Handbook of optics third edition volume II design fabrication and testing sources and detectors radiometry and photometry

www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net HANDBOOK OF OPTICS www.elsolucionario.net Editor-in-Chief: Dr Michael Bass is professor emeritus at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida Associate Editors: Dr Casimer M DeCusatis is a distinguished engineer and technical executive with IBM Corporation Dr Jay M Enoch is dean emeritus and professor at the School of Optometry at the University of California, Berkeley Dr Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan is professor of Optometry, Physics, and Electrical Engineering at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Dr Guifang Li is a professor at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida Dr Carolyn MacDonald is a professor at the University at Albany, and director of the Center for X-Ray Optics Dr Virendra N Mahajan is a distinguished scientist at The Aerospace Corporation Dr Eric Van Stryland is a professor at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida www.elsolucionario.net ABOUT THE EDITORS www.elsolucionario.net HANDBOOK OF OPTICS Volume II Design, Fabrication, and Testing; Sources and Detectors; Radiometry and Photometry Sponsored by the OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Michael Bass Editor-in-Chief CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida Virendra N Mahajan Associate Editor The Aerospace Corporation El Segundo, California Eric Van Stryland Associate Editor CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto www.elsolucionario.net THIRD EDITION www.elsolucionario.net Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher ISBN 978-0-07162927-0, MHID 0-07-162927-0 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title ISBN: P/N 978-0-07-163600-1 of set 978-0-07-149890-6 MHID: P/N 0-07-163600-5 of set 0-07-149890-7 McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs To contact a representative please e-mail us at bulksales@mcgraw-hill.com TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work Use of this work is subject to these terms Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based 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omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought www.elsolucionario.net All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps www.elsolucionario.net Left: Telescope such as used by Galileo to discover lunar craters and Jupiter’s moons The basic design is still used in opera and sports glasses See Chap Middle: Simplified schematic of a laser showing the gain medium which amplifies the light, and the resonator which defines the light’s direction and spatial distribution The third critical part, the source to excite the gain medium, is not shown See Chap 16 Right: Zernike circle polynomial representing balanced astigmatism with a standard deviation of one wave illustrated as an isometric plot on the top, interferogram on the left, and pointspread function on the right See Chap 11 www.elsolucionario.net COVER ILLUSTRATIONS This page intentionally left blank www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net CONTENTS Contributors xvii Brief Contents of All Volumes xix Editors’ Preface xxv Preface to Volume II xxvii Glossary and Fundamental Constants xxix Chapter Techniques of First-Order Layout 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 Warren J Smith 1.3 Glossary / 1.3 First-Order Layout / 1.4 Ray-Tracing / 1.4 Two-Component Systems / 1.5 Afocal Systems / 1.7 Magnifiers and Microscopes / 1.8 Afocal Attachments / 1.8 Field Lenses / 1.8 Condensers / 1.10 Zoom or Varifocal Systems / 1.11 Additional Rays / 1.12 Minimizing Component Power / 1.13 Is It a Reasonable Layout? / 1.13 Achromatism / 1.14 Athermalization / 1.15 Chapter Aberration Curves in Lens Design Donald C O’Shea and Michael E Harrigan 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Glossary / 2.1 Introduction / 2.1 Transverse Ray Plots / 2.2 Field Plots / 2.4 Additional Considerations / Summary / 2.6 References / 2.6 2.5 Chapter Optical Design Software Douglas C Sinclair 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Glossary / 3.1 Introduction / 3.2 Lens Entry / 3.2 Evaluation / 3.8 Optimization / 3.16 Other Topics / 3.21 Buying Optical Design Software Summary / 3.24 References / 3.24 2.1 / 3.1 3.22 vii www.elsolucionario.net Part Design www.elsolucionario.net CONTENTS Chapter Optical Specifications Robert R Shannon 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Glossary / 4.1 Introduction / 4.1 Preparation of Optical Specifications / 4.5 Image Specifications / 4.6 Element Description / 4.8 Environmental Specifications / 4.10 Presentation of Specifications / 4.10 Problems with Specification Writing / 4.11 References / 4.12 Chapter Tolerancing Techniques Robert R Shannon 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Glossary / 6.1 Introduction and Summary / 6.1 Mounting Individual Rotationally Symmetric Optics Multicomponent Lens Assemblies / 6.5 Mounting Windows and Domes / 6.11 Mounting Small Mirrors and Prisms / 6.11 Mounting Moderate-Sized Mirrors / 6.17 Contact Stresses in Optics / 6.21 Temperature Effects on Mounted Optics / 6.21 References / 6.25 / 6.1 6.2 Chapter Control of Stray Light Robert P Breault 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 5.1 Glossary / 5.1 Introduction / 5.1 Wavefront Tolerances / 5.3 Other Tolerances / 5.7 Starting Points / 5.8 Material Properties / 5.9 Tolerancing Procedures / 5.9 Problems in Tolerancing / 5.11 References / 5.11 Chapter Mounting Optical Components Paul R Yoder, Jr 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 4.1 Glossary / 7.1 Introduction / 7.1 Concepts / 7.2 Optical Software for Stray Light Analysis / 7.24 Methods / 7.27 Conclusion / 7.30 Sources of Information on Stray Light and Scattered Light / References / 7.32 7.1 7.31 Chapter Thermal Compensation Techniques 8.1 Philip J Rogers and Michael Roberts 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Glossary / 8.1 Introduction / 8.2 Homogeneous Thermal Effects / 8.2 Tolerable Homogeneous Temperature Change (No Compensation) / Effect of Thermal Gradients / 8.6 Intrinsic Athermalization / 8.7 Mechanical Athermalization / 8.8 Optical Athermalization / 8.12 References / 8.15 8.5 www.elsolucionario.net viii www.elsolucionario.net Taillights, 40.21, 40.22f, 40.64f, 40.67, 40.68t, 40.69f Tailored (T) reflectors, 39.37–39.39, 39.38f Tailoring (of uniformity), 39.2 Talbot autoimages, 12.23, 12.24 Talbot’s law, 34.33–34.34 Tandem-lens arrays, 39.34, 39.35f–39.37f Tapered lightpipes, 39.12–39.13, 39.13f, 39.31–39.32, 39.31f Task lighting, 40.12, 40.14 Taylor-Hobson Form TalySurf, 9.6 Technical specifications, 4.2 Tehis method, 40.53, 40.54 Telecentric distribution, 39.18, 39.18f Telescope(s): astronomical, 1.7f Galilean, 1.7f Hubble, 11.4, 13.24 Keck, 11.4 reflecting, 11.4 unit magnification Galilean, 12.4, 12.4f Telescoping input optics, 38.7 Temperature: color, 37.4t, 37.6–37.7 correlated color, 37.7, 38.5 distribution, 37.7 and mounted optics, 6.21–6.24, 6.22f–6.24f radiance, 37.4t, 37.6 Temperature control, of PZT transducers, 22.19 Temperature noise, 24.12 Temperature specifications, for lenses, 4.10 Temperature-dependence effects, 34.36–34.37 Templates (for curvature measurement), 12.17 Tensile-strained QW lasers, 19.16, 19.16f, 19.17 Test plates (for curvature measurement), 12.17 Testing, 13.1–13.27 aspherical wavefront measurement, 13.23–13.27 holographic compensators, 13.25, 13.25f, 13.26f infrared interferometry, 13.25 Moiré tests, 13.26–13.27 refractive or reflective compensators, 13.24, 13.24f, 13.25 sub-Nyquist interferometry, 13.27 two-wavelength interferometry, 13.25, 13.26 wavefront stitching, 13.27, 13.27f computer-generated holograms in (see Computer-generated holograms) I.49 Testing (Cont.): of convex surfaces, 14.5 interferogram evaluation, 13.14–13.18 direct interferometry, 13.17–13.18 fixed interferograms, 13.14–13.15 Fourier analysis of interferograms, 13.16–13.17, 13.17f global and local interpolation of interferograms, 13.15–13.16 interferometric, 13.7–13.12 common path interferometer, 13.9, 13.11f Fizeau interferometer, 13.8–13.9, 13.9f, 13.10f lateral shearing interferometers, 13.9–13.12, 13.11f, 13.12f multiple-pass interferometers, 13.13 multiple-reflection interferometers, 13.13 radial, rotational, and reversal shearing interferometers, 13.12, 13.13f sensitivity of interferometers, 13.13–13.14, 13.14f Twyman-Green interferometer, 13.7–13.8, 13.7f, 13.8f Zernike phase-contrast method applied to interferometers, 13.13–13.14, 13.14f noninterferometric, 13.1–13.7 Foucault test, 13.2–13.3, 13.2f, 13.3f Hartmann test, 13.4–13.6, 13.5f Hartmann-Shack test, 13.6–13.7, 13.6f Ronchi test, 13.3–13.4, 13.3f, 13.4f phase-shifting interferometry, 13.18–13.23, 13.18f–13.20f heterodyne interferometer, 13.22 integrating bucket method, 13.21, 13.21f phase errors, 13.22 phase stepping, 13.20, 13.20f phase-lock method, 13.23, 13.23f simultaneous measurement, 13.22 two steps plus one method, 13.21, 13.22 in wafer processing, 17.24 Thef-number, 38.8 Theodolites, 12.13 Thermal arrays, 28.7–28.12 about, 28.7–28.8 noise equivalent temperature difference in, 28.8–28.9 pyroelectric hybrid, 28.11–28.12, 28.11f, 28.12f resistive bolometer, 28.10–28.11, 28.10f theoretical limits of, 28.9–28.10, 28.9f thermoelectric, 28.12, 28.12f www.elsolucionario.net INDEX www.elsolucionario.net INDEX Thermal circuit theory, 28.2 Thermal coefficient of resistance (TCR), 33.2, 33.14 Thermal compensation, 8.1–8.15 about, 8.2 and effect of thermal gradients, 8.6–8.7 and homogeneous thermal effects, 8.2–8.5, 8.3t, 8.4t, 8.5f intrinsic athermalization, 8.7–8.8, 8.7f mechanical athermalization, 8.8–8.12, 8.8f–8.12f optical athermalization, 8.12–8.15, 8.13t–8.15t tolerable homogeneous temperature change, 8.5–8.6, 8.6f Thermal defocus, of compound lens, 8.4, 8.5f Thermal detector(s), 24.4–24.6, 24.4f, 28.1–28.12, 38.9, 38.9t arrays of, 28.7–28.12 about, 28.7–28.8 noise equivalent temperature difference, 28.8–28.9 pyroelectric hybrid arrays, 28.11–28.12, 28.11f, 28.12f resistive bolometer arrays, 28.10–28.11, 28.10f theoretical limits, 28.9–28.10, 28.9f thermoelectric arrays, 28.12, 28.12f bolometer, 24.5f, 28.3–28.5, 28.4f Golay cell, 28.6 ideal, 28.2–28.3, 28.3f performance/sensitivity of, 24.17, 24.18f properties of, 28.7, 28.7t pyroelectric, 24.6, 24.6f, 28.7 and thermal circuit theory, 28.2 thermistor, 24.5 thermocouple, 28.4 thermopile, 24.5f, 28.4–28.5 Thermal expansion, 33.14 Thermal fatigue, 17.25 Thermal focus shift, 8.2–8.4, 8.3t, 8.4t Thermal gradients, effect of, 8.6–8.7 Thermal infrared detectors, 33.7, 33.8f Thermal noise, 24.13, 27.4, 32.20 Thermal properties, of high-power lasers, 19.26, 19.27f Thermal stability, of plastic packaging materials, 17.26 Thermistor bolometers, 24.24–24.25, 24.24f, 24.25f, 28.7t Thermistors, 24.5 Thermocouple junctions, noise from, 27.6, 27.6f Thermocouples, 24.5, 28.7t about, 28.1 manufacturers’ specifications for, 24.22–24.23, 24.22f as thermal detectors, 28.4 Thermoelectric arrays, 28.12, 28.12f Thermopiles, 24.5, 28.7t defined, 24.13 manufacturers’ specifications for, 24.23–24.24, 24.23f as thermal detectors, 28.4–28.5 q1/q2 concentrators, 39.18–39.20, 39.19f Thick window chips, 17.7, 17.7t Thin doublet, 1.15–1.16 Thin lenses, 1.5 Thin teflon diffusers, 38.15f Thin-disk lasers, 16.18 35-mm photographic films, 30.21, 30.25 Thoria (in incandescent lights), 40.27 Threaded retaining rings, 6.3, 6.3f 3D concentrators, 2D vs., 39.20–39.21, 39.20f, 39.21f Three-chip color systems, 32.32, 32.33f Three-material athermal solutions, 8.14, 8.14t, 8.15t Three-phase CCDs, 32.15, 32.16f Three-step rescattering model, 21.3 Threshold carrier density, 19.12, 19.12f, 19.13, 19.13f Threshold current, 19.6, 19.6f Threshold modal gain, 19.12, 19.12f, 19.13, 19.13f Threshold voltage, 25.11 Tightly toleranced assembly, 6.7, 6.7f Time delay integration (TDI), 33.4 Time delay integration (TDI) linear sensors, 32.23f, 32.24 Time delay integration (TDI) scanning FPAs, 33.17, 33.17f Time evolution of the field, 23.15–23.17, 23.15f Time-averaged color mixing, 40.8 Time-based measurement, 12.2, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6f Time-dependent error, 34.35 Time-of-flight distance measurement, 12.4, 12.5 www.elsolucionario.net I.50 www.elsolucionario.net Titanium oxide (TiO2) UV detectors, 24.47, 24.48f Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:Al2O3) lasers, 16.34, 16.34f Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:Al2O3) ring lasers, 20.16–20.17, 20.16f, 20.17f Tolerance budgeting, 5.3 Tolerance verification, 5.3 Tolerances, 5.2–5.8 assembly, 5.8 basis for, 5.2–5.3 boresight, 5.8 budgeting of, 5.3 distortion, 5.8 optical vs mechanical, 5.2 verification of, 5.3 wavefront, 5.3–5.7, 5.4f, 5.5f, 5.5t, 5.6t, 5.7f Tolerancing, 5.8–5.11 and aberration balancing, 11.35, 11.36 about, 5.1–5.2 and material properties, 5.9 measurement practices for, 5.8–5.9 and optimization, 3.20–3.21 problems in, 5.11 procedures for, 5.9–5.10 shop practices for, 5.8 Tone reproduction, 29.16–29.17, 29.17f Total flux into a hemisphere, 34.15 Total hemispherical emittance, 35.15, 35.15f Total internal reflection (TIR), 39.12, 39.17, 40.41 Total internal reflection (TIR) Fresnel lenses, 39.10 Total luminous flux, 37.4t, 37.6 Total radiant flux, 37.4t, 37.6 Total transmittance, 35.3, 35.9f Traceability: of absolute measurements, 34.21 errors in, 34.28 TracePro (optical software), 7.27 Transconductance amplifiers, 27.11–27.12, 27.11f Transducer resonance, 22.8, 22.11–22.12 Transducers, 22.17–22.20 Transformers, in voltage amplifiers, 27.11 Transient photon counting, 27.14 Transmission, 4.7 actual/idealized, 35.2f defined, 35.3 I.51 Transmission density, of photographic films, 29.6–29.7, 29.7f Transmissive sensors, 17.34 Transmittance, 35.3 measurement of, 35.8–35.10, 35.9f and reflectance/absorptance, 35.7, 35.8, 35.8t spectral, 38.2, 38.17, 38.17f Transmitter speed, for fiber optics, 17.33 Transparency, 39.23, 40.5 Transparency point, 19.5 Transparent substrate (TS) chips, 17.7, 17.7t Transportation lighting, 40.63–40.71 roadway lighting, 40.67, 40.69–40.71, 40.70t, 40.71t vehicular lighting, 40.63–40.67, 40.64f, 40.65t, 40.66f, 40.66t, 40.68t, 40.69f Transverse electromagnetic mode (TEM), 16.21–16.23, 16.22f Transverse junction stripe (TJS) lasers, 19.8, 19.9f, 19.23–19.24, 19.36f Transverse laser modes, 16.21–16.23, 16.21f–16.23f Transverse ray plots, 2.2–2.4, 3.13 Traveling microscopes, 12.20, 12.21, 12.21f Traveling wave photodetectors, 26.4f, 26.5, 26.14f Treaty of the Meter of 1875, 34.20, 36.2 Triphosphors, 40.31, 40.32f Triplet lens, air-spaced, 6.21, 6.22f Tristimulus values, 38.3–38.4 Troffers, fluorescent luminaire, 40.47 Troland (unit), 34.41–34.42, 37.7, 37.8 Trough reflectors, 40.46f, 40.47 Trumpet (term), 39.15, 39.16f, 39.17 Tubular PZT transducers, 22.17–22.18 Tungsten: in HID lamps, 40.35 in incandescent lights, 40.25, 40.27, 40.29 Tungsten lamps, 15.13, 40.26t, 40.28f Tungsten-arc lamps, 15.47–15.48, 15.48f, 15.49f Tungsten-filament lamps, 15.11, 15.12, 15.13f, 15.19, 15.20, 15.20f–15.22f, 34.31 Tungsten-halogen lamps, 15.11, 15.12, 15.13f, 40.25t, 40.26t, 40.30 Tunnel diagram (see Williamson construction) Tunnel lighting, 40.71 Tunneling current, 25.8 Twin-channel lasers (TCLs), 19.27 Twin-channel substrate mesa (TCSM) lasers, 19.20t, 19.21f, 19.23 www.elsolucionario.net INDEX www.elsolucionario.net INDEX Twin-ridge structure (TRS) lasers, 19.19, 19.20t, 19.21f, 19.22–19.23 2D (term), 39.4 2D concentrators, 3D vs., 39.20–39.21, 39.20f, 39.21f 2D high-power laser arrays, 19.29–19.30, 19.29t, 19.30f Two-color gating, 21.7 Two-component systems, first-order layout for, 1.5–1.7 Two-interference pattern distance-measuring interferometer, 12.7, 12.7f Two-mirror imaging system, 39.17 Two-phase CCDs, 32.15–32.16, 32.16f Two-stage baffle, 7.10 Two-step rescattering model, 21.3 Two-steps-plus-one phase shifting, 13.21, 13.22 Two-wavelength interferometry, 13.25, 13.26 Twyman-Green interferograms, 13.10f, 13.18f Twyman-Green interferometers, 13.7–13.8, 13.7f, 13.8f Type A errors (in absolute measurement), 34.21–34.23 Type B errors and error sources (in absolute measurement), 34.32–34.37 defined, 34.21–34.23 nonideal aperture, 34.35–34.36, 34.35f nonlinearity of detector, 34.34–34.35 nonuniformity, 34.35 offset subtraction, 34.32–34.33 polarization effects, 34.33 scattered radiation effect, 34.33 size-of-source effect, 34.33 spectral errors, 34.36 temperature-dependence effects, 34.36–34.37 time-dependent error, 34.35 Ultrashort cavity microlasers, 19.39 Ultrashort optics, 20.1–20.28 about, 20.1–20.2 cavities with two circulating pulses, 20.15–20.22 linear lasers, 20.18–20.19, 20.19f optical parametric oscillators, 20.20–20.22, 20.20f, 20.21f ring dye lasers, 20.15–20.16 ring lasers, 20.17–20.18, 20.17f Ti:sapphire ring lasers, 20.16–20.17, 20.16f, 20.17f Ultrashort optics (Cont.): coupling of circulating pulses, 20.12–20.15, 20.12f, 20.15f optical pulses and pulse trains, 20.2–20.9 single optical pulse, 20.2–20.3, 20.3f soliton solution and steady-state pulse train, 20.5–20.9 train of pulses, 20.3–20.5, 20.4f, 20.5f and quantum mechanical two-level system, 20.22–20.28 coherent interaction, 20.22–20.23 experimental demonstration, 20.24–20.27, 20.25f–20.27f impact of analogy, 20.27–20.28 laser as two-level system, 20.23–20.24, 20.25t Rabi cycling, 20.26–20.27, 20.26f, 20.27f steady-state pulse, 20.9–20.12, 20.11f Ultrasonic-assisted machining, 10.5 Ultraviolet (UV) detectors: silicon carbide, 24.47, 24.47f TiO2, 24.47, 24.48f Ultraviolet (UV) enhanced photodiodes, 24.55f, 24.61–24.62, 24.61f, 24.62f Ultraviolet (UV) filters, 40.12 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 34.6 and color film, 30.3 far, 15.12, 15.13 spectrum of, 25.2 vacuum, 24.3 Uncrossed reflectors, 39.38, 39.38f Unified Glare Rating (UGR), 40.10–40.11, 40.11t Uniform illumination, of nonimaging optics, 39.22–39.41 with classic projection systems, 39.23–39.24, 39.23f faceted structures in, 39.39–39.41, 39.39f, 39.40f integrating cavities in, 39.24–39.27, 39.24f, 39.25f, 39.27f lens arrays in, 39.32–39.37, 39.33f–39.37f lightpipes in, 39.13f, 39.27–39.32, 39.28f–39.30f tailored reflectors, 39.37–39.39, 39.38f Uniformity: angular, 39.31 control of, 39.1–39.2 of luminance/illuminance, 40.7, 40.13f of photodetectors, 24.20 and visual discomfort, 40.9 www.elsolucionario.net I.52 www.elsolucionario.net Unit conversions: for English and SI units, 37.7, 37.7t for illuminance, 36.7t, 36.8t for photometric and radiometric quantities, 36.11–36.14, 36.12f–36.14f Unit magnification Galilean telescope, 12.4, 12.4f Unlit-appearance modeling, 40.21 Unmodulated signal sources, 27.12 Unstable resonators, 16.25–16.26, 16.26f Unstrained QW lasers, 19.15–19.16, 19.16f Uplight, 40.43, 40.44f, 40.45 U.S Air Force three-bar target, 4.6 Useful life period, of LEDs, 17.26, 17.26f Uviarc, 15.28–15.29, 15.29f, 15.30f Vacuum, laser gain media in, 16.36–16.37, 16.37f Vacuum lamps, 34.31 Vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) radiation, 24.3 Valence band, 17.3, 17.4, 17.4f Valence lighting, 40.13f Vanes (in stray light suppression), 7.11–7.17 defined, 7.11–7.12, 7.12f, 7.13f placement design for, 7.12f and scatter path, 7.13f spacing and depth of, 7.13–7.17, 7.14f–7.17f Vapor exposure, in LED packaging, 17.26 Vapor phase epitaxy (VPE), 17.21, 17.22 Variable temperature blackbody, 15.10f Variable-orientation mirrors, 6.17 Varifocal systems, first-order layout for, 1.11–1.12 Vector flux, 39.21–39.22 Vehicular lighting, 40.63–40.67, 40.64f, 40.65t, 40.66f, 40.66t, 40.68t, 40.69f Veiling reflections, 40.12, 40.14 Verification (of tolerance), 5.3 Vertical antiblooming, 32.9, 32.10f Vertical Bridgeman technique, 17.21 Vertical cavity lasers, 19.41, 19.42f, 19.43t Vertical cavity semiconductor lasers, 16.36 Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), 16.36 Vertical illuminance, 40.7 Vertically integrated photodiode (VIP) FPAs, 33.10 Vertically illuminated pin photodiodes, 26.3, 26.4f, 26.5, 26.10, 26.12–26.13, 26.12f I.53 Very-long-wavelength infrared (VLWIR) radiation, 24.3 Very-long-wavelength semiconductor lasers, 19.7–19.8 Vibration specifications, for lenses, 4.10 Vibration-resistant optical reference cavity, 22.16, 22.17f Vignetting, 3.4, 34.19 Virtual phase CCDs, 32.16–32.17, 32.16f Visible array detectors, 32.1–32.34 about, 32.2 image sensing elements of, 32.2–32.12, 32.3f antiblooming, 32.9, 32.10f dark current, 32.10–32.12, 32.11f junction photodiode, 32.3–32.6, 32.4f, 32.6f MOS capacitor, 32.7–32.8 photoconductor, 32.8–32.9 pinned photodiode, 32.8 readout elements of, 32.12–32.21 CCD, 32.12–32.20, 32.13f, 32.15f–32.18f MOS, 32.20–32.21 sensor architectures of, 32.21–32.34 area image sensor arrays, 32.24–32.32, 32.25t, 32.26f–32.31f color imaging, 32.32–32.34, 32.33f, 32.34f linear image sensor arrays, 32.21–32.24, 32.22f, 32.23f Visible light photon counters (VLPCs), 33.9 Visible (VIS) radiation, 24.3, 25.2 Vision, 40.3–40.6, 40.9 biology of, 40.3–40.4 and perception, 40.4–40.5 photopic/scotopic/mesopic, 34.37–34.39, 37.2 (See also Human eye) Visual clarity, perception of, 40.5 Visual discomfort, 40.9–40.12, 40.11t Visual discomfort probability (VCP), 40.10 Visual photometry, 36.4 Visual science, 34.37 Vivid color (VC) film, 30.27 Voltage amplifiers, 27.10–27.11 Wafer processing, 17.23–17.25 Wall slot lighting, 40.13f Wall-grazing illumination, 40.13f Wall-washing illumination, 40.13f Watanabe, F., 39.33 Watt (unit), 39.2t www.elsolucionario.net INDEX www.elsolucionario.net INDEX Wave modulation distance meter, 12.5, 12.6f Waveband materials, 8.3t, 8.4t Waveband structure of semiconductors, 17.3–17.6, 17.3f–17.5f Wavefront error (W), 4.1, 4.3, 4.7, 4.8 Wavefront measurement, aspherical (see Aspherical wavefront measurement) Wavefront stitching, 13.27, 13.27f Wavefront tolerancing, 5.3–5.7, 5.4f, 5.5f, 5.5t, 5.6t, 5.7f Wavefronts, from lenses, 4.3–4.5, 4.5t Waveguide photodetectors, 26.4f, 26.5 Waveguide pin photodiodes, 26.13–26.14, 26.14f Wavelength, in fiber optics, 17.33–17.34 Wavelength errors, 34.36 Wearout period, 17.26, 17.26f Weighting functions, 36.17 Well capacity, 25.11 Welsbach mantle, 15.17, 15.18 Whiffletrees (lever mechanisms), 6.19 White light, 18.4–18.5, 18.4f, 40.7, 40.8, 40.24 White surfaces, reflectivity of, 17.31 White-light LEDs, 40.37, 40.38 WI lamps, 15.21f WI 14 lamps, 15.21f WI 16/G lamps, 15.21f, 15.22f WI 17/G lamps, 15.22f WI 40/G lamps, 15.22f WI 41/G lamps, 15.22f Wiener spectrum, 29.21 Wien’s displacement law, 15.7, 34.23, 34.24, 37.11 Williamson construction, 39.12–39.13, 39.13f, 39.28, 39.29f, 39.31, 39.32 Window/photocathode assemblies, of image intensifiers, 31.10–31.12, 31.11f, 31.12f Windows: and daylight sources, 40.41, 40.47, 40.48, 40.49f, 40.50f mounting of optical, 6.11, 6.11f, 6.12f Wire-wound thermopile arrays, 24.23 Work function (of photons), 25.2 Xenon lamps, 15.34f, 15.35f, 40.31, 40.35f X-ray lasers, 16.31 X-Y addressing, 33.16 Y-coupled junctions, 19.27, 19.29 Yellow filter dyes, 30.4 Yellow light, 29.13, 29.13f Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) phosphor, 18.4 ZEMAX (optical software), 7.26–7.27 Zernike phase-contrast test, 13.13–13.14, 13.14f Zernike polynomials, 5.9 annular, 11.13–11.21, 11.14f, 11.17t–11.21t circle, 11.4, 11.6–11.12, 11.8t–11.9t, 11.9f–11.11f, 11.12t, 11.39 Zerodur prisms, 6.16, 6.16f Zinc, 17.23 Zinc diffusion, 17.9–17.10, 17.10f Zinc doping, 17.20 Zinc oxide (ZnO) doped GaP, 17.16, 17.21–17.22 Zinc selenide (ZnSe) LED devices, 17.19 Zinc-doped germanium (Ge:Zn) detectors, 24.84f, 24.98–24.100, 24.99f Zirconium arc lamps, 15.47, 15.48f Zonal cavity lighting simulation, 40.17 Zoom systems, 1.11–1.12, 3.20 Z-system (eccentric pupil design), 7.11, 7.12f, 7.15–7.17, 7.15f, 7.17f, 7.19, 7.21f www.elsolucionario.net I.54 COLOR PLATES www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net EP ΔY ΔY c b EP a –EP a –EP b c FIGURE 2.1 (Left) Rays exiting a lens are intercepted at three evaluation planes (Right) Ray intercept curves plotted for the evaluation planes: (a) at the point of minimum ray error (circle of least confusion); (b) at the paraxial image plane; and (c) outside the paraxial image plane –EP EP EP EP EP EP EP 70% Field –EP On-axis ΔY –EP –EP Tangential curves EP 656.3 nm 587.6 nm 486.1 nm FIGURE 2.2 Meridional ray intercept curves of a lens with spherical aberration plotted for three colors Sagittal curves FIGURE 2.3 Evaluation of a lens on-axis and at two off-axis points The reduction of the length of the curve with higher field indicates that the lens is vignetting these angles The differences in slopes (dashed lines) at the origin between the meridional and skew curves indicate that the lens has astigmatism at these field angles The variation in the slopes with field indicates the presence of field curvature Spherical Coma Combined FIGURE 2.4 Ray intercept curve showing coma combined with spherical aberration www.elsolucionario.net Full field www.elsolucionario.net Angle (degree) Field angle SP 10 7.5 7.5 5.0 5.0 2.5 2.5 –0.1 0.0 (a) –1 % Distortion FIGURE 2.5 Field curve: distortion plot The percentage distortion is plotted as a function of field angle Note that the axis of the dependent variable is the horizontal axis Field angle T P S 10 0.1 –0.1 0.0 (b) 0.1 FIGURE 2.6 Field curve: field curvature plot The locations of the tangential T and sagittal S foci are plotted for a full range of field angles The Petzval surface P is also plotted The tangential surface is always three times farther from the Petzval surface than from the sagittal surface: (a) an uncorrected system and (b) a corrected system (a) Field angle 10.0 l short –l long (b) 7.5 5.0 (c) 2.5 –0.3 –0.2 –0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 Chief ray error (mm) FIGURE 2.7 Field curve: lateral color plot A plot of the transverse ray error between red and blue chief ray heights in the image plane for a full range of field angles Here the distance along the horizontal axis is the color error in the image plane FIGURE 2.8 The effect of stop shifting on the meridional ray intercept curves of a double Gauss lens (a) Stop located in front of the normal centrally located stop (b) Stop at the normal stop position (c) Stop behind the normal stop position The dot locates the point on the curve where the origin is located for case (b) FIGURE 40.3 Accent lighting www.elsolucionario.net T FIGURE 40.4 situations Wall sconces for providing ambient lighting and the much needed vertical illumination in various FIGURE 40.5 Indirect lighting with cove lighting in a restaurant using light strips The chandelier provides the decorative lighting without significantly contributing to any other lighting function www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net 113.2 −113.2 −111.6 111.6 −111.6 (a) 111.6 (b) 113.2 113.2 −113.2 −113.2 −111.6 111.6 (c) −111.6 111.6 (d) FIGURE 40.8 Views of the lit appearance (upper) of a star-shaped taillight (lower) at four horizontal angles of (a) 0°; (b) 10°; (c) 20°; and (d) 30° (a) (b) (c) FIGURE 40.9 Three perspectives of lit-scene renderings from a low-beam headlamp: (a) driver’s view; (b) 20 m above and behind automobile; and (c) bird’s eye view www.elsolucionario.net −113.2 113.2 www.elsolucionario.net FIGURE 40.10b Rendering of a lit desk with three objects located on it (wine glass, ice cube, and crystal ball) to show both diffuse and specular effects UH high 100° 100° UL low 90° UL low BVH very high 80° FVH very high 60° 80° FH high BH high FM mid BM mid BL low 90° 60° FL low 30° 30° 0° FIGURE 40.22 Layout of the light classification system subzones www.elsolucionario.net FIGURE 40.10a Rendering of a lit office room www.elsolucionario.net High reflectance diffuse coating (a) (b) (c) Direct light Parabolic surface profile (d) (e) FIGURE 40.24 Depictions of luminaires: (a) Bankers lamp: multiple bounces inside the reflector create a wide angled uniform illumination; (b) Bouillotte lamp: vertical fluorescent tubes provide diffuse illumination; (c) indirect lighting with RLM fixture where the top surface reflects light into a wide angular range; (d) overhead direct-indirect lighting fixture using fluorescent tubular bulbs; and (e) parabolic louvered trough reflector for fluorescent tubes (a) FIGURE 40.26 A conference room with artificial skylight made up of backlit ceiling image tiles (b) FIGURE 40.31 A Solar light pipe (a) A 140-ft-tall light gathering and distributing device that presents daylight down into the core of a building that has no other access to daylight (b) Light projected (10-in diameter) on the floor www.elsolucionario.net Diffuse reflected light from this surface (indirect) www.elsolucionario.net 16-bit, 1-M pixel imaging Rotating arm Lens Sample FIGURE 40.33 Photograph of a source measurement goniometer that is used to ascertain the luminance distribution of the source The system wobble (electro-mechancial-software runout) is 15 μm to allow for measuring small light sources like LED die (a) (b) FIGURE 40.34 (a) A faceted headlamp including high-beam (right), low-beam (middle), and turn signal (left) luminaire Note the yellowish tinge of the turn signal, which is due to the coating placed on the bulb used therein (b) A faceted taillight including the following functions: tail (upper left), stop (upper right), turn signal (lower right), reflex reflector (lower middle), and backup (lower left) 15 Intensity (cd) 10 17,778 15,556 13,333 11,111 8,889 6,667 4,444 2,222 Vertical (deg) −5 −10 −15 20,000 17,778 15,556 13,333 11,111 8,889 6,667 4,444 2,222 −20 −25 −20 −10 10 Horizontal (deg) 20 FIGURE 40.35 Luminous intensity (cd) distribution for the SAE low-beam requirements of Table 18 www.elsolucionario.net Rotating spindle www.elsolucionario.net 2000 Vertical (mm) 1000 Illuminance (lx) Zone III 17.8 15.6 13.3 11.1 8.9 6.7 4.4 2.2 0.0 −1000 −2000 −3000 −4000 20.0 17.8 15.6 13.3 11.1 8.9 6.7 4.4 2.2 −5000 −4000 −2000 2000 Horizontal (mm) 4000 30 Intensity (cd) Vertical (deg) 20 85 96 75 85 64 75 53 64 43 53 32 43 21 32 11 21 11 10 −10 −20 −30 −30 −20 −10 10 Horizontal (deg) 20 30 FIGURE 40.37 Luminous intensity (cd) distribution for the SAE stop lamp requirements of Table 20 (1 lit section) 30 Intensity (cd) Vertical (deg) 20 109 123 95 109 82 95 68 82 54 68 41 54 27 41 14 27 14 10 −10 −20 −30 −30 −20 −10 10 Horizontal (deg) 20 30 FIGURE 40.38 Luminous intensity (cd) distribution for the R7 stop lamp requirements of Table 21 (1 lamp illumination level) www.elsolucionario.net FIGURE 40.36 Illuminance (lx) distribution for the ECE passing/ low-beam requirements of Table 19 ... OPTICS Volume II Design, Fabrication, and Testing; Sources and Detectors; Radiometry and Photometry Sponsored by the OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Michael Bass Editor-in-Chief CREOL, The College of Optics. .. the first edition, published in 1978, or the second edition, with Volumes I and II appearing in 1995 and Volumes III and IV in 2001 To cover the greatly expanded field of optics, the Handbook now... on design, fabrication, testing, sources of light, detection, and a new section devoted to radiometry and photometry Volume III concerns vision optics only and is printed entirely in color In Volume