) Jarrold Printing Ltd., Norwich (pp 316 and 319) Kronospan Ltd., Chirk (p 297) Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories, Jodrell Bank, Cheshire (p 182) The author also wishes to thank the following individuals for helpful advice in explaining how they make use of electronic control systems: R Byrnes (Richard Burbidge Decorative Timber Ltd., Oswestry, Shropshire), Russ Cason (Senior Electrical Engineer, Kronospan Ltd., Chirk), Phil Ludgate (Parts Engineering Manager, Ricoh UK Products Ltd., Telford), lan Morison (NRAL, Jodrell Bank), Dave Potter (Head of Process Control Section, Eastern Generation Ltd.), Philip Ringwood (Electronics Engineer, Jarrold Printing Ltd.), Clayton Steele (Automation Technical Manager, Bossong Engineering Pty Ltd.), Nick Thompson (Kronospan Ltd., Chirk) Thanks also to Nic Bishop for on-the-spot information about the SETI project at Arecibo Radio Observatory, Puerto Rico www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Index Active filter 200 Actuator, 312, 314 Adding, 216 Addressing 242 Alternating current, 178 Ammeter, 146 Ampere, 19 Amplifier, common base 99 Amplifier, common collector 99 Amplifier, common emitter 161.183 Amplifier, common source 96, 189 Amplifier cross-field, 285 Amplifier differential 193 Amplifier, emitter follower 99 Amplifier, instrumentation 197 Amplifier inverting 194 Amplifier FET 188 Amplifier low-noise, 189 Amplifier MOSFET, 96, 189 Amplifier non-inverting, 196 Amplifier, operation,d 192 Amplifier, p,'u'ametric 191 Amplifier, source-follower 188 Amplifier transconductance 198 Amplifier, two-stage, 186 Amplitude, 63 Amplitude modulation (AM) 227 Analogue, 223 Analogue-to-digital converter 223 AND operator 205 Anode 10 11.13.77.78 Arecibo Observatory, 278 Articulated ,arm robot, 320 Astable circuit 172.174 Atmel microcontroller 258 Atomic structure, Automation, 312 Avalanche breakdown, 76 79 Avalanche photodiode, 132 Bang-bang system 315 B,'u"code, 298 Base 87 Bandgap device, 108, 116 Battery 16 48 137 Beats 275 Bias 75 184 228 Binary numbers 215 Bipoh-u" transistor 87 Bistable circuit 170 Bit (bin,'u'y digit) 216 BJT (bipoh'u"junction transistor) 87 Blue Gene programme, 324 Body scanner 303.309 Bolometer 308 Breadboard 154 Bridge 61 Bridge rectifier 105 Buses 242 Byte 216 Cache memory, 246 Capacitance 39.46 119, 120 Capacitor 38.44, 48 160 Capacitor variable 43 Card interface 248 Carrier wave 271 Cathode 10 11.13.77, 78 Cathode ray tube 150 CCD (charge coupled device) 135.279 CD (Compact disc) 233 CD-recordable drive, 247 CD-ROM 247 Cell 13.19 Central processing unit (CPU), 240 Characteristic of transistor, 182 Ch,'u'ge c,'u'rier 8.68 Ch,'u'ge coupled device, 135.279 Ch,'uge electric 1.6.40 Check bit 233 Choke 53 Chrominance 279 Circuit CISC computer 260 CMOS 165 CMOS logic 212 Collector 87 Colour code resistor 27 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 330 Understand Electronics Colpitt's oscillator, 176 Combinatorial logic, 220 Common base amplifier, 99 Common base connection, 98 Common collector amplifier, 99 Common collector connection, 98 Common drain connection, 188 Common emitter amplifier, 183 Common emitter connection, 98 Common source amplifier, 96, 189 Common source connection, 189 Compact disc, 233 Computer simulations, 167 Conduction, 7, 71 Conductor, Contact bouce 221 Conventional current, 13 Corioli" s force, 301 Coulomb, 20, 40 Counting, electronic, 298 Coupling, 46, 184 CPU (Central Processing Unit), 240 Crystal oscillator, 175 Current, 9, 14, 19, 77, 96, 183 Current detection, 306 Current measurement, 145 Cut-off frequency, 64 DAB (digital audio broadcasting), 278 DAT (Digital audio tape), 230 Darlington pair, 92 Debouncing, 221 Decibel, 199, 203 Decoupling, 47 Demodulation 274 Depletion region, 75, 84 Diac, 112 Dielectric, 38 Digital audio broadcasting, 278 Digital audio tape, 230 Digital meters, 148 Digital quanties, 223 Digital to analogue converter, 224 Digital versatile disk, 281 Digitizing pad, 249 Diode, 76, 104 Dipole antenna, 272, Disk drives, 241,246 Distributed processing, 262 Domains, magnetic, 225 Dot-matrix printer, 252 Doping, 71 Doppler system, 294 Drain, 81, 84 Dry cell, 15 DVD (digital versatile disk), 281 E24 series resistors, 26 F.arth leakage current breaker, 306 F.kldy current 56 EEPR()M (electrically eraseable PROM), 245.259 Electret microphone, 188 Electric field 5.8 Electrocardiogram, I0 Electrode 12 Electroencephalogram, 31 ! Electrolyte, 12 Electrolytic capacitor 42 Electromagnet 52 Electromagnetic interference, 190 Electromotive force 10, 12 14 Electron, 4, 20, 68.87 Electron electronics, 326 Electronic ink, 323 Envelope (of sound waves), 237 EMI (electromagnetic interference) 190 Emitter 87 Emitter follower amplifier, 99 E.m.f (electromotive force,10, 12, 14 Error signal 314 Exclusive-OR operator, 208 Exponential charging 45 Extrinsic charge carrier, 71 Facsimile (FAX), 266 Farad, 42 Feedback, 177, 187, 314 Ferrite 49.53 Field-effect transistor, 80, 83 Field, electric Field, magnetic, 49 Filament lamp, 138 Filter active 200 Filter, passive 62 Flash memory, 235,245,248 259 Flip-flop 170 222 Flowmeters 299 Forward bias 75 Frequency and wavelength, 270 Frequency, effects of 63, 169, 180, 202 Frequency modulation (FM) 271 Frequency modulation synthesis, 237 Frequency shift keying, 265 Fuel ceil 18 Full-scale deflection, 145 Full-wave rectifier, 104 Fundamental tone, 236 Gain 83, 183 193 193 Gallium arsenide, 138, 165 Gas sensor 124.30 I Gate electrode of transistor, 80, 84 Gate logic, 210 Geostationary orbit, 290 Germanium, 71 Global positioning system, 281 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Index Gray code 305 Grid electrode 93 Ground wave, 289 331 Linear inductive position sensor 121 Linear v,'uiable differential transformer, 121 Liquid crystal display 141 Load cell 120 Logic 204 Logic probe 153 Loudspeaker, 126 Luminance 279 Hall effect, 122 Hardware 254 Half-wave rectifier, 104.111 Harmonic tone 236 Heat sink 70 Henry 51 Hertz 63 HEXTET, 82 Holding current, 111 Hole, 72 87 Humidity sensor, 124 Hysteresis, 102 IC (integrated circuit), 159 IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor), 113 Impedance, 52 126 184, 265 Impedance matching, 185, 197 Inductance, l Induction, 226 Inductor 49 Ink-jet printer, 253 Instrumentation ,amplifier 197 Insulated gate bipolar transistor 113 Insulator Integrated circuit 159 Integration, scales of, 164 Interfacing 319 Internal resistance, 35 Internet, 265,267 Interrupts, 244 Intrinsic charge carrier, 70 Inverse (logical), 205 Inverting ,amplifier, 194 Ion, lO, 13 Ion beam doping, 162 Ironbridge Power Station, 312, 317 JFET, 83 Jodrell Bank NRAL, 182 191,278 Keyboard computer 248 Keyboard musical 236 Languages (computer), 255 Laser, 140 234 Laser diode, 141 Lattice, of crystal 8.69 LCD (liquid crystal display) 141 LED (light emitting diode), 138 Lenz's Law, 50 Level measuring 302 Light-dependent resistor 131 Light-emitting diode 138 Limit switch 304 Magnetic field 50 Magnetic field sensors 122 Magnetic resonance imaging 310 Magnetic stripe reader, 250 Magnetic tape 225 Magneto-optical disks, 251 Magneto-resistive effect 250 Magnetron 284 Manufacture of semiconductor devices, 89 162 Matrix of crystal Memory 244 Mercury switch 121 Metal oxide silicon field effect transistor, 80 94 Metals Meter moving-coil, 144 Microcontroller 257 Microphone 118 Microprocessor, 240 Microstrip 287 Microwave lamp 295 Microwave oven 295 Miller effect 100 Millipede data storage, 326 Modem 266 Modulation 224 Moisture measuring 308 Molecuh'u" electronics 325 Monostable circuit 171.173 MOSFET (metal oxide silicon field effect transistor) 80 94 Motor electric 126 Mouse 248 Moving-coil meter 144 Moving-platform robot 320 MP3 nmsic 235 Multimedia 247 Multimeters 148 Music electronic 236 NAND operator 209.213 Neon lamp 11 Noise 189 Non-conductor Non-inverting amplifier 196 NOR operator 209 NOT operator 206 212 n-type semiconductor 71 Nuclear radiation detector 125 Nucleus of atom, www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 332 Understand Electronics Ohm, 25 Ohm's Law, 25 Open loop gain, 19 Operating region, 183 Operating system, 254 Operational amplifier, 163, 192 Optical disk, 251 Optical fibre, 267 Optocoupled device, 140 Optoisolator, 140 optoschmitt detector, 133 OR operator, 206 Orbit of electrons, Organic electronic components, 325 Oscillators, 172, 284 Oscilloscope, 150 Paperless office, 323 Parallel, resistances in, 30 Parametric amplifier, 191 Parity, 266 Passive filter, 200 PCB (printed circuit board), 157 Perceptual encoding, 236 Period 169 pH sensor, 124 Phase 65, 179 Phased array, 29 l Photoconductive ceil 132 Photodiode, 132 Phototransistor, 133, 140 Photovoltaic ceil 134 PIC microcontroller, 259 Piezoelectric effect, l 18 PIN photodiode 132 Pixel 135 pn junction, 74 Plan position indicator, 292 Platinum resistance thermometer 115 PLC (programmable logic controller), 317 Plugblock 154 Polymer battery 19 Position, measuring, 121, 281 304 Potential difference, 20, 21.96 Potential difference, measurement, 146 Potential divider, 58, 95 Potential, electrical, 20 Potential hill, 75 Potentiometer, 32 Power, 33, 57, 200 Power transistors, 82, 91 Preferred values, 26 Preset potentiometer, 32 Pressure sensors, 120 Printed circuit board, 157 Printer, 252 Programmable logic, 217 Programmable logic controilcr, 317 Projection angiography, 310 PROM iprogrammable read-only memory), 218 Proportional control, 316 Protective diode, 100 Proton p-type semiconductor, 72 Pulse generator, 152 Pulse-width modulation, 224 Pyroelectric device, 116 Pyrometer, 307 Radar, 291 Radio, 269 Radio pill, 311 RAM (Random access memory), 245 Reactance 52 Read-only memory 244 Receiver radio, 273, 277 Rechargeable cells 17 Rectification, 103 Reed switch, 129 Reference, voltage, 108 Regulator 315 Regulator, voltage, 107 Relaxation oscillator, 175 Relay 53.128 Resistance 24 Resistance internal, 35 Resistance measurement, 147 Resistor 26, 59 160 Resistor, bridge 61 Resistor variable 31 Resonance oscillator 175 Resonant circuit, 66, 177, 284 Reverse bias 75 RISC computer, 260 Robot, 316 320 ROM, 244 Sampled wave synthesis, 237 Satellite 290 Saturation 95.183 Scanner (medical), 303,309 Schmitt trigger 101 133 Schottky clamp, 211 Seebeck effect 117 Selectivity, 275 Selenium cell 134 Self-induction 51 Semiconductor 68 Sensors 114, 312 Sequential logic 220 Series, resistances in, 30 Servo system, 315 SETI, 278 Seven-segment display, 139 Shunt resistor 145 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Index Signal generator, 152 Siemens, 199 Silicon, 69 Silicon controlled rectifier, 109, 111 Silicon controlled switch 109 Simulation computer, 167 Sinewave oscillator, 176 Sky wave, 289 SMASH computer architecture, 324 Smoothing 106 Software, 254 Software radio, 276 Solar cell, 137 Solenoid, 52, 127 Sounder, 126 Source, 81, 84 Source follower amplifier 188 SPLat microsystem, 320 Stamp, BASIC, 261 Static charge, 7, 83 Stepper motor, 127 Strain gauge, 119 Stray capacitance, 46 Stripboard 156 Superconduction, 33 Superheterodyne receiver, 275,277 Surface mount technology, 29, 91, 166 Switched-mode power supply, 113 Switched reluctance motor, 127 Synthesizer 238 System clock, 240 Tachometer, 123 Tantalum capacitor, 43 Tape recording, 225 Telegraphy, 263 Telephony, 264 Television, 279 Temperature coefficient, 115 Temperature, effects of, 70 114 116 Temperature sensors, 115 Thermal printer, 252 Thermal runaway 70 Thermionic valve, 77, 92 Thermistor 115, 312 Thermocouple, 117 Thermopile, 118 Thermostat, 312 Three-state output, 243 Thyristor, 109 Time constant, 45 Timer IC, 173 Tolerance 26 Tone dialling 264 Touch screen 250 Trackball 249 Traffic data 302 Transconductance 198 Transducers 114 Transformer 55 Transistor 80 83.87 Transistor switch 85, 94, 101 Transmission gate 214 Transmission line, 287 Transmitter (radio), 269 Triac 112 Trimpot 32 Triode 92 Tristate output 243 Truth tables 206, 220 TI'L (transistor-transistor logic) 210 Tuned circuit 176 273.285 Tuning coil 54 Turns ratio 56 UART 265 Ultrasonics 300 302, 303 Unity-gain voltage follower 197 Valve 77.92 Varicap diode 79 160 Video recorder 281 Virtual cell 75 Virtual e,'uth 195 VMOS transistor, 82 Volt 21 Voltage 22.06 Voltage follower 197 Voltage regulation 107 Voltmeter, 147 Wave-tablesynthesis 237 Watt 33 Waveguide 286.292 Wavelength 270 Weighing 120 ~ i t e noise 190 YIG 288 Zener diode, 79 105 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 333 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com m,~ m,~ q,m~ ~ i n|ll ~O m m O , ~ ~lum _ O O0 m - ~O ~,i ~-~ .. .Understand Electronics www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com This Page Intentionally Left Blank www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Understand Electronics Second Edition Owen Bishop OXFORD... speclfled p.d www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 26 Understand Electronics Resistors All conductors except superconductors (see p 33) offer resistance to electric current In electronics we use special components,... account, we recognize that the circuit has a second resistance, termed the internal resistance, r, of the cell www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com 36 Understand Electronics The value of r depends on the