Essential university physics andrew rex, richard wolfson 3rd edition

EssEntial University Physics THIRD EDITION Richard Wolfson Middlebury College Executive Editor: Nancy Whilton Project Manager: Katie Conley Development Editors: John Murdzek, Matt Walker Editorial Assistant: Sarah Kaubisch Development Manager: Cathy Murphy Project Management Team Lead: Kristen Flathman Compositor: Lumina Datamatics, Inc Design Manager: Marilyn Perry Illustrators: Rolin Graphics Rights & Permissions Management: Timothy Nicholls Photo Researcher: Stephen Merland, Jen Simmons Manufacturing Buyer: Maura Zaldivar-Garcia Marketing Manager: Will Moore Cover Photo Credit: 68/Ocean/Corbis Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ Acknowledgments of third party content appear on page C-1, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING and MasteringPhysics are exclusive trademarks in the U.S and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors CIP data is on file with the Library of Congress 10—V011—18 17 16 15 14 www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN 10: 0-321-99372-1; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-99372-4 0134202708 9780134202709 PhET Simulations Available in the Pearson eText and in the Study Area of MasteringPhysics Chapter 3 3 5 7 8 9 10 10 10 11 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 19 20 20 20 22 22 24 24 PhET Estimation The Moving Man Vector Addition Projectile Motion Ladybug Motion 2D Motion in 2D The Ramp Forces in Dimension Friction The Ramp Calculus Grapher Energy Skate Park Gravity Force Lab My Solar System Gravity and Orbits Collisions (Introduction) Collisions (Advanced) Ladybug Revolution Torque (Torque) Torque (Moment of Inertia) Simplified MRI Masses and Springs Pendulum Lab Wave on a String Sound Fourier: Making Waves Wave Interference Balloons and Buoyancy Blackbody Spectrum The Greenhouse Effect Gas Properties States of Matter Reversible Reactions Balloons and Static Electricity Charges and Fields Electricity Field Hockey Calculus Grapher Charges and Fields Conductivity Semiconductors Page 16 33 39 43 43 73 80 80 92, 96 120 120 131 132 132 158 159 169 173 173 196 224 229 247, 255 251 252 253 269 293 296 303 307 344 356 359, 362 366 409 409 435 437 Chapter 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 28 29 29 29 30 30 31 32 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 PhET Page Resistance in a Wire 439 Ohm’s Law 439 Battery Resistor Circuit 450 Circuit Construction Kit (DC Only) 451, 456 Signal Circuit 451 Magnet and Compass 470 Magnets and Electromagnets 483 Farady’s Law 498 Farady’s Electromagentic Lab 502 Generator 506 Circuit Construction Kit (AC + DC) 526, 530, 533 Radio Waves and Electromagnetic Fields 556 Radiating Charge 556 Optical Tweezers and Applications 559 Bending Light (Intro) 569 Bending Light (Prism Break) 572 Geometric Optics 585 Wave Interference: Light 601 Blackbody Spectrum 648 Photoelectric Effect 651 Neon Lights & Other Discharge Lamps 654 Quantum Wave Interference 659 Quantum Bound State: One Well 671, 675 Quantum Tunneling and Wave Packets 677 Quantum Bound State: One Well: 3D Coulomb 685 Build an Atom 693 Quantum Bound States: Two Wells (Molecular Bonding) 703 Band Structure 709 Semiconductors 712 Rutherford Scattering 721 Simplified MRI 724 Radioactive Dating Game 726 Alpha Decay 729 Beta Decay 729 Nuclear Fission: One Nucleus 734 Nuclear Fission: Chain Reaction 735 Nuclear Fission: Nuclear Reactor 736 iii Video Tutor Demonstrations Video tutor demonstrations can be accessed by scanning the QR codes in the textbook using a smartphone They are also available in the Study Area and Instructor’s Resource Area on MasteringPhysics and in the eText Chapter 3 3 4 4 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 15 iv Video Tutor Demonstration Balls Take High and Low Tracks Dropped and Thrown Balls Ball Fired from Cart on Incline Ball Fired Upward from Accelerating Cart Range of a Gun at Two Firing Angles Cart with Fan and Sail Ball Leaves Circular Track Suspended Balls: Which String Breaks? Weighing a Hovering Magnet Tension in String between Hanging Weights Chin Basher? Balancing a Meter Stick Water Rocket Happy/Sad Pendulums Canned Food Race Spinning Person Drops Weights Off-Center Collision Walking the Plank Vibrating Rods Out-of-Phase Speakers Pressure in Water and Alcohol Water Level in Pascal’s Vases Page Chapter 16 38 39 39 43 53 53 54 63 76 118 146 153 154 182 195 195 207 236 251 268 268 15 15 16 16 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 29 29 31 36 Video Tutor Demonstration Weighing Weights in Water Air Jet Blows between Bowling Balls Heating Water and Aluminum Water Balloon Held over Candle Flame Candle Chimneys Charged Rod and Aluminum Can Electroscope in Conducting Shell Charged Conductor with Teardrop Shape Discharge Speed for Series and Parallel Capacitors Resistance in Copper and Nichrome Bulbs Connected in Series and in Parallel Magnet and Electron Beam Current-Carrying Wire in Magnetic Field Eddy Currents in Different Metals Parallel-Wire Polarizer for Microwaves Point of Equal Brightness between Two Light Sources Partially Covering a Lens Illuminating Sodium Vapor with Sodium and Mercury Lamps Page 270 274 288 288 293 369 391 411 423 441 454 470 475 507 553 558 587 696 Brief Contents Chapter Doing Physics Chapter 22 Electric Potential 399 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors 418 Part One Chapter 24 Electric Current 432 Mechanics 14 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits 449 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field Chapter Motion in a Straight Line 15 Chapter Motion in Two and Three Dimensions Chapter Force and Motion 51 Chapter Using Newton’s Laws Chapter Energy, Work, and Power Chapter Conservation of Energy 109 Part Five Chapter Gravity Chapter Systems of Particles Optics 565 32 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction 497 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits 90 144 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction 566 168 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum 189 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium Part Six 204 579 599 Modern Physics 621 Part twO Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids 221 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion Chapter 14 Wave Motion 243 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion 265 222 Chapter 33 Relativity 622 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves 647 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics Chapter 36 Atomic Physics 667 684 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids 702 Part three Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics Thermodynamics 284 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat 285 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 720 appendix a Mathematics A-1 appendix B The International System of Units (SI) Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 334 appendix C Conversion Factors appendix d The Elements Part FOur Electromagnetism 354 375 355 A-9 A-11 A-13 appendix e Astrophysical Data Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field 747 aPPendiCeS 303 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 317 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law 525 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves 543 71 129 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion 469 A-16 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems Credits C-1 Index I-1 A-17 v About the Author richard wolfson Richard Wolfson is the Benjamin F Wissler Professor of Physics at Middlebury College, where he has taught since 1976 He did undergraduate work at MIT and Swarthmore College, and he holds an M.S degree from the University of Michigan and Ph.D from Dartmouth His ongoing research on the Sun’s corona and climate change has taken him to sabbaticals at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado; St Andrews University in Scotland; and Stanford University Rich is a committed and passionate teacher This is reflected in his many publications for students and the general public, including the video series Einstein’s Relativity and the Quantum Revolution: Modern Physics for Nonscientists (The Teaching Company, 1999), Physics in Your Life (The Teaching Company, 2004), Physics and Our Universe: How It All Works (The Teaching Company, 2011), and Understanding Modern Electronics (The Teaching Company, 2014); books Nuclear Choices: A Citizen’s Guide to Nuclear Technology (MIT Press, 1993), Simply Einstein: Relativity Demystified (W W Norton, 2003), and Energy, Environment, and Climate (W W Norton, 2012); and articles for Scientific American and the World Book Encyclopedia Outside of his research and teaching, Rich enjoys hiking, canoeing, gardening, cooking, and watercolor painting vi Preface to the Instructor Introductory physics texts have grown ever larger, more massive, more encyclopedic, more colorful, and more expensive Essential University Physics bucks that trend—without compromising coverage, pedagogy, or quality The text benefits from the author’s three decades of teaching introductory physics, seeing firsthand the difficulties and misconceptions that students face as well as the “Got It!” moments when big ideas become clear It also builds on the author’s honing multiple editions of a previous calculus-based textbook and on feedback from hundreds of instructors and students Goals of this Book Physics is the fundamental science, at once fascinating, challenging, and subtle—and yet simple in a way that reflects the few basic principles that govern the physical universe My goal is to bring this sense of physics alive for students in a range of academic disciplines who need a solid calculus-based physics course—whether they’re engineers, physics majors, premeds, biologists, chemists, geologists, mathematicians, computer scientists, or other majors My own courses are populated by just such a variety of students, and among my greatest joys as a teacher is having students who took a course only because it was required say afterward that they really enjoyed their exposure to the ideas of physics More specifically, my goals include: ● ● ● ● ● Helping students build the analytical and quantitative skills and confidence needed to apply physics in problem solving for science and engineering Addressing key misconceptions and helping students build a stronger conceptual understanding Helping students see the relevance and excitement of the physics they’re studying with contemporary applications in science, technology, and everyday life Helping students develop an appreciation of the physical universe at its most fundamental level Engaging students with an informal, conversational writing style that balances precision with approachability new to the third edition The overall theme for this third-edition revision is to present a more unified view of physics, emphasizing “big ideas” and the connections among different topics covered throughout the book We’ve also updated material and features based on feedback from instructors, students, and reviewers A modest growth, averaging about one page per chapter, allows for expanded coverage of topics where additional elaboration seemed warranted Several chapters have had major rewrites of key physics topics We’ve also made a number of additions and modifications aimed at improving students’ understanding, increasing relevancy, and offering expanded problem-solving opportunities ● ● Chapter opening pages have been redesigned to include explicit connections, both textual and graphic, with preceding and subsequent chapters The presentation of energy and work in Chapters and has been extensively rewritten with a clearer invocation of systems concepts Internal energy is introduced much earlier in the book, and potential energy is carefully presented as a property not of objects but of systems Two new sections in Chapter emphasize the universality of energy conservation, including the role of internal energy in systems subject to dissipative forces Forward references tie this material to the chapters on thermodynamics, electromagnetism, and relativity The updated treatment of energy also allows the text to make a closer connection between the conservation laws for energy and momentum vii viii Preface to the Instructor ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● The presentation of magnetic flux and Faraday’s law in Chapter 27 has been recast so as to distinguish motional emf from emfs induced by changing magnetic fields—including Einstein’s observation about induction, which is presented as a forward-looking connection to Chapter 33 There is more emphasis on calculus in earlier chapters, allowing instructors who wish to so to use calculus approaches to topics that are usually introduced algebraically We’ve also added more calculus-based problems However, we continue to emphasize the standard approach in the main text for those who teach the course with a calculus corequisite or otherwise want to go slowly with more challenging math A host of new applications connects the physics concepts that students are learning with contemporary technological and biomedical innovations, as well as recent scientific discoveries A sample of new applications includes Inertial Guidance Systems, Vehicle Stability Control, Climate Modeling, Electrophoresis, MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems), The Taser, Uninterruptible Power Supplies, Geomagnetic Storms, PET Scans, Noise-Cancelling Headphones, Femtosecond Chemistry, Windows on the Universe, and many more Additional worked examples have been added in areas where students show the need for more practice in problem solving Many of these are not just artificial textbook problems but are based on contemporary science and technology, such as the Mars Curiosity rover landing, the Fukushima accident, and the Chelyabinsk meteor Following user requests, we’ve added an example of a collision in the center-of-mass reference frame New GOT IT? boxes, now in nearly every section of every chapter, provide quick checks on students’ conceptual understanding Many of the GOT IT? questions have been formatted as Clicker questions, available on the Instructor’s Resource DVD and in the Instructor’s Resource Area in Mastering End-of chapter problem sets have been extensively revised: ● Each EOC problem set has at least 10 percent new or substantially revised problems ● More “For Thought and Discussion Questions” have been added ● Nearly every chapter has more intermediate-level problems ● More calculus-based problems have been added ● Every chapter now has at least one data problem, designed to help students develop strong quantitative reasoning skills These problems present a data table and require students to determine appropriate functions of the data to plot in order to achieve a linear relationship and from that to find values of physical quantities involved in the experiment from which the data were taken ● New tags have been added to label appropriate problems These include CH (challenge), ENV (environmental), and DATA, and they join the previous BIO and COMP (computer) problem tags QR codes in margins allow students to use smartphones or other devices for immediate access to video tutor demonstrations that illustrate selected concepts while challenging students to interact with the video by predicting outcomes of simple experiments References to PhET simulations appear in the margins where appropriate As with earlier revisions, we’ve incorporated new research results, new applications of physics principles, and findings from physics education research Pedagogical innovations This book is concise, but it’s also progressive in its embrace of proven techniques from physics education research and strategic in its approach to learning physics Chapter introduces the IDEA framework for problem solving, and every one of the book’s subsequent worked examples employs this framework IDEA—an acronym for Identify, Develop, Evaluate, Assess—is not a “cookbook” method for students to apply mindlessly, but rather a tool for organizing students’ thinking and discouraging equation hunting It begins with an interpretation of the problem and an identification of the key Preface to the Instructor physics concepts involved; develops a plan for reaching the solution; carries out the mathematical evaluation; and assesses the solution to see that it makes sense, to compare the example with others, and to mine additional insights into physics In nearly all of the text’s worked examples, the Develop phase includes making a drawing, and most of these use a hand-drawn style to encourage students to make their own drawings—a step that research suggests they often skip IDEA provides a common approach to all physics problem solving, an approach that emphasizes the conceptual unity of physics and helps break the typical student view of physics as a hodgepodge of equations and unrelated ideas In addition to IDEA-based worked examples, other pedagogical features include: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Problem-Solving Strategy boxes that follow the IDEA framework to provide detailed guidance for specific classes of physics problems, such as Newton’s second law, conservation of energy, thermal-energy balance, Gauss’s law, or multiloop circuits Tactics boxes that reinforce specific essential skills such as differentiation, setting up integrals, vector products, drawing free-body diagrams, simplifying series and parallel circuits, or ray tracing QR codes in the textbook allow students to link to video tutor demonstrations as they read, using their smartphones These “Pause and predict” videos of key physics concepts ask students to submit a prediction before they see the outcome The videos are also available in the Study Area of Mastering and in the Pearson eText GoT IT? boxes that provide quick checks for students to test their conceptual understanding Many of these use a multiple-choice or quantitative ranking format to probe student misconceptions and facilitate their use with classroom-response systems Many new GOT IT? boxes have been added in the third edition, and now nearly every section of every chapter has at least one GOT IT? box Tips that provide helpful problem-solving hints or warn against common pitfalls and misconceptions Chapter openers that include a graphical indication of where the chapter lies in sequence as well as three columns of points that help make connections with other material throughout the book These include a backward-looking “What You Know,” “What You’re Learning” for the present chapter, and a forward-looking “How You’ll Use It.” Each chapter also includes an opening photo, captioned with a question whose answer should be evident after the student has completed the chapter Applications, self-contained presentations typically shorter than half a page, provide interesting and contemporary instances of physics in the real world, such as bicycle stability; flywheel energy storage; laser vision correction; ultracapacitors; noise-cancelling headphones; wind energy; magnetic resonance imaging; smartphone gyroscopes; combined-cycle power generation; circuit models of the cell membrane; CD, DVD, and Blu-ray technologies; radiocarbon dating; and many, many more For Thought and Discussion questions at the end of each chapter designed for peer learning or for self-study to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of physics Annotated figures that adopt the research-based approach of including simple “instructor’s voice” commentary to help students read and interpret pictorial and graphical information End-of-chapter problems that begin with simpler exercises keyed to individual chapter sections and ramp up to more challenging and often multistep problems that synthesize chapter material Context-rich problems focusing on real-world situations are interspersed throughout each problem set Chapter summaries that combine text, art, and equations to provide a synthesized overview of each chapter Each summary is hierarchical, beginning with the chapter’s “big ideas,” then focusing on key concepts and equations, and ending with a list of “applications”—specific instances or applications of the physics presented in the chapter ix I-2 Index B Back emf, 510, 511 Ballistic pendulum, 156 Balmer, Johann, 654 Balmer series, 654 Band gaps, 709 Band theory, 716 Bands, 709, 716 Bandwidth, 572 Bar magnet, 483 Bardeen, John, 715 Barometers, 267, 268 Baryon number, 750 Baryons, 750, 752–753, 754, 762 Baseball, 41, 51, 276 Batteries, 437, 451, 452 BCS theory, 714–715 Beam splitter, 609 Beats, 252–253 Becquerel (Bq), 726, 743 Becquerel, Henri, 726 Benzene, optical properties of, 568 Bernoulli effect, 274–275, 278 Bernoulli’s equation, 272–273, 274, 276, 278 Beryllium, electronic structure of, 694 Beta decay, 729, 743, 750, 752 Beta radiation, 728–729 Bicycling, 198 Big Bang theory, 758, 762 Binding energy, 731–733 Binnig, Gerd, 677 Biot–Savart law, 477–478, 491, 564 Ampere’s law and, 485 Birds, aerodynamic lift and airflow, 276 Blackbody, 293, 648 radiance of, 648, 650, 663 Blackbody radiation, 648–650, 663, 667 Blu-ray discs, 615, 712 Bohr, Aage, 725–726 Bohr, Niels, 654, 661, 674, 725–726 Bohr atom, 654–657, 658, 663 Bohr magneton, 689, 698 Bohr model, of hydrogen atom, 656, 657, 663 Bohr radius, 655, 663, 686 Boiling point, 287 Boiling-water reactors (BWRs), 737 Boltzmann’s constant, 286, 312, 649 Bonding, 702–704, 716 covalent bonding, 703–704 hydrogen bonding, 704 ionic bonding, 703 metallic bonding, 704, 716 van der Waals bonding, 704 Bone scans, 730 Born, Max, 669 Bose, Satyendra Nath, 692 Bose–Einstein condensate, 692, 697, 698 Bosons, 692, 698, 750 Bottom quarks, 753, 754 Bound state, 677, 680 Bound system, 122 Boundary conditions, 672 Bragg condition, 607 Brahe, Tycho, 130 Brain, Brass, thermal properties of, 310 Breeder reactors, 737 Brewster angle, 570 Bridges, 204, 205, 236 Btu (British thermal unit), 101, 288 Bubble chamber, 749 Buckminsterfullerene, 704 Buildings, 227, 236 cogeneration, 343 energy-saving windows, 294 household voltage, 526 household wiring, 436 insulating properties of building materials, 292 solar greenhouse, 296 water heater, 295, 343 Bungee jumping, 97 Buoyancy center of, 271 of fluids, 269–270 BWRs See Boiling-water reactors (BWRs) C Calatrava, Santiago, 204 Calculations See Problem solving Caloric, 287 Calorie (cal), 101, 288 Calorimeters, 749 Cameras, 425, 462, 555, 592 Cancer from radiation exposure, 730 radiotherapy for, 730 Candela (cd), CANDU design, 737 Capacitance, 420 Capacitive reactance, 527, 539 Capacitors, 419–421, 428 in AC circuits, 527 displacement current, 545 in electric circuits, 459–463, 464 energy storage in, 420–421, 428 equivalent capacitance, 424–425 in LC circuits, 532 in parallel, 423, 428 parallel-plate capacitor, 419, 428, 545 practical version of, 421–422 reactance, 527, 539 in series, 423 ultracapacitors, 425 working voltage, 422 Carbon-14, 727 Carbon-14 dating, 727, 728 Carbon dioxide, optical properties of, 568 Carnot, Sadi, 336 Carnot cycle, 336, 343 Carnot efficiency, 339, 353 Carnot engine, 336, 337–338, 348 Carnot’s theorem, 338 Cars ABS brakes in, 82 acceleration of, 100–101 on a curve, 54–55 banked curve, 77–78 changing a tire, 172 crash tests, 154 Doppler effect, 259 engines, 341 flywheel-based hybrid vehicles, 179 friction in engine, 80–84 frictional forces in stopping, 81–82 hybrid cars, 482, 506 lightning and, 393 physics of, regenerative braking, 506 shock absorbers, 234 speed traps, 23 starting a car, 440–441, 453 Cartesian coordinate system, 33 Cavendish, Henry, 132 Cavendish experiment, 132 CDs, 570, 601, 607, 615, 713 Cell membrane, 434–435, 457 Cell phones, 559 Celsius temperature scale, 287, 298 Center of gravity, 206, 213 Center of mass, 144–149, 162 of continuous distribution, 147–148 finding location of, 146–147 kinetic energy of, 153 motion of, 144, 149 reference frame, 161–162 Center-of-mass frame, 160 Centripetal acceleration, 44 Centripetal force, 76 Ceramics, electrical properties of, 435 Cesium, work function of, 651 Cesium chloride, crystal structure of, 707 Chain reaction, 735, 743 Charge See Electric charge Charge conjugation, 752 Charge distributions, 358–359 continuous, 365 electric dipole, 363–364 electric field lines of, 375 of electric fields, 362–366 of arbitrary charge distributions, 388–390 with line symmetry, 386–388, 394 with plane symmetry, 388, 394 with spherical symmetry, 383–386, 394 electrical potential of, 402 Charged capacitors, 421 Charged conductors, 390–391 Charged particles electromagnetic force on, 471 in magnetic field, 472–474 trajectories in three dimensions, 473 See also Point charges Charmed quarks, 753, 754 Chart of the nuclides, 723 Chelyabinsk meteor, 137 Chemical elements See Elements Chemical properties, 694 Chemical reactions, energy of, 418 Chernobyl accident, 737 Chlorine, electronic structure of, 695 Chlorine atom, ionization energy of, 703 Chromatic aberrations, 574, 590, 594 Chromium, electronic structure of, 695 Circular motion constant acceleration and, 44 forces involved in, 76 harmonic motion and, 231–232 Newton’s second law and, 76, 220 nonuniform, 45 uniform, 43–45, 46 See also Rotational motion Circular orbits, 132–133, 134, 137, 140 Classical physics, 647, 657, 671, 710 Clausius statement, 338 Cliff diving, 24 Closed circuits, induced current in, 508 Closed orbits, 134 Closed-shell nuclear structure, 725 Cloud chamber, 749 CMB See Cosmic microwave background (CMB) Coal energy plants, 735 Coaxial cable, 393 Cobalt-60, beta decay of, 752 Coefficient of kinetic friction, 80–81, 85 Coefficient of linear expansion, 312 Coefficient of performance (COP), 341, 348 Coefficient of static friction, 80, 85 Coefficient of volume expansion, 310, 312 Coherence, waves, 600 Coherence length, 600 Cohesive energy, ionic, 708 Collective model, 725–726 Collisions, 162 center-of-mass frame, 160 defined, 153, 162 elastic, 154, 156–161, 162 energy in, 154 impulse, 154 inelastic, 154–156 Index I-3 kinetic energy and, 156 momentum and, 154, 156 in systems of particles, 153–161 totally inelastic, 154–156, 162 Color charge (quarks), 752, 753, 755 Colorless particles, 753 Combined cycle power plant, 340 Comets, orbits of, 134 Complementarity, 661–662, 663 Compound microscope, 593, 595 Compressibility, of gases and liquids, 266, 278 Compression force, 55–56 Compton, Arthur Holly, 652 Compton effect, 652–653, 663, 668 Compton shift, 653 Compton wavelength, 653 Computer disks, 483–484, 507 Concave lenses, 585, 587 Concave meniscus lenses, 590 Concave mirrors, 583, 584 Concrete, thermal properties of, 288, 290 Condenser, 340 Conditionally stable equilibrium, 210 Conduction in electric fields, 435–439, 710, 711 in ionic solution, 437, 445 in metals, 436–437, 445 in plasma, 437, 445 in semiconductors, 437–438, 445 in superconductors, 439, 445, 519 of heat, 289–292, 298 Conduction band, 711 Conductivity, electrical, 435, 445 See also Conductors; Superconductivity Conductors, 368–369, 445 charged, 389–391 electric field at conductor surface, 392–393 Gauss’s law, 390–393, 394 magnetic force between, 479 mechanism of conduction in, 435–439 See also Conductivity, electrical; Electric current Confinement time, 740 Conservation of angular momentum, 194–195, 199, 750 Conservation of baryon number, 750 Conservation of electric charge, 356, 750 Conservation of energy, 109–124 in fluid flow, 272–273 gravitational potential energy, 136 mechanical energy, 115–117, 124 nonconservative forces, 115, 118–119 rolling downhill, 181 Conservation of mass, in fluid flow, 271–272 Conservation of momentum, 150–152, 220 angular momentum, 194–195, 199 fusion, 155 Conservation of parity, 752 Conservative electric field, 518 Conservative forces, 110, 115 See also Potential energy Constant acceleration, 21–23, 27 angular, 183 circular motion and, 44 in two dimensions, 38 Constant of universal gravitation, 130 Constant-volume gas thermometers, 286 Constant-volume processes, 321–322, 325, 329, 353 Constructive interference, 251, 599, 601, 616, 620 Contact forces, 56 Continuity equation, 271–273, 278 Continuous charge distributions, 365 Continuum state, 678 Control rods, 736 Controlled fusion, 741 Convection, 293, 298 Converging lenses, 585, 586 Convex lenses, 587 Convex meniscus lenses, 590 Convex mirrors, 582, 583, 584 Coolant, for nuclear power reactors, 736 Cooper, Leon, 715 Coordinate systems, 16 vectors and, 33 COP See Coefficient of performance (COP) Copernicus, Nicolaus, 129 Copper electrical properties of, 435 electronic structure of, 695 thermal properties of, 288, 290, 308, 310 work function of, 651 Corner reflector, 568 Corona discharge, 412 Corrective glasses, 591, 592 Correspondence principle, 662, 673–674 Cosmic microwave background (CMB), 758, 762 Cosmic rays, 749 Cosmological constant, 761 Coulomb (C), 356 Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 356, 357 Coulomb’s law, 356–358, 370, 381, 388, 564 Gauss’s law and, 485 Covalent bonding, 703–704, 716 CP conservation, 752 CPT conservation, 752 CPT symmetry, 752 Crash tests, 154 Credit cards, 484, 507 Critical angle, 571, 575 Critical damping, 237, 533 Critical density, 761 Critical field, 714, 716 Critical ignition temperature, 740 Critical mass, 735, 743 Critical point, 309, 312 Croquet, 160 Cross product, 191, 199 Crossover network, 530 Crystal structure, 707–709 Crystalline solids, 707–709 Curie (Ci), 726 Curie, Irene, 730 Curie, Marie, 726 Curie, Pierre, 726 Curie temperature, 484 Curiosity rover, 51, 57 Current See Electric current Current density, 434–435, 445 Ohm’s law, 435, 439–441, 442, 445, 455, 564 Current loops, 477–478, 480, 482–483, 491 Curve of binding energy, 732–733, 743 Curved mirrors, 580–582, 595 Cyclic processes, thermodynamics, 325–326 Cyclotron frequency, 473, 491 Cyclotrons, 473–474 D D-D reaction (deuterium–deuterium reaction), 739, 742 D-T reaction (deuterium–tritium reaction), 739, 742 Damped harmonic motion, 233–234, 237 Damping, 533 Dark energy, 761, 762 Dark matter, 761, 762 Daughter nucleus, 729 Davisson, Clinton, 659 DC See Direct current (DC) de Broglie, Louis, 657, 658 de Broglie wavelength, 658, 663 de Broglie’s wave hypothesis, 659, 669, 672 Decay asymmetric decay, 752 radioactive See Radioactive decay string theory, 756 Decay constant, 726 Decay rate (radioactivity), 726–731 Decay series, 730 Deceleration, 19 Decibel (dB), 250 Defibrillator, 418, 425, 443 Definite integral, 96 Degenerate electron pressure, 691 Degenerate states, 678 Degree of freedom, 327, 329 Delayed neutrons, 736 Democritus, 648 Density, of fluids, 266 Density of states, 710 Derivative, 18, 19 Descartes, René, 569 Destructive interference, 251, 599, 616, 620 Deuterium, 721, 739 Deuterium–deuterium reaction See D-D reaction (deuterium–deuterium reaction) Deuterium oxide, 737 Deuterium–tritium reaction See D-T reaction (deuterium–tritium reaction) Deuteron, 159 Diamagnetism, 484, 491, 519, 520, 714 Diamond, 569, 704 Diatomic molecule, 327 Dielectric breakdown, 369 Dielectric constant, 422, 428 Dielectrics, 369, 370, 422, 428 Diesel engine, 324 Differential equation, 461 Diffraction, 610–613, 616, 620, 659 See also Interference Diffraction gratings, 604–607, 620 Diffraction limit, 613–615, 616, 620 Diffuse reflection, 567 Diodes, 539 Diopter, 591 Dipole moment, 370 electric, 364, 370 induced, 369 magnetic, 480, 723 nuclear magnetic, 723 Dipoles See Electric dipoles; Magnetic dipoles Dirac, Paul, 669 Dirac equation, 679 Direct current (DC), 538 Disk, rotational inertia by integration, 175, 176 Disorganized states, 335 Dispersion of light, 572–574, 575 in wave motion, 252 Displacement angular displacement, 169 coordinate systems, 16 defined, 15–16 Displacement current, 545–546 Displacement vector, 33 Dissociation energy, 703 Diverging lenses, 585 Division, scientific notation and, 6, DNA, bonding in, 704 Donor levels, 711 Doping, 438, 711, 716 Doppler, Christian Johann, 258 Doppler effect (Doppler shift), 258–260, 261 light, 260 redshift and, 757 Dot product See Scalar product Double concave lenses, 590 Double convex lenses, 590 Double-slit interference, 601–604 Double-star system, 606 Doublet, 691 Down quarks, 752, 754 I-4 Index Drag forces, 84 Drift velocity, 433, 436, 445 Driven oscillations, 235 DVDs, 1–2, 168–169, 607, 615, 712 Dynamics, 51, 52 rotational dynamics, 177 See also Motion Dynodes, 652 E Earth atmosphere, 555 climate of, 292, 297 convection and solar heat, 293 ether concept and motion of, 623, 643 global warming, 296–297 greenhouse effect, 296 Greenland ice cap, 270 interior structure of, 255 magnetic field of, 480 ocean waves, 2, 252, 253 precession of, 197–198 pressure at ocean depths, 267 rainbow, 573–574, 575 seasons on, 189 smog, 324 tides, 139 Eddy currents, 507 Efficiency of Carnot engine, 336 of engine, 336 thermodynamic, 339 Eightfold Way, 752 Einstein, Albert, 52, 57 photoelectric effect, 651, 663 relativity and, 622, 625–626, 631, 761 Einstein cross, 642 Elastic collisions, 154, 156–161, 162 in one dimension, 157–159, 162 in two dimensions, 157, 159–160 Elastic potential energy, 113 Electric charge, 355–356, 370, 750 charge distribution, 358–359 conservation of, 356, 750–751 Coulomb’s law, 356–359, 370, 381, 388, 564 magnetism and, 470 moving, 564 point charges, 358–359 quantity of, 356 quantization of, 356, 648 source charge, 357 superposition principle, 359, 362, 370 test charge, 360 units of, 356 See also Charge distributions; Charged particles Electric circuits, 449–464 AC circuits, 525–526 capacitors in, 459–463, 464 electromotive force (emf), 450 high-Q circuits, 534 inductors in, 512–513 Kirchoff’s laws, 456, 464 LC circuits, 530–533, 539 multiloop circuits, 456–457 parallel circuits, 564 RC circuits, 460–463, 530 resistors, 450–454, 464 RL circuits, 513, 530 RLC circuits, 533–535, 539 with series and parallel components, 454–455 series circuits, 564 symbols used, 449 See also Alternating-current circuits (AC circuits) Electric current, 369, 433–435, 445, 564 ammeters, 459 current density, 434–435 induced currents, 498–499, 502–503 magnetic force and, 475–476 Ohm’s law, 435, 439–441, 442, 445, 455, 564 units of, 3, 433 See also Conductors Electric dipole moment, 364 Electric dipole potential, 413 Electric dipoles, 363–364, 368, 370 in electric fields, 368, 370, 389 oscillating, 555 point charge, 389 Electric eels, 437 Electric field, 359–361, 370, 400, 564 of arbitrary charge distributions, 388–390 of charge distributions, 362–366 charged ring, 365 continuous, 365 or charge distributions, linear, 366, 370 conduction in, 435–439 in ionic solutions, 437, 445 in metals, 436–437, 445 in plasmas, 437, 445 in semiconductors, 437–438, 445 in superconductors, 439, 445, 519 at conductor surface, 392–393 conductors, 368–369 conservative/nonconservative, 518 corona discharge, 412 dielectrics, 369, 370 electric dipoles in, 368, 370 electric field lines, 375–376 energy in, 425–427 Gauss’s law, 380–388, 394, 484, 543, 544, 546, 560, 564 insulators, 369 magnetic field and, 488–489 Ohm’s law, 435, 439–441, 442, 445, 455, 564 of point charge, 361, 370 point charges in, 366–368, 370 solenoids, 489–490, 491 Electric field lines, 375–377, 394 of charge distribution, 376 Electric flux, 377–380, 394 Electric force, 355, 370, 399, 564 gravity and, 358 superposition principle, 359, 362, 370 Electric generators, 2, 506, 507, 520 Electric motors, Electric potential, 399, 413, 684 of charge distribution charged disk, 407–408 charged ring, 407 charged sheet, 402 continuous, 407–408 curved paths, 402 dipole potential, 406 nonuniform fields, 402 point charge, 403–404 with superposition, 406 charged conductors, 410–411 electric field and, 408–410 zero of, 404 See also Electromotive force (emf); Voltage Electric potential difference, 400, 413, 564 calculating, 403–410 high-voltage power line, 405 units of, 402 using superposition, 406 Electric power, 441–442, 445 in AC circuits, 536 fusion energy, 741–742 nuclear power, 738–739 nuclear reactors, 735, 736 pumped storage of, 113 See also Electric generators; Electric power lines; Electric power plants Electric power lines, 441–442 magnetic force and, 475–476 potential relative to ground, 405 Electric power plants combined cycle power plant, 340 steam system, 339 thermodynamics of, 339–340 See also Nuclear power; Nuclear reactors Electric power supply direct current (DC), 538 transformers and, 442, 537, 539 See also Electric power; Electric power lines; Electric power plants; Nuclear power Electric shock, 444 Electrical conduction See Conduction Electrical conductivity, 435, 445 Electrical energy See Electric power; Electrostatic energy Electrical measurements, 458–459 Electrical meters, 458–459 Electrical resistance See Resistance, electrical Electrical resistivity See Resistivity Electrical safety, 442–444, 445 Electrocution, 446 Electromagnetic force, 471, 564, 762 electroweak unification, 755 quantum electrodynamical description of, 748 Electromagnetic induction, 497–524, 564 defined, 499 eddy currents, 507 energy and, 503–508 Faraday’s law, 499–503, 504, 506, 511, 517, 520, 543, 544, 546, 560, 564 induced currents, 498–499, 502 induced electric fields, 517–519 inductance, 509–514 Lenz’s law, 504, 520 See also Inductance; Inductors Electromagnetic radiation, blackbody radiation, 648–650, 663 Electromagnetic spectrum, 554–555, 560 Electromagnetic systems, Electromagnetic waves, 244, 256, 547–551, 560, 564, 748 Ampere’s law, 549–550 Doppler effect, 260 electromagnetic spectrum, 554–555, 560 Faraday’s law, 548–549 Gauss’s laws, 548 in localized sources, 558 momentum, 556–559 photons in, 668 plane electromagnetic wave, 547–548 polarization, 553–554, 560 producing, 555–556 properties of, 551–554 radiation of, 293, 298 radiation pressure, 559 in vacuum, 547, 560 wave amplitude, 552 wave fields, 550 wave intensity, 556–558 wave speed, 551 See also Light; Photons Electromagnetism, 2, 56, 354–374, 564 four laws of, 485, 543, 544, 564 Maxwell’s equations, 546, 560, 564, 610, 623, 643, 668 quantization and, 648, 663 quantum-mechanical view of, 748 relativity and, 623, 625–626, 640–641 See also Electromagnetic force; Electromagnetic waves Electromotive force (emf), 450, 464 back emf, 510, 511 induced emf, 499, 502 motional emf, 499 Index I-5 Electron capture, 729 Electron diffraction, 659 Electron microscope, 658 Electron neutrinos, 751 Electron–positron pair, annihilation of, 750 Electron spin, 679, 688–691 Electronic scales, 64 Electrons Bohr atom, 658, 663 Compton effect, 652–653, 663, 668 discovery of, 648 exclusion principle, 691–692, 698, 752 magnetic moment of, 689 photoelectric effect, 651, 663, 667, 668 properties of, 732, 751 relativistic electron, 639 split, 689 Electronvolt (eV), 101, 401 Electrostatic analyzer, 367, 370, 372 Electrostatic energy, 418–419 Electrostatic equilibrium, 390 Electrostatic precipitators, 412 Electroweak forces, 56 Electroweak unification, 755 Elementary charge, 356 Elementary particles See Particles Elements chemical behavior and, 694 isotopes, 721, 743 origin of, 733 periodic table, 692–695 radioisotopes, 726–727 See also Atomic physics; Nuclear physics Elevators, 58, 59–60, 112–113 Elliptical orbits, 134 emf See Electromotive force (emf) Emission spectra, 654 Emissivity, 293 Energy, 220 of chemical reactions, 418 in circular orbits, 137 in collisions, 154 conservation of, 109–128 in fluid flow, 272–273 consumption by society, 102–103 in electric field, 425–427 electromagnetic induction and, 503–504 energy–momentum relation, 640, 643 energy–time uncertainty, 661 fusion energy, 741–742 magnetic, 514–517 mass and, 638–639, 643 mass–energy equivalence, 638–639 from nuclear fission, 734–735 quantization and, 648, 663 in simple harmonic motion, 232–233, 237 units of, 101, 104, 287 wind energy, 277 work and, 426–427 work–kinetic energy theorem, 100, 104, 115, 124, 272 See also Heat; Kinetic energy; Potential energy Energy density, 425, 428 Energy-level diagram, 656 Energy levels, in molecules, 704–707 Energy–momentum 4-vector, 637 Energy–momentum relation, 640 Energy quality, 343 Energy storage, 418 in capacitors, 419–421, 428 in flywheels, 179 Energy–time uncertainty, 661 English system, 5, 101 Enrichment of uranium, 735, 736 Entropy, 342–347, 348, 353 availability of work, 344–345 second law of thermodynamics and, 346–347 statistical interpretation of, 345–346 Entropy change, 344 Equations of motion, 22–23 Equilibrium conditionally stable, 210 conditions for, 204–205 electrostatic, 390 hydrostatic, 266–268, 278, 283 metastable, 210, 213 neutrally stable, 210, 213 potential energy and, 210, 213 stable, 209–212, 213 static equilibrium, 204–220 thermodynamic, 285–286 unstable, 209, 210, 213 Equilibrium temperature, 289, 298 Equipartition theorem, 327–328, 329 Equipotentials, 408, 413 Equivalent capacitance, 424–425 Erg, 101 Escape speed, 137, 140 Estimation, Eta particles, 751 Ether concept, 623, 643 Ethyl alcohol optical properties of, 568 thermal properties of, 308 Events in relativity, 626–628, 632 Excimer laser, 592 Excited states, 655 of hydrogen atom, 681 Exclusion principle, 691–692, 698, 752 Expansion, thermal, 310–311, 312 External forces, 145, 152 External torque, 193, 196 Eye, 591–592 Eyeglasses, 591, 592 Eyepiece, of microscope, 593 F Fahrenheit temperature scale, 286, 298 Farad (F), 420 Faraday, Michael, 420 Faraday’s law, 499–503, 505–506, 511, 517, 520, 543, 544, 546, 560, 564 electromagnetic waves, 548–549 Farsightedness, 592 Fermi, Enrico, 733 Fermi energy, 710, 716 Fermilab, 753 Fermions, 692, 698, 750 Ferromagnetism, 483–484 FET See Field-effect transistor (FET) Feynman, Richard, 748 Fiberglass, thermal properties of, 290 Fiber optics, 572 Field-effect transistor (FET), 438 Field particles, 750, 754 Field point, 362 Films, thin films, 608–609 Filtering (electrical), 538 Fine structure, 691, 698 Finite potential wells, 677–678, 680 Fire safety, radioactivity for, 730 First law of thermodynamics, 317–319, 329, 334, 353 Fissile nuclei, 734, 743 Fission, nuclear See Nuclear fission Fission products, 733–734, 738 Fissionable nuclei, 734 Fitzgerald, George F., 631 Flash camera, 425, 462 Floating objects, Archimedes’ principle, 270 Flow tube, 271, 272 Fluid dynamics, 271–273, 283 aerodynamic lift and airflow, 276 applications of, 273–277 Bernoulli’s equation, 272–273, 274, 276, 278 conservation of energy, 272–273 conservation of mass, 271–272 continuity equation, 271–272, 278 turbulence, 277 See also Fluids Fluid flow Bernoulli’s equation, 272–273, 274, 276, 278 viscosity, 277, 278 Fluid friction See Viscosity Fluid motion, 265–278 steady flow, 271 unsteady flow, 271 venturi flowmeters, 274–275 See also Fluid dynamics; Fluid flow Fluid speed, 274–275 Fluids, 265–278 Archimedes’ principle, 269–271, 278 buoyancy, 269–271 density, 266 hydrostatic equilibrium, 266–268, 278, 283 Pascal’s law, 268 pressure, 267, 278 viscosity, 277, 278 See also Fluid dynamics Fluorine, electronic structure of, 694 Flux See Electric flux; Magnetic flux Flywheels, 179 Focal length, 581, 583, 587, 591, 595, 620 Focal point, 580, 585, 595 Food preservation, radioactivity for, 730 Foot-pound, 101 Forbidden transitions, 696 Force(s), 51, 52, 54–55, 59, 220 action-at-a-distance, 56, 138 buoyancy force, 269–271 centripetal, 76 compression, 55–56 conservative, 109, 110 contact forces, 56 drag forces, 84 electroweak, 56 external/internal, 145 frictional, 56, 80–84 fundamental forces, 56, 755, 762 grand unification theories (GUTs), 755, 762 gravitational, 55 interaction forces, 52, 66 measurement of, 63–64 momentum and, 53 net force, 52, 53 nonconservative, 110–111 normal, 62–63 potential energy and, 123 strong, 56, 753, 762 tension, 56 of massless rope, 77–78 of spring, 63–64 unification of, 56, 755–757 units of, 54, 57 varying with position, 96–99 weak, 56 work, 92–95 See also Electric force; Gravity; Magnetic force Forward bias, 712 Four-vectors, 637, 643 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 251 Fourier analysis, 251 Frames of reference, 36 inertial, 55, 626, 643 Franklin, Benjamin, 355 Free-body diagram, 58, 66 Free expansion, 344 Free fall, 24–26, 27, 57, 58, 63 I-6 Index Frequency, 244 angular frequency, 237, 245, 261 oscillatory motion, 223, 226, 237 units of, 223 Friction kinetic, 80–81, 85 Newton’s first law and, 80–84, 85 static, 80, 85 Frictional forces, 56, 80–81 Frisch, Otto, 733 Fuel cells, 437 Fuel rods (nuclear reactor), 738 Fukushima accident, 720, 727 Fundamental forces, 56, 755, 762 Fusion conservation of momentum, 155 heat of, 307 nuclear See Nuclear fusion G Galaxies, Hubble’s law and, 757 Galilean relativity, 623 Galileo, 24, 52, 57, 130 Gallium, electronic structure of, 695 Gamma decay, 729, 743 Gamma rays, 555, 729 Gas See Gases Gas-cooled nuclear reactors, 737 Gas-cylinder system, heat engine, 335 Gas thermometers, 286 Gas water heater, cogeneration, 343 Gases, 312 adiabatic free expansion, 344 adiabatic processes, 322–324, 325, 329 constant-volume processes, 321–322, 325, 329 cyclic processes, 325–326 distribution of molecular speeds, 307 equipartition theorem, 327–328, 329 ideal-gas law, 303–304, 312, 323 isobaric processes, 322, 325, 329 isothermal processes, 320–321, 325, 329 microstates/macrostates, 345 phase changes, 307–310 plasmas, 437 quantum effect, 328 real gases, 307 specific heat of, 289 thermodynamics of, 319–320 universal gas constant, 304, 312 van der Waals force, 307 See also Ideal gases Gasoline, thermal expansion of, 311 Gasoline engine, 322–323, 341 Gauge bosons, 750, 762 Gauge pressure, 268 Gauss’s law, 380–382, 394, 564 conductors and, 390–393, 394 Coulomb’s law and, 485 for electric field, 380–388, 484, 543, 544, 546, 560, 564 for infinite line of charge, 386–387 with line symmetry, 386–388, 394 with plane symmetry, 388, 394 for point charge within a shell, 384–385 with spherical shell, 383–384 with spherical symmetry, 383–384, 394 for electromagnetic waves, 548 experimental tests of, 391–392 hollow conductor, 391 for magnetism, 481, 484, 485, 491, 543, 544, 546, 560 Geiger, Hans, 654 Gell-Mann, Murray, 752 General theory of relativity, 55, 129, 626, 641–642, 643, 761 Generation time, 735 Generators, 2, 506, 507, 520 Geomagnetic storm, 516 Geometrical optics, 566, 599, 620 See also Light Geostationary orbit, 133–134, 135, 140 Gerlach, Walther, 689 Germer, Lester, 659 Giant Magellan Telescope, 594 Glashow, Sheldon, 753, 755 Glass dielectric constant, 422 dielectric constant of, 422 electrical properties of, 435 optical properties of, 568 thermal properties of, 288, 290, 310 Global positioning system See GPS (global positioning system) Global warming, 296–297 Gluons, 753, 754, 755 Glycerine, optical properties of, 568 Gold, electrical properties of, 435 Goudsmit, Samuel, 689 GPS (global positioning system), 129, 574, 642 Grand unification theories (GUTs), 755, 762 Graphite moderators, 737 Grating spectrometer, 605 Gratings acousto-optic modulators (AOMs), 607 diffraction gratings, 604–607, 620 reflection gratings, 605 resolving power of, 605–606 transmission gratings, 605 X-ray diffraction, 606–607 Gravitation center of gravity, 206, 213 universal, 130–132, 140, 220 See also Gravity Gravitational field, 138–139, 140, 359 Gravitational force, 55 Gravitational potential energy, 112, 124, 135–136, 140 Gravitons, 750, 755 Gravity, 56–58, 129–140, 762 acceleration and gravitation, 57 Cavendish experiment, 132 center of gravity, 206, 213 electric force and, 358 escape from, 137, 140 historical background, 129–130 hydrostatic equilibrium with, 266–268, 278, 283 inertia and, 57 inverse square feature of, 131 near Earth’s surface, 131 free fall, 24–26, 27, 57, 58, 63 projectile motion, 132 work done against, 99, 104, 119 orbital motion and, 130, 132–134 quantum physics and, 756 third-law pair, 63 universal law of, 130–132, 140 weight and, 56–57 work done against, 99 Gray (Gy), 731 Green-antired, 753 Greenhouse effect, 236 Greenhouse gases, 296 Greenland ice cap, 270 Ground fault circuit interrupter, 444 Ground state, 655, 685–686 Ground-state energy, 673 Ground-state wave function, 673 Guth, Alan, 760 GUTs See Grand unification theories (GUTs) Gyroscopes, 196 H Hadrons, 750, 752, 754, 762 Half-life, 726, 727, 743 Hall coefficient, 476 Hall effect, 476 Hall potential, 476 Hard ferromagnetic materials, 483 Harmonic oscillators, 675–676 quantum harmonic oscillator, 706 quantum mechanical, 675, 680 selection rule for, 706 See also Oscillatory motion Harmonics, 256 Head-on collisions, 157–159 Heat, 298, 353 defined, 287 phase changes and, 307–310 units of, 288 Heat capacity, 287–289, 298 specific heat and, 287–289 Heat conduction, 290–292, 298 Heat engine adiabatic compression, 336 adiabatic expansion, 336 isothermal compression, 336 isothermal expansion, 336 Heat engines, 335–337 limitations of, 339–341 Heat loss, thermal-energy balance, 294–296, 298 Heat of fusion, 307 nuclear power plant meltdown, 308 Heat of sublimation, 307 Heat of transformation, 307, 308, 312, 353 Heat of vaporization, 307 Heat pumps, 341–342, 348 Heat transfer, 289–294, 353 conduction, 290–292, 298 convection, 293, 298 first law of thermodynamics, 317–319, 329, 334 radiation, 293, 298 Heavy water, 158, 737 Heisenberg, Werner, 659, 661, 669 Helicopters aerodynamic lift and airflow, 276 weight in, 64–65 Helium atomic structure of, 721 mass defect in, 732 specific heat of, 327 thermal properties of, 290 Helium-3, 723 Helium-4, 723, 732 Helium atom, electronic structure of, 693 Henry (H), 510 Henry, Joseph, 498, 510 Hertz (Hz), 223 Hertz, Heinrich, 223, 554, 650 Higgs bosons, 754 High-energy particles, 749–755 High-Q circuit, 534 High-temperature superconductors, 715 Hiroshima bomb, 733, 736, 740 Hockey, 155 Hodgkin, Alan L., 457 Holes (semiconductors), 711 Holograms, 697 Hooke’s law, 63–64, 65 Horizontal range, 42 Horsepower (hp), 101 Hubble, Edwin, 757 Hubble constant, 757 Hubble Deep Field, 758, 762 Hubble Space Telescope, 581, 584, 594, 614 Hubble’s law, 757 Human body cardiac catheterization, 443 electric current, effects on, 443 electric shock, 444 eye, 591–592 radiation, effects of on, 730–731 resistance of skin, 443 Index I-7 sound and the ear, 250 static equilibrium, 208–209 See also Medical devices and procedures Huxley, Andrew F., 457 Huygens, Christian, 610 Huygens’ principle, 610, 616, 620 Hybrid-car motor, 482–483 Hydraulic lift, 268 Hydrogen fusion of, 739 isotopes of, 721, 727 tritium, 727 Hydrogen atom, 684–688 Bohr model, 656, 657, 663 excited states of, 647 fine structure of, 691 ground state, 685–686 potential-energy curve for, 716 Hydrogen bomb, 740 Hydrogen bonding, 704, 716 Hydrogen spectrum, 654, 667 Hydrostatic equilibrium, 266–268, 278, 283 Hyperfine splitting, 723 Hyperfine structure, 691 I Ice boiling point of, 287 bonding in, 704 crystal structure of, 311 melting point of, 287 optical properties of, 568 thermal properties of, 288, 310 See also Water Ice skating, 194 IDEA strategy, 9–10, 11 See also Problem solving Ideal emf, 450 Ideal-gas law, 303–304, 312, 323, 353 Ideal gases, 304–306, 312, 353 adiabatic processes, 322–324, 325, 329 adiabatic free expansion, 344 constant-volume processes, 321–322, 325, 329 cyclic processes, 325–326 equipartition theorem, 327–328, 329 internal energy of, 322 isobaric processes, 322, 325, 329 isothermal processes, 320–321, 325, 329 quantum effect, 328 specific heats of, 326–328 Ideal spring, 63, 66, 116, 224 Image distance, 583, 587, 594 Images, 579, 595 with lenses, 585–588 with mirrors, 580–585 real images, 579, 581, 582, 583, 587, 620 virtual images, 579, 581, 582, 583, 587, 589, 620 See also Lenses; Mirrors Impact parameter, 159 Impedance, 534, 539 Impulse, 154 Incandescent lightbulbs, 650 Incompressibility, of liquids, 266, 278 Index of refraction, 568, 620 Induced current, 498–499, 502, 503 closed and open circuits, 508 eddy currents, 507 Induced dipole moments, 369 Induced electric fields, 517–519 Induced emf, 499 Faraday’s law and, 499–503, 505–506, 511, 517, 520, 543, 544, 546, 560, 564 Inductance, 509–514, 520 mutual inductance, 509 self-inductance, 509–511 Induction See Electromagnetic induction Inductive reactance, 528, 539 Inductive time constant, 513, 520 Inductors, 509, 520 in AC circuits, 527–528, 529–530 in electric circuits, 512–513 magnetic energy in, 514–515 reactance, 528, 539 Inelastic collisions, 154–156 Inert gases electronic structure of, 694 specific heat of, 327 Inertia, 54 gravitation and, 57 rotational, 173–178, 183, 192, 237 Inertial confinement, 740 Inertial confinement fusion, 740–741, 743 Inertial guidance, 21 Inertial reference frames, 55, 626, 643 Infinite square well, 671–673, 680 Infinitesimals, 18, 27 Inflation (of universe), 760–761 Infrared cameras, 555 Infrared frequency range, 555 Insect control, radioactivity for, 730 Instantaneous acceleration, 19 Instantaneous acceleration vector, 35 Instantaneous angular velocity, 169 Instantaneous power, 101 Instantaneous speed, 17 Instantaneous velocity, 17–19 Instantaneous velocity vector, 35 Insulators, 368–369, 435, 710, 711 Integrals definite integral, 96 line integral, 99, 104 setting up, 148 Integration, rotational inertia, 174–175 Intensity, waves, 248–249, 261 Interaction force pair, 61 Interaction forces, 52, 66 Interference, 251, 253, 283, 600–601, 616 constructive interference, 251, 599, 602, 606, 620 destructive interference, 251, 599, 620 double-slit interference, 601–604 interferometry, 607–610 multiple-slit interference, 604–607, 606 in two dimensions, 253 waves, 251, 253 X-ray diffraction, 607 See also Diffraction Interference fringes, 601, 620 Interference pattern, intensity in, 603–604 Interferometry, 607–610, 616 Internal energy, 287, 317, 318, 322 Internal kinetic energy, 153 Internal resistance, 452, 464 International Space Station, 45, 133, 138, 146 Invar, thermal properties of, 310 Invariants, relativistic, 636–637, 643 Inverse Compton effect, 653 Inverse square force laws, gravity as, 131 Inversion (of atmosphere), 324 Inverted image, 580, 581, 582, 583, 587 Iodine-131, 727 Ionic bonding, 703, 716 Ionic cohesive energy, 708 Ionic conduction, 437, 445 Ionic solutions, electrical conduction in, 437, 445 Ionization, 657 Ionization energy, 657 Iron electrical properties of, 435 thermal properties of, 288, 290 Irreversible/reversible processes, 320–321, 335, 344, 353 Isobaric processes, 322, 325, 329 Isochoric processes, 321 Isometric processes, 321 Isotherm, 320–321 Isothermal compression, heat engine, 336 Isothermal expansion, heat engine, 336 Isothermal processes, 320–321, 325, 329, 353 Isotopes, 721, 743 radioisotopes, 721, 727 transuranic isotopes, 738 Isovolumic processes, 321 ITER fusion reactor, 741 J Jensen, J Hans, 725 Joliot-Curie, Frédéric, 730 Jordan, Pascal, 669 Joule (J), 93, 101, 104, 287 Joule, James, 93, 287 K Kaon particles, 751 Kayaking, 151 Keck Telescopes, 594 Kelvin (K), 4, 286 Kelvin–Planck statement, 335 Kelvin temperature scale, 286, 287, 298 Kepler, Johannes, 130, 134 Kepler’s third law, 133 Kilocalorie, 288 Kilogram (kg), Kilowatt-hours (kWh), 101 Kinematics, 15, 27 See also Motion Kinetic energy, 99–101, 104 of center of mass, 153 collisions and, 156–157 of composite object, 180 defined, 100, 104 internal, 153 of mass element, 178 relativistic, 637–640 rotational, 178 of systems of particles, 153 work and, 100–101 Kinetic friction, 80, 85 Kirchoff’s laws, 456, 464 Krypton, electronic structure of, 695 L Ladders, 207–208 Lakes heat conduction in, 290–291 turnover, 311 wave motion in, 257 Lambda particles, 710, 751 Lanthanide series, 695 Lanthanum, electronic structure of, 695 Large Electron Positron Collider, 754 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 747, 757 Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), 610 Laser light, 552, 603 Laser printer, 412 Lasers, 692, 697 CDs or DVDs, 1, 2, 712 excimer laser, 592 laser light, 552, 603 vision correction with, 592 LASIK, 592 Law of conservation of mechanical energy, 124 Law of inertia, 54 Law of Malus, 553 Law of universal gravitation, 140 Laws of motion See Newton’s laws of motion Lawson criterion, 740 LC circuits, 530–533, 539 LCDs (liquid crystal displays), 553 Lead, thermal properties of, 308 LEDs (light emitting diodes), 712 I-8 Index Lee, Tsung-dao, 752 Length, units of, 3, Length contraction, 631–632, 643 Lens equation, 586–587 Lenses, 585, 620 aberrations of, 590, 594 antireflection coatings, 568 astigmatism, 590 chromatic aberration, 590, 594 concave lenses, 585, 587 contact lenses, 591, 592 converging lenses, 585, 586 convex lenses, 587 corrective glasses, 591 diverging lenses, 585 image formation with, 585–587, 595 lens equation, 586–587 magnifying glass, 587 optics of, 589–590 refraction in, 588–590 thin lenses, 585 See also Refraction Lensmaker’s formula, 590, 595 Lenz’s law, 504, 520 Lepton–antilepton pairs, 750 Lepton number, 750 Leptons, 750, 754–755, 762 Lever arm, 172 Levitation, magnetic, 519, 714 LHC See Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Light Compton effect, 652–653, 663, 668 diffraction, 610–613, 616, 620 diffraction limit, 577–579, 616, 620 dispersion of, 572–574, 575 Doppler effect, 260 double-slit interference, 601–604 as electromagnetic phenomenon, 551 interference, 251, 253, 600–601, 616, 620 laser light, 552, 603 Michelson–Morley experiment, 624–625, 626, 643 multiple-slit interference, 604–607, 616 photoelectric effect, 650–652, 663, 668 photons, 650–653 polarization of, 552–553, 560, 570–571 rainbow, 573–574, 575 reflection of, 567–568, 570–571, 620 refraction of, 568–571, 620 Snell’s law, 569, 570, 620 speed of, 3, 649 total internal reflection of, 571–572, 575 visible light, 554 wave–particle duality, 652, 661, 663, 668–669 See also Electromagnetic waves; Images; Lenses; Light; Optical instruments; Photons Light emitting diodes See LEDs (light emitting diodes) Light-water reactors (LWRs), 736, 737, 738 Lightbulbs, 650 Lightning, 361, 369, 393 LIGO See Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) Line charge density, 365 Line integral, 99, 104 Line symmetry, charge distributions, 386–388, 394 Linear accelerators, 756 Linear-expansion coefficient, 310, 312 Linear momentum conservation of, 150–151 defined, 150 Linear speed vs angular speed, 169–170 See also Speed Liquid crystal displays See LCDs (liquid crystal displays) Liquid-drop model, 725 Liquids optical properties of, 568 phase changes, 307–310 Liter (L), Lithium atom, electronic structure of, 694 Longitudinal waves, 244, 261 Lorentz, H A., 631 Lorentz–Fitzgerald contraction, 631 Lorentz transformations, 633–635, 643 Loudspeaker systems, 530, 535 Luminosity, units of, LWRs See Light-water reactors (LWRs) Lyman series, 654 M Mach angle, 260 Mach number, 260 Macrostates, 345 Madelung constant, 708 Magic numbers, 725 Magnetic confinement, 740 Magnetic confinement fusion, 741, 743 Magnetic dipole moment, 480, 723 Magnetic dipoles, 479–482 Magnetic domain, 483 Magnetic energy, 514–516 Magnetic-energy density, 516–517, 520 Magnetic field, 470, 564 Ampere’s law, 484–490, 543, 544–546, 549–550, 560, 564 Biot–Savart law, 477–479, 491, 564 charged particles in, 472–475 electric field and, 488–489 Gauss’s law, 481, 484, 485, 491, 543, 544, 546, 548, 560, 564 induced currents, 498–499, 502–503 Maxwell’s equations, 560, 564 origin of, 476–479 solenoids, 489–490, 491 superposition principle, 485 toroids, 490 units of, 470 Magnetic flux, 481, 500–502 Magnetic force, 470, 491, 564 between conductors, 479 electric current and, 475–476 Hall effect, 476 See also Electromagnetic force Magnetic levitation, 519, 714 Magnetic matter, 483–484 Magnetic moment, of electrons, 689 Magnetic monopoles, 481 Magnetic permeability, 484 Magnetic recording, 507 Magnetic resonance imaging See MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) Magnetic torque, 481–483 Magnetism, 470, 491 diamagnetism, 484, 491, 519, 520, 714 ferromagnetism, 483–484, 491 Gauss’s law for, 481, 484, 485, 491, 543, 544, 546, 560, 564 magnetic matter, 483–484 paramagnetism, 484, 491 superconductivity and, 713–714 Magnets, 483 Magnification, 582, 595 Magnifiers, 587–588, 593 Malus, law of, 553 Manometers, 267, 268 Marconi, Guglielmo, 554 Marsden, Ernest, 654 Mass acceleration of, 54–55, 58 center of mass, 144–149 conservation of, in fluid flow, 271–272 energy and, 638–639, 643 mass–energy equivalence, 638–639 units of, vs weight, 56, 57, 66 Mass defect, 731 Mass elements, 147 Mass–energy equivalence, 638–639 Mass flow rate, 272 Mass number, 721, 743 Mass spectrometers, 472 Mass–spring system harmonic motion in, 227, 232–233, 234, 675 vertical, 227 wave propagation in, 244 Matter annihilation, 639, 750 antiparticles, 679 Bose–Einstein condensate, 692, 697, 698 in electric fields, 366–369 electromagnetic waves in, 552 matter-wave interference, 659 phase changes in, 307–310 quantization of, 648, 663 relativistic particles, 639 thermal behavior of, 303–312 wave–particle duality, 652, 661, 663, 669 See also Gases; Liquids; Particles; Solids Matter-wave hypothesis, 658 Matter-wave interference, 659 Matter waves, 657–659 Maxwell, James Clerk, 307, 545, 551, 554 Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, 307, 327 Maxwell’s equations, 546, 560, 564, 609 relativity and, 623, 643, 668 Mayer, Maria Goeppert, 725 Measurement prefixes for units, 4, 11 units of, 3–5 Mechanical energy conservation of, 115–118, 124 defined, 115 Mechanical waves, 244 Mechanics, 1, 14, 623, 647 Medical devices and procedures bone scans, 730 defibrillator, 418, 425, 443 laser vision correction, 592 lasers, 592, 697 MRI, 197, 236, 439, 470–471, 515–516, 713, 724 PET, 639, 728, 729 radioactivity used in, 730 Medium, 244 Meissner effect, 519, 716 Meitner, Lise, 733 Melting point, 287 MEMS (microelectromechanical systems), 64 Mendeleev Dmitri, 692 Mercury electrical properties of, 435 thermal properties of, 288, 308 Mercury barometers, 267 Merry-go-rounds, 194 Mesons, 748–749, 750, 752, 754, 762 Metal detectors, 508 Metallic bonding, 704, 716 Metallic conductors, 710–711 Metals electrical conduction in, 436–437, 445 thermal conduction in, 290 Metastable equilibrium, 210, 213 Metastable states, 696 Meter (m), Metric system, 3–5 Michelson, Albert A., 609, 624 Michelson interferometer, 609–610, 616, 624 Index I-9 Michelson–Morley experiment, 624–625, 626, 643 Microamperes, 433 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 64 Microelectronics, 660 Microgravity, 58 Microscopes, 593, 595 electron microscope, 658 scanning tunneling microscope, 667, 677 Microstates, 345 Microwave ovens, 257, 369 Microwaves, 554 cosmic microwave background, 758–759, 762 Milliamperes (mA), 433 Millikan, Robert A., 356, 648, 651 Mirrors, 580–585, 620 aberrations of, 581 concave, 583, 584 convex mirrors, 582, 583, 584–585 curved mirrors, 580–582, 595 magnification, 582, 595 mirror equation, 582–583 parabolic mirrors, 580–581 plane mirrors, 580 See also Reflection Mode number, 256 Moderator (nuclear power reactor), 158, 736 Modern physics, 2, 621 See also Quantum chromodynamics (QCD); Quantum electrodynamics (QED); Quantum mechanics; Quantum physics; Relativity Modes, 256 Molar specific heat at constant pressure, 322 Molar specific heat at constant volume, 321–322 Mole (mol), Molecular bonding See Bonding Molecular spectra, 706–707 Molecular speed, 306, 307 Molecules as electric dipoles, 363–364 energy levels in, 704–707 equilibrium states of, 212 potential-energy curve for, 122 resonance in, 236 spectra of, 706–707 See also Bonding Moment of inertia, 173 Momentum, 149–152, 220 in collisions, 154, 156 conservation of, 150–152, 220 defined, 53, 66, 150 electromagnetic waves, 559 energy–momentum relation, 640, 643 forces and, 53 relativistic, 637, 643 uncertainty principle, 659–661, 663 viscosity and, 277, 278 See also Angular momentum Monatomic structure, 327 Moon circular orbit of, 133 gravity and, 130, 131 Morley, Edward W., 624 Motion Aristotle on, 51 average motion, 15–17 of center of mass, 144, 149 changes in, 52 equations of motion, 22–23 ether concept and, 623, 643 kinematics and, 27 mechanics and, relative motion, 36–37 straight-line motion acceleration, 19–24 velocity in, 17–19 in three dimensions, 46 in two dimensions circular, 43–45 with constant acceleration, 37–38, 44 projectile, 39–43, 46 relative motion, 36–37 vector description, 32–36 uniform motion, 53 See also Circular motion; Fluid motion; Newton’s laws of motion; Oscillatory motion; Projectile motion; Rotational motion; Wave motion Motional emf and changing fields, 499–500 defined, 499 and Lenz’s law, 505–506 Motors See Electric motors MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 197, 236, 439, 470–471, 515–516, 713, 724 Multimeters, 459 Multiple-slit diffraction systems, 612–613 Multiple-slit interference, 604–607, 616 Multiplication scientific notation and, 6, of vectors, 33, 35, 191 Multiplication factor, 735 Multiwire proportional chamber, 749 Muon neutrinos, 751, 754 Muons, 629, 749, 751, 754 Music CDs, 570, 601, 607, 615, 713 loudspeaker systems, 530, 535 sound waves, 250, 257 Musical instruments standing waves in, 257 tuning a piano, 532 Mutual inductance, 509 Myopia, 591 N N-type semiconductor, 438, 711 Nagasaki bomb, 733 Nanotube, 621 National Ignition Facility (NIF), 740 Natural frequency, oscillatory motion, 235 Natural greenhouse effect, 296 Near point, 591 Nearsightedness, 591 Ne’eman, Yuval, 752 Negative work, 111 Neon electronic structure of, 694 specific heat of, 327 Net charge, 356 Net force, 52, 53 Neutral buoyancy, 269 Neutrally stable equilibrium, 210, 213 Neutrinos, 729, 739, 749–750, 755 Neutron star, 691 Neutrons, 721, 729–730, 762 beta decay of, 729, 750 high-energy fission, 736 properties of, 732, 751 Newton (N), 54 Newton, Sir Isaac, 44, 51, 52, 129, 130, 132, 134, 573 Newton-meter (Nm), 93, 104 Newtonian mechanics, 14 Newton’s laws of motion, 51, 85, 220 first law, 52–53, 54, 66, 220 friction and, 80–84, 85 uniform motion, 52–53 rotational analogs of, 189, 190 second law, 53–54, 66, 162, 220 applications, 58–60, 71–74, 85 circular motion, 76–80 drag forces, 84 for multiple objects, 74–75 for rotational motion, 171, 173, 177 for systems of particles, 144, 145, 150 weight and, 56 third law, 60–65, 66, 162, 220, 276 Nickel, work function of, 651 NIF See National Ignition Facility (NIF) NIST-F1 clock, 26 Nitrogen dioxide, specific heat of, 327 NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), 236, 724 Nodal line, 253 Node, 256, 456 Nonconservative electric field, 518 Nonconservative forces, 110–111, 115 conservation of energy, 115, 118–119 Nonlinear pendulum, 229–230 Nonohmic materials, 435 Nonuniform circular motion, 45 Normal force, 62–63 Normalization condition, 671, 673–674, 680, 686 North Star, 198 Nuclear energy, 660 Nuclear fission, 732, 733–739, 743 chain reaction, 735, 743 energy from, 734–735 fission products, 733–734, 738 nuclear power, 736–737 radioactive waste, 734, 738 to trigger fusion reactions, 740 weapons, 733, 735, 736 Nuclear force, 56, 722, 748, 753 Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fusion, 732, 739–742, 743 inertial confinement fusion, 740–741, 743 magnetic confinement fusion, 741, 743 Nuclear magnetic dipole moment, 723 Nuclear magnetic resonance See NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) Nuclear magneton, 723 Nuclear physics, 720–743 binding energy, 731–733 nuclear structure, 721–726 radioactivity, 726–731 See also Nuclear fission; Nuclear fusion; Nucleus (nuclei) Nuclear power, 736–737, 738–739 Nuclear power plants elastic collisions in, 158–159 meltdown, 308 thermal pollution, 319 Nuclear radiation See Radioactivity Nuclear radius, 723 Nuclear reactors, 735, 736 Nuclear shell model, 725 Nuclear spin, 723–725 Nuclear structure, 721–726 Nuclear symbols, 721 Nuclear waste, 734, 738 Nuclear weapons, 733, 735, 736, 740 Nucleons, 721, 722, 723 Nucleosynthesis, 733 Nucleus (nuclei), 720, 721 angular momentum of, 723 binding energy, 731–733 models of nuclear structure, 725–726 nuclear force, 56, 722 size of, 723 spin of, 723–725 stability of, 722–723 Nuclides, 723 Numbers estimation, prefixes, 4, 11 scientific notation, 5–6 significant figures, 7–8 I-10 Index O Object distance, 583, 587, 595 Objective lens, 593 Ocean waves, 2, 252, 253 Oceans Archimedes’ principle, 270 pressure at depths, 267 turnover, 311 Ohm, 435 Ohm, Georg, 435 Ohmic materials, 435 Ohmmeters, 459 Ohm’s law, 440, 442, 445, 455, 564 macroscopic version of, 439, 440 microscopic version of, 435, 440 Oil drop experiment, 356, 648 Omega particles, 751 One dimension acceleration in, 19–23 collisions in, 157–159, 162 straight-line motion, 17, 19–23 velocity in, 17–19 Onnes, H Kamerlingh, 439 Open circuits, 439, 508 Open orbits, 134 Operational definition, Optical fibers, 572, 575 Optical instruments, 425, 462, 579, 591–595 cameras, 425, 462, 555, 592 contact lenses, 591, 592 corrective glasses, 591, 592 diffraction gratings, 604–607, 620 electron microscopes, 658 magnifiers, 587, 593 microscopes, 593, 595 telescopes, 581, 584, 593–594, 613 See also Images; Lenses Optical spectra, 696 Optics, 2, 566, 620 chromatic aberration, 574, 590, 594 focal length, 581, 583, 587, 591, 595, 620 focal point, 580, 585, 595 geometrical, 566, 599, 620 lens equation, 586–588 lensmaker’s formula, 590, 595 magnification, 582, 595 mirror equation, 582–583 physical, 599, 620 Snell’s law, 569, 570, 620 See also Images; Lenses; Light; Optical instruments Orbital angular momentum, 687–688 Orbital magnetic quantum number, 688, 698 Orbital motion circular orbits, 132–133, 134, 140 closed/open, 134 elliptical orbits, 134 geostationary orbits, 133–134, 135, 140 gravity and, 130, 132–134 precession, 196–198, 199 Orbital period, 133 Orbital quantum number, 687–688, 698 Orbitals, 693 Orbits, uniform circular motion, 43, 45 Order (of dispersion), 602, 605 Organized states, 335 Oscillating dipole, 555–556 Oscillatory motion, 222–237, 283 amplitude, 223, 225–226 basic characteristics of, 223 damped harmonic motion, 233–235, 237 driven, 235–236 frequency, 223, 225, 237 period, 223, 225, 237 phase, 226 resonance, 235–236, 237 simple harmonic motion, 224–227, 237 applications, 227–231 circular motion, 231–232 energy in, 232–233 pendulum, 228–231 potential-energy curves and, 233 tuned mass damper, 227 universality of, 222, 223 in waves, 244 See also Harmonic oscillators Oscillatory system, Oxygen isotopes of, 721 radioisotope of, 726–727 thermal properties of, 308 Oxygen-15, 727 Ozone, 555 P P-type semiconductor, 438, 711 Pair creation, 679 Paper, dielectric constant of, 422 Parabolic mirrors, 580–581 Parallel-axis theorem, 176 Parallel circuits, 564 Parallel-plate capacitor, 419, 421, 428, 545 Parallel resistors, 450, 453–454, 464 Paramagnetism, 484, 491 Paraxial rays, 581 Parent nucleus, 729 Parity, 752 Parity conservation, 752 Parity reversal, 752 Partial derivatives, 247, 549 Partial differential equation, 247 Partial reflection, 568 Particle accelerators, 753, 756–757 Particles classifying, 749–750 conservation laws and, 750–751 detection of subatomic particles, 749 high-energy particles, 749–755, 762 particle accelerators, 753, 756–757 potential-energy curve, 671–678 properties of, 750–751, 762 quarks, 56, 356, 752–754, 755, 762 spin-1/2 particles, 689, 698, 723 standard model, 723, 754–755 symmetries, 752 wave–particle duality, 652, 661, 663, 669 See also Systems of particles Pascal (Pa), 266 Pascal’s law, 268 Paschen series, 654 Pauli, Wolfgang, 688 Pauli exclusion principle See Exclusion principle Peak radiance, 648, 663 Peak-to-peak amplitude, 223 Pendulum, 228–231 ballistic pendulum, 156 nonlinear, 229–230 physical, 230 simple, 228 Perfect emitter, 293 Perihelion, 134 Period oscillatory motion, 223, 225, 237 waves, 244, 245, 261 Periodic table, 692–695 Permeability constant, 477, 491 PET (positron emission tomography), 639, 728, 729 Phase oscillatory motion, 226 wave motion, 246 Phase changes, 307–310, 353 critical point, 309, 312 heat and, 307, 309 sublimation, 307, 309 triple point, 310, 312 Phase constant, 226 Phase diagrams, 309–310, 312 critical point, 309, 312 triple point, 310, 312 of water, 310, 311 Phasor diagrams, 529, 534 Phasors, 529, 539 Phipps, T E., 689 Phosphorescent materials, 696 Photocopier, 412 Photoelectric effect, 650–652, 663, 667, 668 Photomultipliers, 652 Photons, 650–653, 663, 692, 729, 748, 750 Compton effect, 652–653, 663, 668 energy states of, 748 gamma decay and, 729 in particle physics, 753 properties of, 755 virtual photon, 748 wave–particle duality, 652, 661, 663, 669 waves and, 668–669 See also Light Physical optics, 599, 620 Physical pendulum, 230–231 Physics problem solving with IDEA strategy, 9–10 realms of, 1–2, 11 simplicity of, Piano, 532 Pions, 749, 750–751 Piston-cylinder system, 320 Planck, Max, 649 Planck’s constant, 649, 663 Planck’s equation, 649 Plane electromagnetic wave, 547–548 Plane mirrors, 580 Plane symmetry, charge distributions, 388, 394 Plane waves, 249 Planetary orbits, 130, 132, 134 Plano-concave lenses, 590 Plano-convex lenses, 590 Plasmas, 740 electrical conduction in, 437, 445 quark–gluon plasma, 760 Plexiglas, dielectric constant of, 422 Plutonium-239, 727, 734–735, 737 Plutonium weapons, 736 PN junction, 438, 716 Point charges, 358 in electric field, 366–368, 370 field of, 361, 370, 389 See also Charged particles Point of symmetry, 383 Polaris, 198 Polarization, 552–553, 560, 571 Polarizing angle, 570, 575 Polyethylene, dielectric constant of, 422 Polystyrene dielectric constant of, 422 electrical properties of, 435 optical properties of, 568 Population inversion, 697 Position angular position, 183 with constant acceleration, 20, 21, 27 uncertainty principle, 659–660, 663 as vector, 32–33, 44 Position–momentum uncertainty, 659–660, 661, 663 Position vector, 32–33, 44 Positron emission tomography See PET (positron emission tomography) Positrons, 639, 679, 729, 739, 749 Potassium electronic structure of, 695 Index I-11 radioisotope of, 727 work function of, 651 Potassium-40, 727 Potential barrier, 121 Potential difference See Electric potential Potential energy defined, 124 elastic, 113–114 equilibrium and, 210–211, 213 force as derivative of, 123 gravitational, 112–113, 124, 135–137, 140 stability and, 210 work and, 111–115 Potential-energy curves, 113, 120–123, 124, 671–678 for complex structures, 212 finite potential wells, 677–678, 680 hat-shaped, 756 for hydrogen atom, 716 infinite square well, 671–673, 680 molecular, 122 simple harmonic motion, 233 symmetry breaking and, 756 Potential-energy difference, 400 Potential-energy function, for ionic crystals, 708 Potential well, trapping in, 121 Pound (lb), 57 Power, 101–103 defined, 101, 104 energy storage, 179 units of, 101, 104 of waves, 248 work and, 103 See also Electric power Power factor, 536, 539 Power plants See Electric power; Electric power plants; Nuclear power; Nuclear power plants; Nuclear reactors Power supply direct current (DC), 538 transformers and, 442, 537, 539 See also Electric power supply Power transmission, 442 Powers, numbers, Poynting, J H., 557 Poynting vector, 557 Precession, 196–198, 199 Prefixes, 4, 11 Presbyopia, 591 Pressure, 266, 278 barometers, 267 hydrostatic equilibrium, 266–268, 278, 283 manometers, 267, 268 measuring, 267–268 Pascal’s law, 268 units of, 266 Pressure melting, 311 Pressurized-water reactors (PWRs), 737 Priestley, Joseph, 357 Primary coil, transformer, 537 Principal quantum number, 687, 698 Principle of complementarity, 661, 663 Probability, 668–669, 670, 673–675 radial probability distribution, 686, 687 Probability density, 680 Probability distribution hydrogen atom, 686 radial, 686 Problem solving Ampere’s law, 486 checking answer, 10 conservation of mechanical energy, 116 Coulomb’s law, 357 estimation, Faraday’s law and induced emf, 502 fluid dynamics, 273 Gauss’s law, 382 with IDEA strategy, 9–10 Lorentz transformations, 634 motion with constant acceleration, 22 multiloop circuits, 456–457 multiple answers, 25 Newton’s second law, 59, 66, 74 projectile motion, 40 significant figures, 7–8 static equilibrium, 207 thermal-energy balance, 295 units or measurement and, 23 Projectile motion, 39–43, 46 drag and, 84 flight times, 42–43 range of projectile, 42–43 trajectories, 41, 43, 132, 134 Projectiles, range of, 42–43 Propagation (wave), 243 Proper time, 628 Proton–proton cycle, 739 Protons, 721, 762 electric field, 362 grand unification theories (GUTs), 755, 762 properties of, 732, 751 Pulsars, 194 Pump (lasers), 697 Pumped-storage facilities, 113 Pumping, 697 pV diagram cyclic process, 325, 326, 329 isothermal processes, 320–321 PWRs See Pressurized-water reactors (PWRs) Q QCD See Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) QED See Quantum electrodynamics (QED) Quadratic potential-energy function, 675 Quanta, 651 Quantization, 648, 659, 663 of angular momentum, 716 Bohr atom, 654–657, 663 of orbital angular momentum, 688 space quantization, 698 Quantized spin angular momentum, 689, 698, 723 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 753 Quantum effect, gases, 328 Quantum electrodynamics (QED), 748 Quantum harmonic oscillator, 706 Quantum mechanics, 667–680, 716, 761 Bose–Einstein condensate, 692, 697, 698 Dirac equation, 679 electromagnetism and, 748 exclusion principle, 691–692, 698, 752 finite potential wells, 677–678, 680 harmonic oscillator, 675–676, 680, 706 infinite square wells, 671–673, 680 molecular energy levels, 704–707 orbital angular momentum, 687–688 orbital quantum number, 687–688 probability, 668, 670–671, 674, 686, 687 radial probability distribution, 686, 687 relativistic, 679 Schrödinger equation, 669–671, 678, 680 space quantization, 688 in three dimensions, 678 tunneling, 676–677, 680, 729 Quantum number, 673 orbital magnetic quantum number, 688, 698 orbital quantum number, 687–688, 698 principal quantum number, 687, 698 spin quantum number, 723 Quantum physics, 2, 667, 669 blackbody radiation, 648–650, 663, 667 complementarity, 661–662, 663 gravity and, 755–756 hydrogen spectrum, 654, 667 matter waves, 657–659 photoelectric effect, 650–652, 663, 667, 668 quantization, 648, 659, 663 uncertainty principle, 659–661, 663 wave–particle duality, 652, 661, 663, 669 See also Quantum chromodynamics (QCD); Quantum electrodynamics (QED); Quantum mechanics; Relativity Quantum state, 673 Quantum tunneling, 676–677, 680, 729 Quark–antiquark pairs, 752–753 Quark–gluon plasma, 760 Quarks, 56, 356, 752–754, 755, 762 Quartz, dielectric constant of, 422 Quasi-static process, 319 R R-factor, 292, 294 Radial acceleration, 45, 170 Radial probability distribution, 686, 687 Radian (rad), 4, 169, 224 Radiance, 649, 650, 663 Radiation (heat), 293, 298 Radiation (nuclear) See Electromagnetic radiation; Radioactivity Radiation pressure, electromagnetic waves, 559, 560 Radio transmitter, 555 Radio waves, 554–555 Radioactive decay, 726–728, 743 conservation of momentum in, 151–152 decay constant, 726 decay rate, 726–731 decay series, 730 Radioactive isotopes, 721 Radioactive tracers, 730 Radioactive waste, 734, 738 Radioactivity, 726–731 artificial, 730 biological effects of, 730–731 for cancer treatment, 730 Chernobyl disaster, 737 decay rate, 726–728 decay series, 730 decay types, 729, 743 Fukushima disaster, 727, 737–738 half-life, 726, 727, 743 human body, effects on, 730–731 radiocarbon dating, 727, 728 types of radiation, 728–729 units of, 743 uses of, 730 Radiocarbon dating, 727, 728 Radioisotopes, 721, 726–728 Radium-226, 727 Radius of curvature, 45 Radon-222, 727 Rainbows, 573–574, 575 Range of projectile, 42 Rankine temperature scale, 287, 298 Ray diagram for lens equation, 586 for lenses, 587 mirrors, 583 Ray tracings with lenses, 585–586 with mirrors, 581, 583 Rayleigh criterion, 613, 614, 616 Rayleigh–Jeans law, 650 Rays, 566, 620 RBMK reactors, 737 RC circuits, 460–463, 530 Reactance, 527–528, 539 Reactors See Nuclear reactors Real battery, 452 Real gases, 307 Real image, 579, 581, 583, 587, 620 I-12 Index Rectangular coordinate system, 33 Red–antiblue, 753 Redshift, 757 Reference frames See Frames of reference Reflecting telescopes, 594 Reflection, 254–255 diffuse reflection, 567 of light, 567, 570, 620 partial reflection, 568 specular reflection, 567 total internal reflection, 571–572, 575 See also Mirrors Reflection gratings, 605 Reflectors, 593 Refracting telescopes, 594, 595 Refraction, 255, 620 at aquarium surface, 589 at curved surfaces, 588–589 index of refraction, 568, 620 of light, 568–571, 620 See also Lenses Refractors, 593 Refrigerators, 338, 341–342, 346, 348 Regenerative braking, 506 Relative motion, 36–37 Relative velocity, 36–37 Relativistic factor, 637 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), 757, 760 Relativistic invariants, 636, 643 Relativistic momentum, 637, 643 Relativistic particles, 640 Relativistic quantum mechanics, 679 Relativistic velocity addition, 635–636 Relativity, 2, 622–642 electromagnetism and, 623, 625–626, 640–641 Galilean, 623 general, 626, 641–643, 761 invariants in, 636–637, 643 length contraction, 631–632, 643 Lorentz transformations, 633–635, 643 momentum and, 637–638 simultaneity, 632–633 special, 625–626, 643 time and, 626–632, 643 twin paradox, 629–630 velocity addition, 635–636 See also Quantum mechanics; Quantum physics Reprocessing, of spent reactor fuel, 735 Resistance, electrical in LC circuits, 533 Ohm’s law and, 435–436, 439, 440, 441, 442, 445, 455, 564 of skin, 413 Resistance, thermal, 291 Resistivity, 435 Resistors, 441, 450–455 in AC circuits, 526 parallel resistors, 450, 453–455, 464 series resistors, 450, 451–452, 464 Resolving power of grating, 606, 616 Resonance, 236, 237 in RLC circuit, 533–534 standing waves, 256 Resonance curves, 235 Resonant frequency, 533, 539 Rest energy, 638 Restoring force, simple harmonic motion, 224 Reverse bias, 712 Reversible engine, 337 Reversible/irreversible processes, 319–320, 335, 344, 345, 353 RHIC See Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) Rho particles, 751 Right-hand rule, rotational motion, 189–190 Rigid bodies, 144 Ring, rotational inertia by integration, 175–176 RL circuits, 513, 530 RLC circuits, 533–535, 539 rms See Root-mean-square (rms) Rocket propulsion, 19, 43, 60, 136, 153, 162 Rods, rotational inertia by integration, 174–175, 176 Rohrer, Heinrich, 677 Roller coaster, 78, 79, 120–121, 123 Rolling motion, 180–183 Root-mean-square (rms), 525 Roots, numbers, Rotational dynamics, 177–178 Rotational energy, 178–180, 716 Rotational energy levels, 705–706 Rotational inertia, 173–176, 183, 192, 237 Rotational kinetic energy, 178 Rotational motion, 168–182, 220 angular acceleration of, 170–171, 190 angular momentum, 192–193, 199 angular velocity of, 169, 183, 189 conservation of angular momentum, 194–195, 199 direction of, 189 energy of, 178–180 inertia, 173–175, 183, 192, 237 Newton’s law, analogs of, 189, 190, 199 Newton’s second law for, 171, 173, 177, 220 right-hand rule, 189–190 of rolling body, 180–182, 183 torque, 171–172, 183, 190–191, 193, 199 See also Angular momentum; Circular motion; Torque Rotational vectors, 189–199 Rubber, electrical properties of, 435 Rubbia, Carlo, 755 Rutherford, Ernest, 654, 720–721 Rutile, optical properties of, 568 Rydberg atoms, 657 Rydberg constant, 654 S s states, 687 Safety electrical, 442–445 nuclear power plants, 738–739 Sakharov, Andrei, 752 Salam, Abdus, 755 Satellites de-spinning, 177 orbital motion of, 132–134 Scalar, vector arithmetic with, 35 Scalar product, 94–95 Scales, force measurement with, 64 Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 676, 677 Schrieffer, John Robert, 715 Schrödinger, Erwin, 669 Schrödinger equation, 669–671, 678, 680, 702 for crystals, 709 multielectron atoms, 692 spherical coordinates, 685 Schwinger, Julian, 748 Scientific notation, 5–6 Scintillation detectors, 749 Scuba diving, 321 Second (sec), Second derivative, 21 Second law of thermodynamics, 335–342, 348, 353 applications of, 339–342 Clausius statement, 338 entropy and, 346–347 general statement, 346 heat engines, 335–337 Kelvin–Planck statement, 335 Secondary coil, transformer, 537 Selection rules, 696 Self-inductance, 509–511 Semiconductors, 711–713, 716 electric conduction in, 437, 445 stability analysis of, 211 Series circuits, 564 Series resistors, 450–452, 464 Shell of multinuclear atoms, 692 SHM See Simple harmonic motion (SHM) Shock absorbers, 234 Shock hazard, tools, 444 Shock waves, 260–261 Short circuit, 439–440, 444 SI units, 3–4, 11 of absorbed dose of radiation, 731 of activity (radioactivity), 726 of electric charge, 356 of energy, 101, 287 prefixes for units, 4, 11 of R, 291 of resistivity, 435 of specific heat, 288 of temperature, 287 of thermal resistance, 291 Sievert (Sv), 731, 743 Sigma particles, 751 Significant figures, 7–8 Silicon crystalline structure, 437–438 phosphorus-doped, 438 work function of, 651 Silver electrical properties of, 435 work function of, 651 Simple harmonic motion (SHM), 224–227, 237 applications of, 227–231 circular motion, 231–232 energy in, 232–233, 237 mass–spring system, 227, 232, 233, 234, 235 pendulum, 228–229 potential-energy curves and, 233 tuned mass damper, 227 Simple harmonic wave, wave motion, 245, 261 Simple pendulum, 228 Simultaneity, 632 Single-slit diffraction, 611–612 Sinusoidal wave, wave motion, 245 Skiing, 72, 73–74, 81, 85, 90 Skyscrapers, 227 SLAC See Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) Smog, 324 Snell, van Roijen, 569 Snell’s law, 569, 570, 575 Soap film, 608–609 Sodium, work function of, 651 Sodium atom band structure of, 710 electronic structure of, 694, 696 ionization energy of, 703 Sodium chloride cohesive energy of crystal, 708 optical properties of, 568 Soft ferromagnetic materials, 484 Solar currents, 486 Solar energy, 558 Solar greenhouse, 296 Solenoids electric field and, 489, 490, 491 induced electric field in, 518 inductance, 510 magnetic flux, 500 Solids, 707–713 band theory, 709–713 crystal structure of, 707–709 phase changes, 307–310 semiconductors, 211, 437–438, 711–712, 716 superconductors, 439, 445, 519, 714–715 Sound human ear and, 250 units of, 250 Index I-13 Sound intensity level, 250 Sound waves, music, 253 musical instruments, 257 wave motion, 250–251 Source charge, 357 Space quantization, 688 Spacecraft, 3, 51 escape speed of, 137, 140 International Space Station, 45 weightlessness, 57–58, 61 Spacetime, 637, 641, 642, 643 Spatial frequency, wave motion, 246 Special theory of relativity, 625–626, 643 See also Relativity Specific heat, 287–288, 298, 329 of gas mixture, 328 of ideal gases, 326–328 molar specific heat at constant pressure, 322 molar specific heat at constant volume, 321–322 Spectra atomic, 654, 663, 696–697 molecular, 706–707 optical, 696 Spectral lines, 654 Spectrometers, 605 Spectroscopy, 574, 620 Specular reflection, 567 Speed angular speed, 169, 183 average speed, 15–16 in circular orbit, 137 instantaneous speed, 17 of light, 623 linear speed vs angular speed, 169 terminal speed, 84 uniform circular motion and, 43–45 units of, as vector, 44 of waves, 245, 252, 261 See also Acceleration; Velocity Speed limits, expressing, Speed of light, 3, 649 Speed traps, 23 Spherical aberration, 580–581, 590 Spherical coordinates, Schrödinger equation, 685 Spherical symmetry, charge distributions, 383–386, 394 Spherical waves, 249 Spin, 679, 688–691, 750 Spin-1/2 particles, 689, 698, 723 Spin angular momentum, quantized, 689, 698, 723 Spin-orbit coupling, 690–691, 698 Spin-orbit effect, 691 Spin quantum number, 723 Split, electrons, 689 Spontaneous emission, 697, 698 Spring constant, 64, 66 Spring scale, 64 Springs, 66 elastic potential energy, 113–114, 117, 124 forces exerted by, 63 Hooke’s law, 63–64, 66 ideal, 63, 66, 116, 224 mass–spring system, 227, 232–233, 234, 235 simple harmonic motion, 224 stretching of, 97–98 work done on, 97–98, 104 Square wave, 251 Square-well ground state, 674–675 Stable equilibrium, 209–213 See also Static equilibrium Standard model (particle physics), 754–755, 762 Standing waves, 255–257, 261, 283 Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), 631, 749, 753 Starlight, aberration of, 624, 625 State variable, 344 Static equilibrium, 204–212, 220 center of gravity in, 206, 213 conditions for, 204–205 examples of, 207–209 stability of, 209–212 See also Stable equilibrium Static friction, 80, 85 Statistical mechanics, 285, 353 Steady flow, fluid motion, 271 Steel, thermal properties of, 288, 290, 310 Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 293, 648 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 293 Step-down transformers, 442, 537 Step-up transformers, 537 Steradian (sr), Stern, Otto, 689 Stern–Gerlach experiment, 689 Stimulated absorption, 697, 698 STM See Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) Stored energy See Energy storage Straight-line motion acceleration, 19–21 velocity in, 17–19 Strange quarks, 752, 453, 754 Strangeness, 750 Strassmann, Fritz, 733 Streamlines, 271, 278 String, wave motion on, 247–249 String instruments, standing waves in, 257 String theory, 756 Strong force, 56, 753, 762 See also Nuclear force Strontium-90, 727 Styrofoam, thermal properties of, 290 Subatomic particles See Particles; Systems of particles Sublimation, 309 heat of, 307 Subshells, 692–693 Subtraction scientific notation and, 5–6 of vectors, 35 Sulfur, thermal properties of, 308 Sulfur dioxide, specific heat of, 327 Sun beta decay in, 729 magnetic field of, 480, 485, 516 nuclear fusion, 739–740 solar currents, 486 solar energy, 558 temperature of, 294 as white dwarf, 691 Super Kamiokande experiment, 755 Superconductivity, 713–715, 716 Superconductors electric conduction in, 439, 445, 519 at high temperatures, 715 Supercritical mass, 735–736 Superfluidity, 723 Supernova explosions, 635 Superposition principle electric charge, 359, 361, 370, 599 magnetic fields, 485, 599 wave motion, 251 Surface charge density, 365 Surfing, 246 Symmetries, particles, 752 Symmetry axis, 386 Symmetry breaking, 756 Synchrotrons, 474, 756 System, 91 Systems of particles, 144–161 center of mass, kinetic energy of, 153 collisions in, 153–161 continuous distribution of matter, 147–148, 174 equilibrium states of, 212 kinetic energy of, 153 momentum, 149–152 Newton’s second law and, 145, 149 T Tangential acceleration, 45, 170 Tantalum oxide, dielectric constant of, 422 Taser, 443 Tau neutrinos, 751, 754 Tau particles, 750, 751, 754 Taylor, J B., 689 Teflon, dielectric constant of, 422 Telescopes, 580–581, 584, 593–594, 614 Temperature, 285–287, 298 absolute temperature, 287 absolute zero, 286, 710–711, 716 defined, 286 equilibrium temperature, 289, 298 transition temperature, 713 units of, 4, 285–287 Temperature scales, 286–287, 298 Tension forces, 56 massless rope, 83–84 spring, 63–64 Terminal speed, 84 Terminals, 450 Tesla (T), 470 Tesla, Nikola, 470 Test charge, 360 Theory of everything, 762 Theory of relativity See Relativity Thermal conductivity, 290, 291 Thermal contact, 286 Thermal-energy balance, 294–296, 298 Thermal expansion, 310–311, 312 Thermal noise, 437 Thermal pollution, 319 Thermal resistance, 291 Thermal speed, 306 Thermally insulated, 286 Thermochemical calorie, 288 Thermodynamic efficiency, 339 Thermodynamic equilibrium, 286, 298, 353 Thermodynamic state variable, 318 Thermodynamics, 2, 285, 353 adiabatic processes, 322–324, 325, 329, 353 constant-volume processes, 321–322, 325, 329, 353 cyclic processes, 325–326 entropy, 342–347, 348 equipartition theorem, 327, 329 first law of, 317–319, 329, 334, 353 isobaric processes, 322, 325, 329 isothermal processes, 320–321, 325, 329, 353 quantum effect, 328 reversible/irreversible processes, 319–320, 335, 344, 345, 353 second law of, 335–342, 346, 347, 348, 353 state variable, 344 work and volume changes, 320 zeroth law of thermodynamics, 286, 353 Thermometers, 286 Thermonuclear weapons, 740 Thin films, interferometry, 608–609 Thin lenses, 585 Third-law pair, 61, 63 Thompson, Benjamin, 287 Thomson, George, 659 Thomson, J J., 648, 659 Three dimensions charged particle trajectories in, 473–474 quantum mechanics in, 678 Thunderstorms, 426 Tidal force, 139 Tides, 139 I-14 Index Time atomic clock, 4, 26 energy–time uncertainty, 661 proper time, 628 relativity and, 626–630, 643 time dilation, 626–629, 643 units of, Time constant, 461 Time dilation, 626–629, 643 Time-independent Schrödinger equation, 670, 680 Tokamak, 741 Tomonaga, Sin-Itiro, 748 Tools, shock hazard, 444 Top quarks, 753, 754 Toroid, 490 Torque, 171–172, 183, 190–191, 193, 199, 205 angular momentum and, 193 external, 193, 197 on magnetic dipole, 481–483 torsional oscillator, 228 Torsional oscillator, 228, 237 Total angular momentum, 690–691, 698 Total energy, 638 Total internal reflection, 571–572, 575 Totally inelastic collisions, 154–156, 162 Trajectory, of a projectile, 41, 43, 132, 134 Transformation, heat of, 307, 308, 312, 353 Transformers, 537, 539 power supplies and, 537 step-down transformers, 442, 537 step-up transformers, 537 Transistors, 438–439 Transition elements, 695 Transition temperature, 713 Transmission gratings, 604–605 Transuranic isotopes, 738 Transverse waves, 244, 261 Trapping in potential well, 121 Triple point, 310, 312 of water, 286, 287 Tritium, 727 Tsunamis, wave motion, Tuned mass damper, 227 Tunneling, 676–677, 680, 729 Turbulence, 277 Tweeter, 530 Twin paradox, 629–630 Two dimensions acceleration in, 35–38 constant acceleration, 37–38, 44 circular motion in, 43–45 collisions in, 157, 159–161, 162 interference in, 253 projectile motion in, 39–43, 46 relative motion, 36–37 vector description, 32–36 velocity in, 35–36 Two-source interference, 253 Type I/II superconductors, 714, 716 U U value, 292 Uhlenbeck, George, 689 Ultracapacitors, 421, 425 Ultraviolet catastrophe, 650 Ultraviolet rays, 555 Unbound states, 678, 680 Uncertainty energy–time uncertainty, 661 position–momentum uncertainty, 659–661, 663 Uncertainty principle, 659–660, 661, 663 quantum tunneling, 676–677, 680 Underdamped motion, 234 Unification, of forces, 56, 755–757 Unified electroweak force, 755 Unified mass units, 732 Uniform circular motion, 43–45, 46 Uniform motion, 53 Unit vectors, 34 Units of measurement, 3–5 Universal gas constant, 304, 312 Universal gravitation, 130–132, 140, 220 Universe, 757–761, 762 Big Bang theory, 758, 760 cosmic microwave background (CMB), 758–759, 762 dark matter and dark energy, 760–761 electromagnetic spectrum, 555 expansion of, 757–758 Hubble’s law, 757 inflationary universe, 760 Unstable equilibrium, 209–210, 213 Unstable isotopes, 743 Unsteady flow, fluid motion, 271 Up/down quark pair, 753 Up quarks, 753, 754 Upright image, 580, 581, 582, 583, 587 Uranium enrichment of, 735, 736 isotopes of, 721, 727 nuclear fission of, 733–739 Uranium-233, 734 Uranium-235, 727, 734 Uranium-238, 727, 730, 734, 737 Uranium dioxide, thermal properties of, 308 Uranium enrichment, 735, 736 Vibrational energy, 716 Vibrational energy levels, 706, 716 Virtual image, 556, 579, 581, 582, 583, 589, 620 Virtual photon, 748 Viscosity, 273, 277 Visible light, 554–555 Vision astigmatism, 590 contact lenses, 590, 591, 592 corrective glasses, 592 the eye, 591–592 laser vision correction, 592 lenses, 585–590, 620 Volt (V), 401 Voltage, 401 household voltage, 526 measuring, 458, 459 Ohm’s law, 435–436, 439, 440, 441, 442, 445, 455, 564 working voltage of capacitor, 422–423 See also Electromotive force (emf) Voltage divider, 451 Voltmeters, 458, 459, 464 Volume, units of, Volume charge density, 365 Volume-expansion coefficient, 310, 312 Volume flow rate, 272 von Fraunhofer, Josef, 654 Voyager spacecraft, 129, 137 V W Vacuum electromagnetic waves in, 547, 560 Maxwell’s equations in, 546 Valence band, 711 van der Meer, Simon, 755 Van der Waals bonding, 704, 716 Van der Waals force, 307, 704 Vaporization, heat of, 307 Variable of integration, 176 Vector cross product, 191, 199 Vectors, 32–36, 46 acceleration vectors, 35–36 addition of, 33, 35 components of, 33–34 cross product, 191 defined, 32 displacement vector, 33 four-dimensional, 636, 643 multiplication of, 33, 35, 191 position as, 32–33, 44 rotational, 189–198, 199 scalar product, 94–95 subtraction of, 35 unit vectors, 34 velocity vectors, 35–36, 44 Vehicle stability control, 209 Velocity angular, 169 average velocity, 16, 17, 19 average velocity vector, 35 defined, 20, 46 instantaneous velocity, 17–19, 35 instantaneous velocity vector, 35 power and, 103 relative velocity, 36–37 relativistic addition of, 635–636 simple harmonic motion and, 226–227 in two dimensions, 35–36 uniform circular motion and, 43–45 as vector, 35–36, 44 See also Acceleration; Speed Velocity addition, 635–636 Velocity selectors, 472 Venturi flow, Bernoulli effect and, 274–275, 278 Venus, phases of, 130 W particles, 755 Walking, 230–231 Water dielectric constant of, 422 optical properties of, 568 phase diagram, 311, 312 phases of, 308 thermal expansion of, 311 thermal properties of, 288, 290, 308 triple point of, 286, 287 wave motion in, 257 See also Ice Water heaters, 295, 343 Watt (W), 101, 104 Watt, James, 101 Wave See Waves Wave amplitude, electromagnetic waves, 552 Wave equation, 246–247 Wave fields, 550 Wave function, 669, 680 constraints on, 671 See also Schrödinger equation Wave intensity, electromagnetic waves, 556–557 Wave motion, 2, 243–260 angular frequency, 245, 261 dispersion, 252 mathematical description of, 245–247 period, 244, 245, 261 phase, 245–246 propagation, 244 simple harmonic wave, 244, 261 sinusoidal wave, 245 sound waves, 250–251 spatial frequency, 246 speed of, 245 on stretched string, 247–249, 255–256, 261 superposition principle, 251 tsunamis, wave equation, 246–247 wave number, 245, 261 waveforms, 244 Wave number, 245, 261 Wave–particle duality, 652, 661, 663, 669 Wave speed, 245, 252, 261 electromagnetic waves, 551 Index I-15 Waveforms, 244 Wavefronts, 249 Wavelength, 244, 245 electromagnetic spectrum, 554–555 Waves, 261, 283 amplitude, 244 beats, 252–253 coherence, 600 diffraction, 610–613, 616, 620 diffraction limit, 613–615, 616, 620 Doppler effect, 258–260, 261 double-slit interference, 601–604 frequency, 244 Huygens’ principle, 610, 616, 620 intensity, 248–249, 261 interference, 251, 253, 600, 601, 616, 620 longitudinal, 244, 261 matter-wave interference, 659 multiple-slit interference, 604–607 period, 244, 245, 261 power of, 248 reflection, 254–255 refraction, 255 shock waves, 260, 261 simple harmonic wave, 245, 261 sinusoidal, 245 square, 251 standing, 255–257, 261, 283 transverse, 244, 261 types, 244 wave speed, 245, 252, 261 wavelength, 244, 245 See also Electromagnetic waves; Light; Sound waves Weak force, 56, 762 electroweak unification, 755 Weight, 56–57, 66 apparent weight, 65, 66 mass vs., 56, 57 units of, 57 Weightlessness, 57–58, 61 Weightlifting, 146 Weinberg, Steven, 755 Wheel, rolling motion, 180–182 White dwarf, 691 Wide-angle mirrors, 582 Wien’s law, 648 Wind energy, 277 Wind instruments, standing waves in, 257 Wind turbines, 168, 170, 171, 277 Windsurfing, 38 Wireless technologies, Wollaston, William, 654 Wood electrical properties of, 435 thermal properties of, 288, 290 Woofer, 530 Work, 92–95, 100, 103, 104, 220 against gravity, 99 by conservative forces, 110–111, 115 energy and, 426–427 by force varying with position, 96–99 heat engine efficiency, 336 kinetic energy and, 99–101 negative work, 111 by nonconservative forces, 110–111, 115 potential energy, 111–115 power and, 101–103 scalar product and, 95 thermodynamics, 318, 320, 329 units of, 93, 104 work–kinetic energy theorem, 100, 104, 115, 124, 272, 638 Work function, 651 Work–kinetic energy theorem, 100, 104, 115, 124, 272, 638 Working fluid, 337 Working voltage, 422 Wu, Chien-Shiung, 752 X X-ray diffraction, 606–607, 616 X rays, 555 potential difference in X-ray tube, 401–402 Y Yang, Chen Ning, 752 Yerkes refractor, 594 Young, Thomas, 551, 600, 601 Yukawa, Hideki, 748, 749 Z Z particles, 751, 755 Zeeman effect, 691 Zeeman splitting, 691 Zero of electrical potential, 404 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 286, 353 Zweig, George, 752 .. .EssEntial University Physics THIRD EDITION Richard Wolfson Middlebury College Executive Editor: Nancy Whilton Project Manager:... Odd-Numbered Problems Credits C-1 Index I-1 A-17 v About the Author richard wolfson Richard Wolfson is the Benjamin F Wissler Professor of Physics at Middlebury College, where he has taught since 1976... you’ll find many of your ideas implemented in this third edition of Essential University Physics And special thanks to my Middlebury physics colleagues who have taught from this text and who