Transmission, Distribution, and Renewable Energy Generation Power Equipment Aging and Life Extension Techniques www.Technicalbookspdf.com www.Technicalbookspdf.com Transmission, Distribution, and Renewable Energy Generation Power Equipment Aging and Life Extension Techniques Second Edition Bella H Chudnovsky www.Technicalbookspdf.com CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-5475-0 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com www.Technicalbookspdf.com Contents Preface xxvii Author xxix Acronyms xxxi Section i transmission and Distribution electrical equipment Chapter Electrical Contacts: Overheating, Wear, and Erosion 1.1 Electrical Contacts 1.1.1 Classification of Electrical Contacts 1.1.1.1 Make–Break Contacts 1.1.1.2 Sliding or Rolling Contacts 1.1.1.3 Fixed Contacts 1.1.1.4 Demountable (Detachable) Contacts 1.1.2 Parameters of Electrical Contacts Affecting the Performance 1.2 Electrical Resistance and Temperature Rise on Electrical Contacts 1.2.1 Definition of Connector Temperature Rise 1.2.2 Thermal Condition Causing Connector Failure 1.2.3 Overheating of Connectors and Detection Techniques in Transmission and Distribution Systems 1.3 Wear and Wipe of Electrical Contact 1.3.1 Means to Increase Wear Resistance 11 1.3.1.1 Choice of Contact Material and Plating 11 1.3.1.2 Current, Voltage, and Frequency 13 1.3.1.3 Lubrication 13 1.3.2 Means to Evaluate a Degree of Electrical Contact Wear 14 1.3.3 Effect of Wear Resistance on Life of Electrical Contacts 14 1.3.4 Effect of the Thickness of Plating on Wear Resistance 15 1.4 Wear and Erosion of Arcing Contacts 16 1.4.1 Arcing Erosion in SF6 Circuit Breakers 17 1.4.2 Wear of the Contacts in HV and MV Air-Blast CBs 17 1.4.3 Wear of CB Contact Due to the Lack of Lubrication 19 1.5 Arcing Damage, Coking, and Filming of Electrical Contacts in Transformer LTC 20 1.6 Control of Main and Arcing Contacts Wear 22 References 23 Chapter Bolted, Plug-On, and Busbar Connections: Materials and Degradation 25 2.1 2.2 2.3 Electric Connections Materials .25 2.1.1 Copper and Copper Alloys Connections 25 2.1.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Connections 25 2.1.3 Steel in Connections 26 Plating and Anodizing of the Conductors .26 Techniques to Join Electrical Conductors 27 v www.Technicalbookspdf.com vi Contents 2.3.1 Electrical Connections Made by Fusion 27 2.3.2 Electrical Connections Made by Pressure 27 2.4 Bolted Connections 28 2.4.1 Bolting Arrangements 28 2.4.2 Recommended Materials and Hardware for Bolted Connections 30 2.4.3 Aging Mechanisms of Bolted Joint 31 2.4.4 Condition and Preparation of Connection Surfaces 31 2.4.4.1 Surface Preparation 32 2.4.4.2 Plating of the Joints 32 2.4.4.3 Procedures for Making Connections 33 2.4.5 Effect of Pressure on the Resistance of Bolted Contact .34 2.4.6 Use of Belleville Washers 34 2.4.7 Importance of Retightening of Bolted Joints 35 2.4.8 Disadvantages and Degradation of Bolted Connections 35 2.4.9 Recommended Arrangements for Bolted Joint for Al and Cu Busbar Conductor 36 2.4.10 Failures Caused by Inadequate Electrical Connections 37 2.5 Plug-On Electrical Connections 37 2.6 Bus-Stab Separable Electrical Connections 38 2.7 Gas-Insulated Busbar Connections 39 2.8 Reliability of Electrical Connectors 40 2.9 National and International Standards and Specifications on Materials, Testing, and Design of Busbars and Busways 41 2.10 Electrical Connections Glossary 42 References 48 Chapter Plating of Electrical Equipment 51 3.1 3.2 3.3 Electroplating for Contact Applications 51 3.1.1 Silver Plating 51 3.1.1.1 Physical Properties of Silver Plating 51 3.1.1.2 Silver Plating Thickness for Electrical Applications 51 3.1.1.3 Use of a Nickel Underplate for Silver Plating 52 3.1.1.4 Types of Silver Platings 53 3.1.2 Tin Plating 53 3.1.2.1 Physical Properties of Tin Plating 53 3.1.2.2 Tin Plating Thickness for Electrical Applications 55 3.1.3 Nickel Plating 55 3.1.3.1 Applications of Nickel Plating in the Electrical Industry 55 3.1.3.2 Physical Properties and Thickness of Nickel Plating 56 Electroless Plating 57 3.2.1 Electroless Nickel (EN): Physical Properties 57 3.2.1.1 Chemical Composition and Structure of EN Plating 57 3.2.1.2 Physical Properties of EN Plating 58 3.2.1.3 EN Film Thickness 58 3.2.2 EN: Corrosion Resistance 58 3.2.3 EN: Electrical Resistivity 59 EN as a Plating Alternative for Electrical Apparatuses in Corrosive Atmosphere 60 3.3.1 Testing of EN for Use in Electrical Applications 61 www.Technicalbookspdf.com vii Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.3.1.1 Testing the Anticorrosion Properties of EN Plating 61 3.3.1.2 Testing of the Electrical Properties of EN Plating .64 3.3.2 Field Testing of EN-Plated Electrical Equipment in Energized Conditions 65 3.3.2.1 Live Electrical Tests 65 3.3.2.2 Electrical Properties of the Contactor Reconditioned with EN Plating 66 3.3.2.3 Precaution in Electrical Applications of EN Plating 68 Zinc Electroplating and Galvanization 69 3.4.1 Zinc Electroplating 69 3.4.2 Zinc Galvanization Processes 69 3.4.2.1 Hot-Dip Galvanizing 69 3.4.2.2 Continuous Galvanizing 70 3.4.2.3 Electrogalvanizing 70 3.4.2.4 Process of Galvanizing 70 3.4.3 Conversion Zn Plating: Passivation with CrIII or CrVI 70 3.4.3.1 Corrosion Resistance 70 3.4.3.2 Color Variability 71 3.4.3.3 Self-Healing Properties 71 3.4.3.4 Identification 71 3.4.3.5 Cost Issue 71 Metal Whiskers on Plating (Noncorrosive Phenomenon) 71 3.5.1 Whisker Phenomenon and Characteristics 71 3.5.1.1 Conditions and Characteristics of Growth 72 3.5.1.2 Environmental Factors 73 3.5.1.3 Historical Account of Metal Whisker Hazards 74 3.5.2 Tin Whisker Mitigation Techniques 74 3.5.2.1 Underplating 74 3.5.2.2 Addition of Lead 75 3.5.2.3 Heat Treatments 76 3.5.2.4 Hot-Dip Tin Plating 76 3.5.2.5 Thicker Tin Finish 76 3.5.2.6 Conformal Coating 76 3.5.2.7 NonTin Plating and Coating 76 3.5.3 Tin Whiskers and the RoHS Initiative 76 3.5.3.1 Lead-Free Solders 76 3.5.3.2 “Pure” Tin Finishes 77 3.5.4 Whisker Mitigation Levels Classification 77 3.5.5 Whiskers on Other Metal Platings 79 Plating on Aluminum 80 3.6.1 Use of Aluminum in Electrical Industry 80 3.6.1.1 Choice of Plating 81 3.6.1.2 Difficulties with the Plating of Aluminum 81 3.6.2 Metals Used to Plate Aluminum 81 3.6.3 Methods for Plating on Aluminum 82 3.6.3.1 Plating Classifications 82 3.6.3.2 Pretreatment by Zincating 83 3.6.3.3 Tin Plating Techniques on Al 83 3.6.4 Quality of Tin Plating on Al for Different Plating Techniques 84 3.6.4.1 Adhesion Test 84 3.6.4.2 Thermal Shock Test 84 www.Technicalbookspdf.com viii Contents 3.6.4.3 Plating Techniques and Adhesion of Tin Plating on Al .84 3.6.4.4 Plating Techniques and the Quality of Tin Plating on Al 85 3.7 Plating Standards and Glossary 86 3.7.1 National and International Standards and Regulations on Plating 86 3.8 Plating Glossary 88 References 97 Chapter Detrimental Processes and Aging of Plating 101 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Issues of Tin Plating Performance 101 4.1.1 General Precautions in Using Tin Plating 101 4.1.1.1 Tin and Fretting Corrosion 101 4.1.1.2 Tin and Intermetallic Compounds 102 4.1.2 Thermal Deterioration of Tin Plating on Aluminum 102 4.1.2.1 Accelerated Aging Study of Tin Plating 102 4.1.2.2 Quality of Thermally Aged Tin Plating 103 4.1.2.3 Mechanisms of Thermal Deterioration of Tin Plating on Al 105 4.1.2.4 Tin Plating on Aluminum as a Possible Cause of Connection Overheating 106 4.1.3 Tin Pest 107 4.1.3.1 Definition of Tin Pest 107 4.1.3.2 Effects of Alloying Elements and the Environment on Tin Pest 107 4.1.3.3 Example of Tin Pest Failure in Electrical Connectors 108 4.1.3.4 Impact of RoHS on Possible Tin Pest Failures 109 Use of Underplating for Plating Longevity 110 4.2.1 Mitigating Role of Underplating 110 4.2.2 Advantages of Nickel as Underplating 110 4.2.2.1 Ni Underplating Provides a Diffusion Barrier 111 4.2.2.2 Ni Underplating Prevents the Formation of Intermetallics 111 4.2.2.3 Ni Underplating Improves Wear Resistance 111 4.2.2.4 Ni Underplating Increases Corrosion Resistance 111 4.2.2.5 Other Advantages of Ni Underplating 111 4.2.3 Recommended Thickness of Nickel Underplating 112 Applications of Ni Underplating 112 4.3.1 Use of Ni Underplating for Tin Plating on Copper 112 4.3.1.1 The Formation of Ni−Sn Intermetallics 113 4.3.2 Nickel Underplating as a Tin Whisker Mitigation Technique 114 4.3.3 Ni Underplating for Tin Plating on Aluminum 115 4.3.3.1 Plating, Sample Preparation, and Testing Techniques 115 4.3.3.2 Quality of the Plating and Interfaces 116 4.3.3.3 Formation of Ni–Sn Intermetallics 117 4.3.3.4 Comparison of Aging Behavior of Sn Plating with Ni, Bronze, or Cu Underlayer 117 4.3.4 Ni Underplating for Gold Plating 118 Galvanic Corrosion: Connections Made of Dissimilar Metals 119 4.4.1 Hazard: Galvanic Corrosion 119 4.4.2 Definition of Dissimilar Metals 120 4.4.3 Galvanic Corrosion of Copper-to-Aluminum Connections 121 www.Technicalbookspdf.com ix Contents 4.4.4 Protection of Copper-to-Aluminum Connections from Galvanic Corrosion 122 4.4.4.1 Plated Aluminum Connections 122 4.4.4.2 Fasteners 123 4.4.4.3 Corrosion Protective Compound for Copper-to-Aluminum Connections 123 4.4.5 Galvanic Corrosion in Steel Connections with Aluminum and Other Metals 123 4.4.6 General Precautions to Minimize Galvanic Corrosion in Connections 124 4.5 Other Detrimental Processes Affecting Plating Performance 125 4.5.1 Intermetallic Compounds 125 4.5.1.1 Copper–Tin Intermetallic Compounds 125 4.5.1.2 Effects of Temperature and Time on the Formation of Cu–Sn IMC 125 4.5.1.3 Resistance of the Contacts with Tin Coating 126 4.5.2 Fretting Corrosion and a Means of Protection 127 4.5.2.1 Fretting Corrosion of Electrical Contacts 127 References 128 Chapter Electrical Equipment in a Corrosive Environment 131 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Corrosion Factors in the Atmosphere 131 5.1.1 Types of Corrosive Atmospheres 131 5.1.1.1 Indoor Atmosphere 131 5.1.1.2 Rural Atmosphere 131 5.1.1.3 Marine Atmosphere 131 5.1.1.4 Industrial Atmosphere 132 5.1.2 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion 132 5.1.2.1 Relative Humidity 132 5.1.2.2 Temperature 133 5.1.2.3 Deposition of Aerosol Particles 133 5.1.2.4 Pollutants, Corrosive Gases 134 5.1.3 Airborne Contamination in Data Centers 135 5.1.4 Zinc Whiskers 135 Effect of Environment on Bare Metals 136 5.2.1 Iron and Steel in Enclosures, Frames, Rails, and So Forth 136 5.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys: Parts of the Conductive Path 137 5.2.3 Nickel and Nickel Alloys: Electrical Contacts and Plating 138 5.2.4 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys in Electrical Applications 138 Atmospheric Corrosion of Silver Plating 140 5.3.1 Silver Plating Corrosion and Tarnish 140 5.3.1.1 Sulfuric Corrosion 140 5.3.1.2 Silver Tarnish 140 5.3.1.3 Silver Whiskers 141 5.3.2 Red-Plague Corrosion 142 5.3.3 Underplating Corrosion 143 5.3.4 Effect of Silver Plating Thickness and Quality on Sulfuric Corrosion 144 5.3.5 Corrosion of a Copper Bus with Flash Silver Plating 145 Effect of Silver Corrosion on Contact Resistance 146 www.Technicalbookspdf.com Index Electrical equipment failure causes, 328 age of CIS and MF mode distribution, 339–340 based on CIGRÉ survey, 336 CBs, 330 disconnectors and earthing switches, 341 failure mechanisms of HV transformers and bushings, 342–343 failure rates of GIS components, 340 failures of HV CBs, 343–345 GIS, 338 GIS failure modes, 338–339 high-voltage electrical equipment, 341 HV bushings, 341 HV transformers, 342 inadequate maintenance and maintenance quality, 335–336 LV and MV electrical equipment, 345–349 MV and LV power, 333–334 MV switchgear, 332–333 older CIGRÉ surveys, 338 power connectors, 334–335 power transformers, 331 results of older CIGRÉ surveys of HV CB failures, 337–338 SF6 CBs, 340–341 Electrical equipment maintenance strategies, 583 CBM/PdM, 584 condition-based maintenance, 583 corrective maintenance, 583 periodic maintenance, 583 predictive maintenance, 584 reliability-centered maintenance, 584 time-based maintenance, 583, 584–585 Electrical equipment physical condition; see also Diagnostics of oil condition; PD online monitoring; Transmission electrical equipment online monitoring techniques; Temperature monitoring in electrical equipment AC power frequency HIPOT, 532 aging, 527 DC HIPOT test, 529, 530–531 general condition assessment, 530 high potential withstand test, 530 MV cable diagnostics, 529, 532–533 parameters defining, 527–529 PD diagnostics, 529, 532 very low-frequency HIPOT test, 531–532 Electrical insulating materials (EIMs), 283, 313 Electrical Insulation Standards, 309; see also Insulating materials International Standards for solid insulation, 310–312 National and International Standards and Regulations, 309–310 National and International Standards for transformer oil, 312 National Standards for paints and coatings for steel, 312 North American Standards for solid insulation, 310 Electrical insulation system (EIS), 283, 289 Electrical joint protection, 262–263; see also Lubrication Electrical tree, 298 Electric connections materials, 25; see also Bolted connections; Busbar connections; Conductors; Electrical connections 625 aluminum and aluminum alloys connections, 25–26 copper and copper alloys connections, 25 steel in connections, 26 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 9, 530, 594 Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), 438 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), 563 Electroerosion wear, 16 Electroless nickel (EN), 56, 186; see also Plating of electrical equipment contactor property after EN plating, 66–68 corroded MV contactor, 66 corrosion resistance, 58–59 electrical resistivity, 59–60 field testing of EN-plated electrical equipment, 65 film thickness, 58 live electrical tests, 65–66 as plating alternative, 60–61 plating chemical composition and structure, 57–58 plating properties, 57, 58, 59 precaution in electrical applications of EN plating, 68–69 reconditioned MV contactor, 68 resistance rise on energized electrical contacts, 64 rust appearance and phosphorus contents, 59–60 standards for, 87 surface compositions of copper coupons, 62, 63 temperature rise on energized electrical contacts, 65 testing anticorrosion properties of EN plating, 61–64 testing electrical properties of EN plating, 64–65 testing for use in electrical applications, 61 Electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG), 76 Electrolube, 261–262 Electrolyte, 92, 119 Electrolytic migration, 173 Electromagnetic acoustic transducer sensors (EMAT sensors), 550 Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 44 Electromigration, 72 Electromotive force (EMF), 89, 92 Electronic devices, 169 Electronic system corrosion, 169; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion anodic corrosion and metal migration, 173 causes of, 171, 173 creep corrosion, 174–175 factors of reduced corrosion reliability, 170 failures of electronics, 176–177 forms of, 173 galvanic corrosion, 174 gas phase corrosion, 173 metallic whiskers, 175 miniaturization, 170 multiplicity of materials, 170–171 sources of contaminants, 172 strategies and means to protect electronic components, 175–176 Electronic temperature sensors, 543 Electro-optic modulators (EO modulators), 540 626 Index Energy contribution potential, 380 efficiency, 92 harvesters as sensors, 571 payback, 438 Energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS), 62, 463 Energy payback time (EPT), 517 Engaging force, 44 Engineered surface (ES), 471, 472 Environmental control for corrosion protection, 179; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion air quality monitoring, 180 assessment of electrical and electronic equipment exposure to corrosive environment, 179–180 available real-time chemical/gas monitors, 181 chemical and particulate filtration, 182 corrosion control technology, 181–182 corrosion product creep, 179 direct gas monitoring, 180–181 temperature control, 182 Environmental footprint, 515 Environment effect on bare metals, 136; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion aluminum and aluminum alloys, 138–140 copper and copper alloys, 137–138 green and blue corrosion of bushing stud, 138 iron and steel, 136–137 nickel and nickel alloys, 138 Eolian vibration, 550 EP additive, 266 Etching, 93, 254 Ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), 281, 361 Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), 297, 313, 348, 530 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), 356 European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC), 517 European Space Agency (ESA), 143 European Union (EU), 77, 426 Extraction tool, 44 Extract, transform, load (ETL), 374 Extra high voltage (EHV), 549 Extreme pressure (EP), 198 lubricants, 266 Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT), 564 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 324 Feed-In Tariff (FIT), 438 Feed-thru, 44 Female connector, 44 Ferrous particle detection, 566 Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), 507, 561 Fiber-optic transceiver (FTR), 551 Fiber-optic transmission conductor (FOTC), 551 Field of view (FOV), 543 FIFO method, 223 Film, 186 build, 186 strength, 266 Filming, 22 Filter, 187 aid, 93 Fire point, 198, 266 Fire-resistant fluid, 266 First mate/last break contacts, 44 Fixed contacts, 4, 44; see also Electrical contacts Flash point, 198, 266 Float-mounting connector, 44 Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), 364 Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), 313 Force feed, 266 Foreign object debris (FOD), 455 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), 217 Framatome Connectors International (FCI), 35 Free board connector, 44 cable connector, 44 corrosion potential, 187 cyanide, 93 Freewheeling, 434 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), 569 Frequency response analysis (FRA), 591 Fretting, 187; see also Plating corrosion, 127–128, 234 Friction, 266 Front release contact, 45 Fuchs Petrolub AG, 489–490; see also Wind turbine lubrication Full-scale wind turbine research, 434, 438 Furans, 537; see also Diagnostics of oil condition detection using transient earth voltages, 534–535 and effect on insulation, 533–534 mechanism, 533 testing, 533 ultrasonic detection of, 534 Furfural analysis (FFA), 590 Furling tail, 434 F Galvanic corrosion, 119, 187; see also Plating; Tin plating; Underplating in between steel and brass plate, 124 of copper-to-aluminum connections, 121–122 corrosion protective compound, 123 of dissimilar metals, 120–121 electrical potential index for metals and alloys, 121 fasteners, 123 hazard, 119 Failure, 186, 328 analysis, 186 mode, 186, 329 rate, 329 -related maintenance, 612 Failure in time (FIT), 40 False brinelling, 469 G 627 Index plated aluminum connections, 122–123 precautions to minimize, 124–125 in steel connections with aluminum, 123–124 Galvanized steel, 159; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion corrosion in CBs, 163–164 creep corrosion field failure of PCB, 165 environment, 162 factors affecting corrosion, 162 pitting corrosion, 161–162, 164 rusting, 161 signs of corrosion, 161 zinc plating thickness, 162–163 Gaseous contaminants, 179 Gas-Insulated Switchgear (GIS), 22, 301, 341 Gasket, 45 Gas-tight-joint (GTJ), 262 GCA, see General Condition Assessment Gearbox, 434 nomenclature, 565 Gearbox Reliability Collaborative (GRC), 425 Gearing, 434 General Condition Assessment (GCA), 530 Geographic information system (GIS), 438 Geothermal energy, 355 Geothermal power plant (GTPP), 293 Germanische Lloyd (GL), 429 Glass electrode, 93 Glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP), 607, 609 Global Positioning System-tagged identifier, 579 Gold, 11, 118 Graphical user interface (GUI), 603 Graphite, 220–221, 266 Grease, 266; see also Lubrication additives, 201, 207, 208–209 ASTM tests to define properties, 204 cold temperatures effect on properties, 203–205 consistency, 200–202 deterioration by additive decomposition, 209–210 dropping point, 203 fluids, 200 LT limits for greases, 205 NLGI grease classification, 202 nonsoap thickeners, 207 effect of oil bleeding on grease properties, 210 oil degradation, 210 role of oil, 210 shear and structural stability, 202–203 soap thickeners, 205–207 softening and hardening, 202 stratification, 203 testing, 200 thickener, 205, 206 thickeners, 201 Green credit, 438 power, 439 pricing, 438, 439 Grid-connected system, 357, 438 Grounded-specimen test (GST), 541 Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), 594 Ground wire, 45, 360 H Hairy molecule, 209 Hard disk drive (HDD), 175 Harmful atmospheric components, 60 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), 181 High density connector, 45 High density polyethylene (HDPE), 405 High frequency (HF), 539 High molecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE), 348 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), 537 High potential (Hipot or HP), 65 AC power frequency, 532 High potential withstand test, 530 High-speed shaft (HSS), 434, 463 High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA), 137 High-voltage insulator coatings (HVIC), 308 High voltages (HVs), CBs, 586 disconnect hysteresis, 381 HiPer-tex®, 412 Holding strength, 45 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT), 434, 507 Hot corrosion, 187 cracking, 187 -dip coating, 188 -dip tin, 76 oil dryout, 316 -rolling, HR, 188 spot, 34 -wire test for moisture, 541 Hot air solder-leveled (HASL), 76 Hot-dip galvanized (HDG), 136 Hub height, 434 HV bushing condition testing, 541–542; see also PD online monitoring DC insulation resistance test, 541 hot-wire test for moisture, 541 power-factor test, 541 RIV test, 541 testing oil for moisture, 541–542 HV Switchgear CBM, 589 Hybrid system, 381, 434, 439 Hydraulic fluid, 266, 485 Hydrocarbons, 172, 266 Hydroelectric energy, 355 Hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber (HNBR), 474 Hydrogen embrittlement, 93, 188, 468 Hygroscopic dirt, 180, 313 I Immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH), 61 Immersion plate, 94 Immiscible, 266 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP), 450 Indenter, 45 Independent power producer, 435 628 Indicator, pH, 94 Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICPC), 108 Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM), 573 Inert anode, 94 Infrared (IR), 9, 366, 381 drop, 94 images of PV panel defects, 578 noncontact temperature sensors, 543 sensors, 547 Infrared emitting diode (IRED), 579 Infrared thermography (IRT), 8, 591 for inspection and testing, 577 Inhibitor, 94, 188, 266, 316 Inner conductor, 45 Insertion force, 45 Insertion loss, 45 Insertion tool, 45 Insert retention, 45 In-service vibration analysis, 611 Insolubles, 266 Inspection hole, 45 robots, Inspection and testing of wave and tidal turbines, 609–610 Inspection and testing of WT, 603; see also Renewable energy equipment maintenance components inspection in field, 603–604 gearbox and bearing inspection, 605 generator inspection, 605–607 joints, welds, tower, and foundation inspection, 608–609 NDT techniques for component inspection, 604–605 periodical inspection tasks, 609 rotor blade inspection, 607–608 vibration diagnostics, 608 Installed/Rated/Nameplate capacity, 439 Installing tool, 45 Institute for Wind Energy and Energy System Technology (IWES), 501 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 263, 531 Institut für Solare Energieversorgungstechnik (ISET), 501 Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA), 531 Insulating materials, 279; see also Bushings; Electrical Insulation Standards; Insulating media; Powder coating; Power cable insulation aging of, 286 aging of, 292, 293 biological contamination and corrosion, 293 corona, 287–289 deterioration, 292–293 dielectric composite, 281 electrical breakdown in insulation, 286–287 epoxy powder insulated MV bus, 283 organic, 280 partial discharge, 289–292 pollution deposit on insulator surface, 294 SCC in composite insulators, 294 temperature limitations for switchgear assembly, 286 thermal class of, 284 thermal degradation, 285 thermal limitation for, 282–285 used in electrical industry, 279–282 white powder/dust residue, 288 Index Insulating media, 299; see also Insulating materials aging of transformer oil, 299–300 air and vacuum as, 302 insulating oil, 299 oil switches and CBs, 299 sulfur hexaflouride, 301–302 transformer oil, 299–301 Insulating oil, 299, 316; see also Insulating media Insulation assessment, 533 Insulation resistance (IR), 66, 313, 591 Integrated circuits (ICs), 170, 234 Interchangeable, 45 Interconnect, 45, 381 Interconnection, 439 Interdigital transducers (IDTs), 547 Interface, 45 Interfacial seal, 46 Interfacial tension, 94 Intermateable, 46 Intermediate-speed shaft (IMS), 463 Intermetallic compounds (IMC), 74, 102, 125, 251; see also Plating copper–tin, 125 effects of temperature and time on formation of Cu–Sn, 125–126 intermetallic growth on tin-coated copper alloy strip, 126 resistance of contacts with tin coating, 126–127 Intermountable, 46 International Classification for Standards (ICS), 86 International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative (iNEMI), 78 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 283 International Standards Organization (ISO), 266, 426 Investment tax credit, 439 Investor-owned utility (IOU), 439 Ion, 94, 381 Ion exchange, 94 ISO viscosity, 267 J Jackscrew system, 46 James Walker (JW), 411 Japanese Expliner, K Karat, 94 Karl Fischer method, 217 Key performance indicators (KPIs), 603 Kilowatt-hour, 435 Kittiwake package, 566 Kluber lubrication, 259–260, 493; see also Lubrication; Wind turbine lubrication L Lapping, 94 Laser cladding, 611 Laser displacement sensor system (LDS system), 571 Laser distance meter (LDM), 551 Leading edge, 435 Level Diagnostic Techniques, 590 Index Level Diagnostic Techniques, 591 Level Diagnostic Techniques, 591 Leveling action, 94 Levelized cost of energy (LCOE), 439 Life cycle assessment (LCA), 439, 513 of 45MW and 250 W WTs in France, 516–517 of offshore and onshore WT farms in Denmark, 515–516 Oyster wave device array, 518 solar panels, 519, 521–522 study of wave and tidal energy devices, 517–518 tidal and wave turbines, 517 of 20MW WTs in United States, 517 of wind farms, 514–515 wind turbines, 513 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), 517 Life expectancy, 513 design life of WT, 513 evaluation for wind farms, 513–514 of solar power plant, 521 of solar PV panels, 519–522 of tidal and wave power plants, 518–519 Lift, 435 Limiting current density, 94 Limits for In-Service Oil, 538 Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), 218 Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), 570 Line replaceable unit (LRU), 239 LIOS Monitoring System, 552–553 Liquid, 267 Load carrying, 267 Load Tap Changer (LTC), 20, 535; see also Electrical contacts coking in ABB transformer UZC, 21 damaged LTC moving contact, 21 filming, 22 Locator, 46 Locking device, 46 Lockout, 46 Long Range Ultrasound Guide Waves sensors (LRUG sensors), 575 Lower limiting temperature, 46 Low-level CR (LLCR), 238 Low-speed shaft, 435 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers (LV CBs), 585 Low voltages (LVs), 13 Lubricant, 189, 267 Lubricant incompatibility, 211; see also Lubrication additives, 212 base oil compatibility chart, 214 base oils, 212 causes of incompatibility, 212 grease compatibility testing, 215–216 grease incompatibility chart, 213 symptoms of, 214–215 thickeners, 212 Lubricant storage conditions and shelf life, 222; see also Lubrication factors affecting shelf life, 222–223 grease conditions influencing storage life, 225 practical advice on lubricant storage, 226 products exceeding estimated shelf life, 223 shelf life estimated by OEMs, 223–226 shelf life of base oils, lubricating oils, and greases, 224 629 Lubrication, 13–14, 197, 612–613; see also Electrical connector lubrication; Electrical contacts; Lubricant incompatibility; Lubricant storage conditions and shelf life; Lubrication failure modes; Solid lubricants application of lubricants, 244 change of product, 243–244 choice of lubricants, 226–228, 243 contact lubricants, 261–262 Contralube, 258–259 Dow Corning® Corporation, 255 dry lubricant, 233 durability, 232–233 of electrical contacts, 244 electrical joint protection, 262–263 Electrolube, 261–262 failure events with RTBs, 231 fluid lubricants, 200 grease, 199 grease contamination, 216 grease contamination testing techniques, 216–218 high-temperature lubricants, 240–241 of high-temperature terminals in automotive industry, 242 information sources for lubricants, 263–264 Kluber lubrication, 259–260 lubricant particle contamination, 218–219 lubricants for electronic connections, 228, 229 lubricants for permanent high-load electrical connections, 230 lubricant working temperature, 221 lubricant working temperature limits, 221–222 maximum temperature, 222 mineral oil-based conductive grease, 260 minimum temperature, 222 Molykote® and Dow Corning brand lubricants, 256–257 NYE lubricants products, 257–258, 259 OEM specifications, 243 oil, 199 of outdoor electrical equipment, 255–256 periodic lubrication maintenance, 242–243 practical lubrication of electrical equipment, 242 primer, 197 principles of contact, 227 as protection from corrosion, wear, and friction, 228–229, 231–232 purpose of, 197 recommendations for electrical equipment, 243 recommendations from manufacturers, 255 Sanchem grease, 260–261 silicones, 200 silver-based greases, 260 solid lubricants, 199–200 synthetic lubricants, 199 synthetic oils, 199 temperature limits, 222 terminology, 198–199 types of lubricating materials, 199 Lubrication failure in electrical equipment, 248; see also Lubrication bearing lubrication failures, 254 blades of switch, 250 causes of lubricant failure in bearings, 252–253 CB failures caused by lubrication, 248–249 630 Lubrication failure in electrical equipment (Continued) corroded electrical connector, 251 failure events with 480 VAC CBs, 249 failure events with MV CBs, 248 hardened and oxidized lubricant in bearings, 253 jaws of switch, 251 lubricant contamination in electrical connector, 251–252 lubricant water contamination in bearings, 253–255 overheating of MV switch, 249–251 Lubrication failure modes, 244; see also Lubrication causes of failure, 244–245 contaminants or corrosives in lubricant, 246–247 grease deterioration, 247 lubricants incompatibility, 247–248 thermal limitations, 245–246 wrong application, 245 wrong composition and amount, 246 Lubricity, 267 Lunar Tidal Turbine (LTT), 396 M Macro Fiber Composite sensors (MFC sensors), 575 Major failure (MF), 13, 157 Make–break contacts, 3; see also Electrical contacts Male connector, 46 Marine corrosion, 407 Mate, 46 Mated pair, 46 Mat finish, 94 Matrix, 94 Mean power output of wind turbine, 435 Mean time between failures (MTBF), 40 Mean time to failure (MTTF), 40 Mean wind speed, 435 Median wind speed, 435 Medium-voltage (MV), cable, 314 cable diagnostics, 532–533 cable testing, 529 Switchgear CBM, 589–590 Medium-Voltage Circuit Breakers (MV CBs), 585 Megawatt, 435 Membrane Patch Colorimetry (MPC), 217 Metal-clad (MC), 286, 539 cable, 314 Metal whiskers on plating, 71; see also Plating of electrical equipment; Tin whisker mitigation techniques conditions and characteristics of growth, 72–73 effects of plating process parameters, 72 electromigration, 72 environmental factors, 73–74 historical account of metal whisker hazards, 74 metal whiskers failures, 75 recommendations for busbars plating, 79 tin whiskers, 72, 73 tin whiskers and RoHS initiative, 76–77 whisker mitigation levels classification, 77–78 whisker phenomenon and characteristics, 71 whiskers on gold, zinc, and cadmium, 79 whiskers on other metal platings, 79–80 Met tower, 435 Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), 189, 444 Index Microdieseling, 211 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs), 199 Microinch, 94 Micron, 94 Microthrowing power, 94 Mil, 94 Milli-person equivalents (mPE), 515 Millivolt drop test, 46 Mill scale, 94 Mineral oil, 267 Mineral oil-based conductive grease, 260; see also Lubrication Miscible, 267 Mission-capable (MC), 240 Mixed flowing gas (MFG), 62 Mobil, 491–492; see also Wind turbine lubrication Moisture, 189 absorption, 314 Molded case circuit breakers (MCCB), 331, 585 Molybdenum disulfide, 219–220 Molycote pastes, 490–491; see also Wind turbine lubrication Molykote® and Dow Corning brand lubricants, 256–257; see also Lubrication Motor control centers (MCC), 324, 593 Motor–generator (MG set), 94 Mounting bracket, 46 Mounting flange, 46 Mounting plate, 46 Multigrade oil, 267 N Nacelle, 435 Naphthenic, 267 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 74 National Electrical Code (NEC), 326, 375 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), 284, 593 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 61 National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI), 199 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 425, 439, 564 Negative power prices, 439 Net metering, 439 Neutral salt spray (NSS), 70 Nickel plating, 55, 189; see also Plating of electrical equipment physical properties and thickness of, 56–57 standards for, 87 NIOSH, see National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR), 474 Ni underplating, 112; see also Underplating advantages of, 110–112 aluminum with Ni underplating layer and tin plating, 116 comparison of aging behavior of Sn plating with Ni, bronze, or Cu underlayer, 117–118 electrical resistivity of Cu–Sn and Ni–Sn IMC compared with copper and tin, 114 formation of Ni−Sn intermetallics, 113–114 formation of Ni–Sn intermetallics, 117 for gold plating, 118 631 Index growth of Cu–Sn and Ni–Sn intermetallics, 114 improves wear resistance, 111 increases corrosion resistance, 111 passivation of pores and bare edges, 119 plating, sample preparation, and testing techniques, 115–116 prevents formation of intermetallics, 111 provides diffusion barrier, 111 quality of plating and interfaces, 116 recommended thickness of, 112 results of SEM study and adhesion test, 118 Sn plating on Al with Ni underplating, 117 thickness of IMC after aging at 120°C for 0–36 days, 113 for tin plating on aluminum, 115 as tin whisker mitigation technique, 114–115 use for tin plating on copper, 112 NLGI Lubricating Grease Guide, 211 Noble metal, 11, 94, 189, 190 Nodule, 94 Nonceramic insulators (NCI), 279 Noncorrosive phenomenon, see Metal whiskers on plating Nondestructive testing (NDT), 603 Nonnoble metals, 12 Nonsoap thickeners, 207 Nontin platings, 76; see also Tin whisker mitigation techniques North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), 421 Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), 594 Nuclear Generating Station (NGS), 347 Nuclear power station (NPS), 347 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 37 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRS), 249 NUMARC, see Nuclear Energy Institute NYE lubricants products, 257–258; see also Lubrication NYE lubricants for stationary separable electrical connectors, 258 NYE’s Family of Anderol® Replacement Lubricants, 259 O Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 61 Ocean energy, 415; see also Tidal and wave power equipment; Tidal energy; Wave energy classification of, 394 extraction methods, 402 ocean thermal energy conversion, 403 salinity gradient, 402–403 Ocean Renewable Power Company’s (ORPC), 396 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 393, 403, 415 Offshore substations (OSS), 602 Offshore wind developments, 439 OhmstikTM, Oil, 267; see also Insulating media condition tests, 316 -immersed-type transformer, 317 leakage sump, 316 pass, 317 reclaiming, 317 reconditioning, 317 regeneration, 317 ring, 267 spray nozzle, 317 switches and CBs, 299 treatment, 317 water valve, 317 Oil circuit breakers (OCBs), 299, 316, 535, 585 Oiliness, 267 Oil quality analysis (OQA), 590 Online monitoring of transformer oil conditions, 538–539 Online PD diagnostics, 532 On-load tap changers (OLTC), 20, 591; see also Electrical contacts Onshore Wind Developments, 440 Operation and maintenance (O&M), 263, 455, 557 Optical emission spectroscopy (OES), 216 Optical fiber sensing probe, 543–544 Organic solderability preservative (OSP), 76 Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), 20, 486, 584 O-ring, 46 Oscillating water column (OWC), 399, 432 Overhead robot, 9; see also Electrical contacts Overhead transmission lines (OHTL), 138, 294, 325, 549; see also Transmission electrical equipment online monitoring techniques combined monitoring solutions, 552 conductor sag measurements, 550–551 conductor temperature measurements, 551 distributed temperature sensing, 551 eolian vibration, 550 fiber-optic transceiver, 551 fiber-optic transmission conductor, 551 LIOS monitoring system, 552–553 Power Donut2™, 552 SAW temperature monitoring, 552 Overheating of connectors and detection techniques, 8; see also Electrical contacts Over-voltage, 46, 95 Oxidation, 95, 189, 267 inhibitor, 267 stability, 198, 267 Oxygen, 189 attack, 189 bomb test, 314 Oyster wave device array, 518 P Panel cut-out, 46 Paper-insulated lead-covered (PILC), 297, 325, 530 Paper with polypropylene (PPP or PPLP), 297 Paraffinic, 267 Park effect, 435 Partial discharge (PD), 289–292, 528, 591 Participatory planning, 440 Particle count method, 216 Particle quantifier (PQ), 216 Part per trillion (ppt), 140 Parts per billion (ppb), 134, 140, 189 PD diagnostics, 529, 532 PD-OL (Partial Discharge monitoring, Online with Location), 540 PD online monitoring, 539; see also Electrical equipment physical condition with fiber-optic technology, 540–541 in substations, switchgear, and cables, 539 632 Peak wind speed, 435 Perfluorinated polyether (PFPE), 227 Perfluoropolyethers (PFPE), 224 Periodic lubrication of power CB, 586–587 Periodic maintenance (PM), 583 Periodic reverse plating, 95 Phenyl-alpha-naphthylamine (PANA), 218 Phosphate conversion coating, see Phosphatizing Phosphating, see Phosphatizing Photovoltaic(s) (PV), 384 array, 384 cell, 384, 355 conversion efficiency, 384 device, 384 effect, 384 energy system, 375 generator, 384 module, 384 panel, 384 panel cleaning, 615–618 panel failures, 577–578 system, 384 thermal system, 385 Pickle, 95 Pickling, 95 Piezo ceramic-based wireless sensor, 571 Pin contact, 46 Pit, 95 Pitch, 435 Pitting, 161 Planned Preventive Maintenance (PPM), 610 Plastic deformation (PD), 489 Plastisol, 95 Plating, 46 detrimental processes affecting performance, 125 range, 95 Plating of electrical equipment, 51; see also Conversion Zn plating; Electroless nickel; Metal whiskers on plating; Nickel plating; Plating on aluminum; Silver plating; Tin plating; Zinc galvanization processes electroless plating, 57 electroplating for contact applications, 51 national and international standards and regulations, 86–88 zinc electroplating, 69 Plating on aluminum, 80; see also Plating of electrical equipment; Tin plating quality on Al with acceptable physical properties, 82 Alstan processes, 83 aluminum in electrical industry, 80 Bondal, 83 choice of plating, 81 difficulties, 81 metals used, 81 methods for, 82 plating classifications, 82 pretreatment by zincating, 83 standards for, 88 tin plating techniques on Al, 83–84 Plug, 46 -and-play PV system, 385 Pneumatically Stabilized Platform (PSP), 432 Point Source to Tower Measurement (PSTM), 551 Index Poise, 267 Polarization, 46, 95 Polarization index (PI), 591 Polarizer, 95 Polarizing plug, 46 Polishing, 95 Polyalphaolefin (PAO), 486 Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), 109 Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), 109 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 367 Polyethylene terephthalate film (PET), 356 Polymer, 221, 314 Polymerization, 267 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), 210 Polyolesters (POEs), 212 Polyphenyl ether (PPE), 169, 227, 236–237 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 11, 199 Polyvinyl butyral (PVB), 367 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 166, 178, 282, 314 Portable systems, 233 Positioner, 46 Pour point, 198, 268 Powder coating, 190, 303; see also Insulating materials aging of RTV insulation, 309 applying techniques, 306–307 comparison of specific applications of enclosures, 304 criteria for paint type selection, 305–306 defects and failures of, 307–308 HV RTV coating, 308–309 materials used for enclosures and applications, 305 role of fillers in RTV coatings, 309 specifications for pad-mounted equipment, 307 types and properties of different powder coatings and paints, 306 used for enclosures, 305 Power cable CBM and life management, 592 cable deterioration diagnostics, 592 and life extension of, 592–593 Power cable insulation, 296; see also Insulating materials aging of cable insulating materials, 297–298 electrical and water treeing, 298 types, 297 XLPE cable insulation degradation, 298 Power CB refurbishment and reconditioning, 587–588 Power circuit breaker maintenance, 585 condition-based maintenance, 588–589 high-voltage CBs, 586 HV switchgear CBM, 589 low-voltage CBs, 585 medium-voltage CBs, 585–586 molded case CBs, 585 MV switchgear CBM, 589–590 periodic lubrication, 586–587 refurbishment and reconditioning, 587–588 sulfur hexafluoride gas CBs, 586 Power curve, 435 Power Donut2™ (PD2), 552 Power factor of transformer oil, 537 Power-factor test, 541 Power Frequency (PF), 310 Power takeoff (PTO), 400 Precious metals, see Noble metal Predictive maintenance (PdM), 584 and SCADA, 610–611 633 Index Pressure connectors, 28 Pressure relief device (PRD), 342 Pressure retarded osmosis (PRO), 402, 416 Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs), 369 Prevailing wind direction, 435 Preventive maintenance of solar panel, 614 Primary current distribution, 95 Primary energy payback time (PEPBT), 516 Printed circuit boards (PCBs), 260 Protective films, 166 Pulse thermography, 608 Pumpability, 198, 268 Q Quantitative Spectrophotometric Analysis (QSASM), 217 R Rack, plating, 95 Radio frequency sensors (RF sensors), 592 Radio influence voltage (RIV), 541 Rated power, 386, 435, 440; see also Duty rating Rated wind speed, 436 Reactive maintenance, 612 Reactive Unscheduled Maintenance (RUM), 612 Rectification, 95 Red plague, 142 Red Plague Control Plan (RPCP), 143 Red rust (RR), 69, 161 Reduction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), 53 Refining, 268 Relative humidity (RH), 14 Relative temperature index (RTI), 285 Reliability-centered maintenance (RCM), 584 Relieving, 95 Remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS), 579 Remote monitoring system for PV panels, 579 Renewable electrical equipment testing and monitoring, 557 Renewable energy, 440 Renewable energy certificates, 440 Renewable energy credits (RECs), 440 Renewable energy equipment maintenance, 610; see also Solar power plant inspection and maintenance; Wind turbine life extension condition-based maintenance, 611–612 in-service vibration analysis, 611 laser cladding, 611 lubrication, 612–613 planned preventive maintenance, 610 predictive maintenance and SCADA, 610–611 reactive unscheduled maintenance, 612 tidal and wave turbines maintenance, 613–614 Renewable energy standard, 440 Resist, 95 Resistive temperature detectors (RTD), 544 Retest OK (RETOK), 239 Reverse electrodialysis (RED), 402, 416 Reversibility, 199 Ring lubrication, 268 Rings, 268 Ripple, 96 RIV test, 541 Robot, PV panel cleaning, 616, 617 Rolling contact fatigue (RCF), 464 Room Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV), 312, 308–309 Root, 436 Rotating pressure vessel oxidation test (RPVOT), 218 Rotor, 436 hub, 436 status, 566 S SACP, see Sacrificial anode cathodic protection Sacrificial anode, 386 coating, 191 protection, 96 Sacrificial anode cathodic protection (SACP), 602 Sagometer, 551 Salt spray (SS), 53 Sanchem grease, 260–261; see also Lubrication Sand blasting, 96 Saponification, 96 Satin finish, 96 SAW temperature monitoring, 552 Sawtooth curve, 461 Saybolt universal seconds (SUS), 263 Saybolt universal viscosity (SUV), 268 SeaGen CMS, 575–576 Sealing, 191 of anodic coating, 96 plug, 47 Semisolid, 268 Sendzimir process, 70; see also Zinc galvanization processes Separating force, 47 Sequestering agent, 96 Shadow flicker, 440 Shaft, 436 Shape memory alloy (SMA), 12 Shear stability, 198–199 Shell Lubricants, 492; see also Wind turbine lubrication Shield, 96 Silicone-based, silver-filled conductive grease, 260; see also Lubrication Silicone rubber (SIR), 244 Silicon Graphics International (SGI), 177 Silver, 11–12, 81; see also Lubrication -based greases, 260 dip, 148 sulfide, 144 Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance, 146; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion effect of current load and mechanical load, 147 silver dip, 148 silver tarnish and contact electrical resistance, 146 techniques of tarnish cleaning, 147 thickness of silver tarnish, 146–147 634 Silver plating, 51, 191; see also Plating of electrical equipment physical properties of, 51 standards for, 87 technical characteristics of silver layers, 51 thickness for electrical applications, 51–52 thin silver plating, 52 types of, 53 underplating types and thicknesses of, 52 use of nickel underplate for, 52–53 Silver plating corrosion, 140; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion blue and green corrosion of copper bus with silver flash, 145 copper bus with silver flash, 145 corrosion of copper bus with flash silver plating, 145 finger cluster of corroded breaker, 142 heavy silver plating tarnish on copper bus, 141 red-plague corrosion, 142–143 silver-flash plated copper bus, 143 effect of silver plating thickness and quality on sulfuric corrosion, 144 silver tarnish, 140–141 silver whiskers, 141 sulfuric corrosion, 140 and tarnish, 140 tarnished silver plating on copper bus, 141 underplating corrosion, 143–144 Silver whiskers, 148; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion chemical composition, 152–153 corrosion silver whiskers and natural silver wires, 155 discoveries of growth, 155 extra-long and thick whiskers and extra thin whiskers with silver luster, 152 factors affecting growth of, 150 inside failed breakers, 151 failed circuit breaker, 151 failures in electrical equipment caused by, 150–151 formed during HTXRD thermal processing, 156 found on circuit breakers installed at paper mill in Europe, 156 found on switchgear installed at paper mill, 157 history of, 148 morphology, 152 native silver wires, 154 phenomenon, 151 puzzle, 154 at roots of growth, 153 visual appearance, 151 Single Event Phenomena (SEP), 374 SKF condition monitoring of bearings, 576 Index SKF Insight, 576 Sliding or rolling contacts, 3–4; see also Electrical contacts Sludge, 268 Slumpability, 198 Slurry, 96 Small Wind Turbine (SWT), 428 Smoke corrosivity, 177; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Tin plating corrosion; Zinc plating corrosion corrosive damage, 178 noncorrosive damage, 178 smoke effect on electronic equipment, 178–179 Snow on PV panels, 615 Soap thickeners, 205–207 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 268, 374 Socket contact, 47 Solar cells, failed overheated, 577–578 Solar energy, 355, 377, 387; see also Solar power equipment deterioration construction of solar panel, 355–356 grid-connected solar power, 356–357 IEC Standards for, 375–376 International Standards for solar power, 375 National Standards for solar power, 374–375 off-grid solar power, 356 regulating standards, 374 renewable green energy sources, 355 solar power standards in other countries, 377 Solar modules, 576 cause of PV failures, 576 failed overheated solar cells, 577–578 infrared thermography for inspection and testing, 577 IR images of PV panel defects, 578 remote monitoring system for PV panels, 579 Solar panel maintenance, 614 Solar power equipment deterioration, 357; see also Life cycle assessment; Life expectancy; Solar energy clamping, 372 corroded PV module, 358 corrosion mitigation techniques, 360–362 damaged module frames, 371 degradation of antireflection coating of solar cell, 363 delamination and discoloration of encapsulation, 367–369 discoloration in encapsulant and adhesives in solar panel, 369 exposure of solar panels to environment, 357–358 failure modes of solar module related to encapsulant, 368 galvanic corrosion in solar panels, 358–360 hot-spot failures, 366–367 impact, abrasion, and breakage from windborne debris, 371 insulation and adhesive role in PV panels failures, 369 lightning and snow, 370–371 problems with rooftop solar systems, 372–373 PV module deterioration, 362–364 PV module failures, 370 PV panel corrosion, 371–372 snail trails in solar panels, 364–366 635 Index solar module deterioration types, 370 solar panel failures, 358 transport and installation, 372 effect of water and corrosion in solar panel, 359 yellowing or browning, 368 Solar power plant inspection and maintenance, 614 panel cleaning robot, 616, 617 PV panel cleaning, 615–618 snow on PV panels, 615 Solder contact, 48 Soldered connection, 48 Soldering, 27 Solderless connection, 48 Solid, 268 Solid lubricants, 219; see also Lubrication clays and fumed silicas, 221 graphite, 220–221 molybdenum disulfide, 219–220 polymers, 221 soft metals, 221 Solvent degreasing, 91 Soot, 178, 192 Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), 551 Space charge, see Cell—barrier Spacer, 48 Specific gravity, 268 Spectrochemical analysis, 217 Splash zone (SZ), 443 Spotting out, 96 Stalagmometer, 96 Stannate process, 82; see also Plating on aluminum Start-up speed, 436 Statkraft, 402 Steel, 136; see also Galvanized steel alloy steel, 183 ACSR cable, 26, 138 carbon, 184 CCSR cable , 26 electrical steel, 186 ferritic stainless steel, 93 corrosion, 406, 407, 444 exposed in seawater, 446 HSLA, 137 stainless, 137, 162 Stoke (St), 268 Straight PCB mount, 48 Stratification, 203 Stray current, 96 Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), 137, 192 Stress Wave Analysis (SWAN™) techniques, 564 Stress Wave Energy technique (SWE technique), 566 Strike, 96 Strip, 48, 96 Structural health monitoring (SHM), 557 Sulfur hexaflouride, 301–302; see also Insulating media gas CBs, 586 Sulfuric gases, 140 Superimposed AC, 96 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), 558 diagnostics with, 558 systems, 611 Surface acoustic wave technology (SAW technology), 547 Surface active agent, see Surfactant Surface discharge, 287 Surface tension, 96 Surfactant, 96, 268 Saybolt universal seconds, 268 Swept area, 436 Synthetic hydrocarbons (SHCs), 199, 268 Synthetic lubricant, 268 T Tail boom, 436 Tank voltage, 96 Target–Exclusion–Detection (TED), 255 Tarnish, 96, 140 -cleaning products, 148 Technical Committee 82 (TC82), 375 Temperature factors, 388 gradient, 417 rating, 315 Temperature monitoring in electrical equipment, 542; see also Electrical equipment physical condition; Wireless temperature-monitoring system distributed fiber-optic temperature sensing, 544 electronic temperature sensors, 543 IR noncontact temperature sensors, 543 optical fiber sensing probe, 543–544 thermography, 542 winding temperature monitoring of HV transformers, 544 Temperature rise (TR), 6, 28 Terminal, 48 Termination point, 48 Testing oil for moisture, 541–542 Thermal condition causing connector failure, 7; see also Electrical contacts Thermal conductivity, 268 Thermal diagnostics, 546 Thermal endurance of insulation, 285 Thermal stability, 268 Thermocouple, 547 cable, 315 Thermography, 542 Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), 367 Thief, 96 Thin film, 388 lubrication, 268 photovoltaic module, 389 Threaded coupling, 48 Threshold limit value (TLV), 61 Throwing power, 97 Thrust bearing, 436 Tidal and wave power equipment, 403; see also Ocean energy; Tidal energy; Wave energy AF paints, 408 biofouling, 403–404 biofouling and corrosion of carbon steel in seawater, 406 biofouling control products, 408 coatings for marine corrosion control, 409–411 composite materials use for, 412 corrosion protection of bearings, 411–412 fouling release paints, 408 galvanic corrosion in steel structure of tidal turbine, 407 marine corrosion effects on tidal power equipment, 407 636 Tidal and wave power equipment (Continued) observation of biofouling and corrosion based on testing, 404 performance of different materials in seawater, 404–407 performance of materials used in tidal equipment in sea water, 405 systematic approach to corrosion protection, 409 techniques to mitigate biofouling and corrosion of, 407–408 Tidal and wave turbine; see also Wind turbine life extension component life extension, 603 maintenance, 613–614 Tidal energy, 355, 393, 417; see also Ocean energy; Tidal and wave power equipment; Wave energy Delta Stream tidal turbines, 396 Kobold turbine, 397 renewable sources, 393 SeaGen tidal current turbine, 395 tidal power stations, 394 tidal power system classification, 393–395 tidal power systems based on cross-flow turbine, 398 tidal turbines types, 395–398 Venturi-type tidal turbine, 397 wave and tidal turbines challenges, 400–402 TidalSense CMS, 575 Tide turbine condition monitoring, 573 DeltaStream CMS, 574–575 SeaGen CMS, 575–576 SKF condition monitoring of bearings, 576 TidalSense CMS, 575 Tilt angle, 389 Time-based maintenance (TBM), 583, 584–585 Tin Commandments, 101 Tin oxide, 389 Tin pest, 107; see also Tin plating effects of alloying elements and environment on, 107–108 failure in electrical connectors, 108–109 formation of β tin into α tin, 107 retarding effects of lead-free alloying metals, 108 impact of RoHS on possible tin pest failures, 109–110 Tin plating, 53, 101; see also Galvanic corrosion; Plating; Plating of electrical equipment; Tin pest; Underplating accelerated aging study of, 102–103 on Al after weeks of thermal aging, 105 on Al after weeks of thermal aging, 105 on aluminum as possible cause of connection overheating, 106–107 appearance of tin plating on Al that failed adhesion test, 104 lubrication, 101 mechanisms of thermal deterioration of tin plating on Al, 105–106 multiple testing techniques, 103 physical properties of, 53 precautions in using, 101 properties of Sn–Pb substitute platings, 55 quality of thermally aged, 103–105 standards for, 87 technical characteristics of tin layers, 54 techniques for electrical applications, 54 thermal deterioration, 102 thickness for electrical applications, 55 tin and fretting corrosion, 101 Index tin and intermetallic compounds, 102 Tin Commandments, 101 Tin plating corrosion, 157; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Zinc plating corrosion corrosion experiments, 157 reaction of tin with other gases, 158 tin oxidation, 158 Tin plating quality on Al, 84; see also Plating on aluminum adhesion test, 84 composition of copper–bronze underplating in freshly plated Alstan sample, 86 freshly plated tin plating on Al with bronze underplating, 86 plating techniques and adhesion, 84–85 plating techniques and quality, 85 thermal shock test, 84 Tin whisker mitigation techniques, 74; see also Metal whiskers on plating addition of lead, 75–76 conformal coating, 76 heat treatments, 76 hot-dip tin plating, 76 nontin plating and coating, 76 thicker tin finish, 76 underplating, 74–75 Tin whiskers, 72, 73; see also Metal whiskers on plating Tip, 436 Tip speed ratio, 436 Total acid number (TAN), 300, 317 Total AC load demand, 389 Total cyanide, 97 Total dissolved combustible gases (TDCG), 535 Total internal reflection, 389 Total Lubricants, 493; see also Wind turbine lubrication Total reduced sulfur (TRS), 61 Tower, 436 Tracking, 291 array, 389 Transference, 97 Transference number, 97 Transformer oil, 299–301; see also Insulating media parameters to monitor in, 528 turns ratio measurement, 591 Transformer health index (THI), 591–592 Transmission electrical equipment online monitoring techniques, 548; see also Electrical equipment physical condition condition monitoring in, 548–549 overhead transmission lines, 549–550 Transparent conducting oxide (TCO), 389 Tree-Retardant Cross-Linked Polyethylene (TR-XLPE), 297 Trees, 97 Tribology, 268 Tripoli, 97 Tumbling, 97 Turbine generator unit (TGU), 397 Turbulence, 436 Index Turret head, 48 Twist, 436 Two-axis tracking, 389 Tyco Electronics (TE), 262 U Ultracentrifuge (UC), 217 Ultra-high frequency (UHF), 539 Ultrasonic testing (UT), 560 UltraTEV (TEV technology and ultrasonic detection), 540 Ultraviolet (UV), 227, 389 Underground feeder (UF), 389 Underground residential distribution (URD), 297 Under load, 48 Underplating, 110; see also Galvanic corrosion; Ni underplating; Plating; Tin plating advantages of nickel as, 110–112 mitigating role of, 110 recommended thickness of, 112 types, 110 Underwriters Laboratories Inc (UL), 66, 374, 427 Ungrounded-specimen test (UST), 541 Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), 594 United States Air Force (USAF), 239 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), 578 Unscheduled maintenance, 612 Upper limiting temperature, 48 U.S Department of Energy (DOE), 594 Utility-interactive inverter, 389 Utility-scale wind, 436 V Vacuum evaporation, 389 filling, 317 Vacuum circuit breakers (VCB), 303 Vane, 436 Vaporized corrosion inhibitors (VCI), 168–169, 182, 192 Vapor pressure, 268 Varnish, 192, 269 Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs), 430, 431, 436 Vertical multijunction cell (VMJ cell), 389 Very low frequency (VLF), 530 HIPOT test, 531–532 Video sagometer, 551 Viscometer, 269 Viscosity, 192, 198, 269 Viscosity index (VI), 198, 269 Viscous, 269 drag, 418 Visual inspection, 607 Volatility, 269 Voltage efficiency, 97 protection, 389 Voltage at maximum power (Vmp), 389 Voltage transformers (VTs), 301, 533 W Wafer, 389 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), 75, 88 637 Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), 61 Water absorption, 316 break, 97 content, 317 content in oil, 537 -damaged electrical equipment, 593–594 depth, 418 energy, 355 trees, 298 Wave energy, 355, 398, 418; see also Ocean energy; Tidal and wave power equipment; Tidal energy oscillating body power converters, 401 prototype of wave power system, 399 renewable sources, 393 spectrum, 418 types of wave energy converters, 400 wave and tidal turbines challenges, 400–402 wave energy technologies, 399–400 Wave energy converter (WEC), 418, 419, 432 Wear, 9, 269; see also Electrical contacts of CB contact due to lack of lubrication, 19 of contacts in HV and MV air-blast CBs, 17 debris, 469 degree of electrical contact wear evaluation, 14 and erosion of arcing contacts, 16 resistance improvement, 11 effect of thickness of plating on wear resistance, 15 types, 10 effect of wear resistance, 14 and wipe, Wear particle analysis (WRA), 219 Weathering, 131 Welding, 27 Westus, 402 Wet blasting, 97 Wetting agent, 97 Whisker, 97 growth, 175 Whisker index (WI), 114 White etching cracking (WEC), 465 White rust (WR), 69, 159, 160, 168, 193 on zinc, 163 as corrosion of zinc coating, 70 White structure flaking (WSF), 467, 468 Wind farm, 436 lease, 441 monitoring system, 436 power class, 437, 441 resource assessment, 437, 441 Wind energy, 355 parks, 443 Wind energy equipment, 421 construction of wind tower, 422 medium voltage equipment development, 425 renewable wind energy, 421–422 wind power equipment, 422–423 Wind energy equipment corrosion, 443 cathodic corrosion protection, 449–450 codes and standards, 451–453 constructive corrosion protection, 447 corrosion at splash area of tower base, 445 corrosion of offshore wind turbines, 443–446 638 Wind energy equipment corrosion, (Continued) corrosion of wind turbine after years in service, 446 effect of corrosion on low-carbon steel and zinc, 444 corrosion protection for wind turbine parts exposed to different environments, 448 corrosion protection means, 447 corrosion rates of steel in offshore service, 444 corrosion types, 444 exterior atmospheric corrosion protection, 448 factors to consider for offshore corrosion protection, 449 galvanic anode cathodic protection system, 450–451 immersion and splash zone corrosion protection, 448–449 impressed current cathodic protection, 450 issues of, 443 protection of wind turbine rotor blades, 451 protective coating systems, 447–448 qualification of paint system, 449 use of aluminum in construction of offshore wind turbines, 451 welded steel exposed for year in natural seawater, 446 Winding hot spot (WHS), 544 Winding resistance measurement, 591 Winding temperature, 545 monitoring of HV transformers, 544 Windmill, 437 Window, 389 Wind powering America (WPA), 441 Wind turbine (WT), 421, 423, 437, 513; see also Life cycle assessment; Life expectancy AGMA standards for, 428 ASTM standards for wind power, 428 AWEA standards, 428 design classes and packages, 429–430 design trends of WT equipment, 425–426 gearless technology, 430–432 IEC WT standards, 426–427 international standards and guidelines, 428–429 ISO standards for wind power systems, 427 life of, 599 noise, 441 offshore wind and wave turbines together, 432 parts categories by wind turbine system, 424 -rated capacity, 437 standards and certifications, 426 subassemblies and components of, 423–425 trends in WT technology, 430 UL standards for wind power systems, 427 vertical-axis wind turbines, 430, 431 WTG wind classes, 429 Wind turbine bearings, 455 bearing treatment techniques, 471 combination of two ES technologies, 472–473 common bearing failure modes in wind turbine drive, 465 damaged bearing chemically etched to highlight damage, 468 damaged intermediate pinion, 464 damaged outer race of bearing, 464 enhanced black oxidation process, 471–472 failure modes of, 461, 463 failure statistics, 461–463 micropitting and spalling, 465–466 in nacelle, 456 overloading resulted in severe fatigue spalling, 466 Index role of lubricants in bearing failures, 469 seal design, 474 sealing materials, 474–475 seals, 473 seals and sealing systems challenges, 474 sliding damage and smearing, 466 smearing, surface distress, and microspalling, 466–467 WEC bearing failure, 467 WSF and axial cracking, 467–468 Wind turbine failures, 499 accident statistics worldwide, 506 analysis of breakdown risk and failures in India, 503 categories of, 499 causes of, 499–501 comparative study of offshore and onshore, 509–511 databases of common, 501 distribution of failure type in wind turbine components, 500 failure frequency and downtimes of wind turbine components, 503 failure in transformer, 504 failure rates for subassemblies, 509, 510 in Finland, 501–502 frequency of failure rate, 501 in Germany, 502–503 intermediate pinion teeth, 504 lubrication, 509 materials temperature limits, 508–509 scoring marks on gear wheel, 505 temperature limits for polymeric materials, 509 total number of failures of main components, 502 effect of weather conditions on, 503–505 wind turbine burning in Scotland after lightning strike, 506 wind turbine on fire at Groß Eilstorf wind farm, 508 WT fires, 505–507 WTs challenges in hot climate and deserts, 508 Wind turbine farms (WTF), 514; see also Life cycle assessment; Life expectancy Wind turbine gearbox (WTG), 455, 601 bearing race macropitting, 456 bearing roller scuffing, 457 contamination ingested from environment, 458 damage caused by moisture or standstill corrosion, 459 failure modes of, 463 gearbox problems, 455 gear tooth micropitting, 457 internal contamination, 456–458 internally generated contamination, 460–461 micropitting on bearing, 460 minimizing contamination added during maintenance, 461 minimizing ingressed contamination, 461 in nacelle, 456 effect of operating conditions on, 469–470 particle contamination of gearbox oil, 456 techniques to minimize contamination, 460 water contamination, 458–460 Wind turbine generator (WTG), 429, 461, 602 Wind turbine life extension, 599; see also Renewable energy equipment maintenance component life extension, 600, 603 corrosion monitoring, 602 DigitalClone Live, 601 639 Index gearbox life extension techniques, 601–602 modeling approaches, 599–600 offshore monopole, 602 preventive and corrective actions, 601 program, 600–601 reconditioning, 601 reliability-centered maintenance, 601 structural integrity onshore WT, 602–603 Wind turbine lubrication, 479 automatic lubrication for wind turbines, 495 bearings, 480–481 brakes, shrink discs, and service parts, 481–482 built-in contamination, 483–484 Castrol, 493, 494, 495 challenges, 479 Dow Corning, 490–491 Fuchs Petrolub AG, 489–490 internally generated contamination, 484 Klüber lubrication, 493 lubricants for wind turbine mechanical parts, 489 lubrication in wet and corrosive environment, 482 lubrication points of different bearings, 481 lubrication-related failures of bearings and gearboxes, 488–489 Mobil, 491–492 Molycote pastes, 490–491 oil contamination in wind turbine gearboxes, 483 required oil cleanliness, 484, 485 requirements for gearboxes oil, 482–483 requirements to qualities of gearbox oil, 485–486 role of environment in lubricant selection, 482 role of gearbox oil cleanliness in gearbox life, 483 Shell Lubricants, 492 temperature effect on lubricants, 482 tests qualifying oil for use, 487 threaded connections, 480 Total Lubricants, 493 type of lubricants, 479 water contamination of oil, 484–485 wind turbine gearbox oils, 486–488 wind turbine grease lubrication performance challenges, 481 Wind turbines testing and monitoring, 557, 557, 564; see also Condition Monitoring Systems; Wireless CMS for WT acoustic emission and ultrasonic testing, 560, 572 areas of, 559 condition monitoring, 557–558, 564 corrosion of towers and foundation, 563 diagnostics with SCADA, 558 oil quality, 560–561, 562, 563 vibrations, 559–560, 565, 566 Wind velocity, 433 Wiping action, 48 Wiping motion, 11 Wireless CMS for WT, 569, 573; see also Condition Monitoring Systems; Wind turbines testing and monitoring deflection measuring system, 572 energy harvesters as sensors, 571 laser displacement sensor system, 571 linear variable differential transformers, 570 piezo ceramic-based wireless sensor, 571 wireless SAW, 570–571 wireless structural health monitoring system, 571 wireless structure monitoring system, 572 wireless transceivers, 570 Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), 569 Wireless structural health monitoring system, 571 Wireless structure monitoring system, 572 Wireless surface acoustic waves, 570–571 Wireless temperature-monitoring system (WTMS), 545, 590; see also Temperature monitoring in electrical equipment benefits, 546 power source for, 546–547 with SAW Sensors, 547–548 structure, 545 techniques in, 547 thermal diagnostics, 546 Wireless transceivers, 570 Wissenschaftliches Mess-und Evaluierungsprogramm (WMEP), 455 Withdrawal force, 48 Withstand voltage, 48 Work, 97 Working voltage, 48 X X-ray diffraction (XRD), 109 Z Zenith angle, 389 Zinc, 158 Zincate process, 82; see also Plating on aluminum Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDPs), 209, 269 Zinc dithiophosphate, 209 Zinc electroplating, 69; see also Plating of electrical equipment standards for, 87–88 Zinc galvanization processes, 69; see also Plating of electrical equipment continuous galvanizing, 70 electrogalvanizing, 70 hot-dip galvanizing, 69 process of galvanizing, 70 Sendzimir process, 70 standards for, 88 Zinc plating corrosion, 158; see also Atmospheric corrosion; Corrosion protection; Electronic system corrosion; Environment effect on bare metals; Environmental control for corrosion protection; Galvanized steel; Silver corrosion effect on contact resistance; Silver plating corrosion; Silver whiskers; Smoke corrosivity; Tin plating corrosion approximate hours to formation of rust, 160 atmospheric corrosion of Zn, 158–159 mean corrosion rates, 163 white rust on zinc, 159, 160 .. .Transmission, Distribution, and Renewable Energy Generation Power Equipment Aging and Life Extension Techniques www.Technicalbookspdf.com www.Technicalbookspdf.com Transmission, Distribution, ... Transmission, Distribution, and Renewable Energy Generation Power Equipment Aging and Life Extension Techniques Second Edition Bella H Chudnovsky www.Technicalbookspdf.com CRC Press Taylor & Francis... issues of aging and means of life extension techniques for renewable energy power equipment xxix www.Technicalbookspdf.com www.Technicalbookspdf.com Acronyms I TRADITIONAL TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION