Thermodynamics and heat powered cycles

www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT POWERED CYCLES: A COGNITIVE ENGINEERING APPROACH www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT POWERED CYCLES: A COGNITIVE ENGINEERING APPROACH CHIH WU Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York www.elsolucionario.net Copyright © 2007 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Wu, Chih, 1936Thermodynamics and heat powered cycles : a cognitive engineering approach / Chih Wu p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-1-60692-626-0 Thermodynamics Data processing I Title TJ265.W827 621.402'1 dc22 Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc 2006 2006004477 New York www.elsolucionario.net TO MY WIFE, HOYING TSAI WU AND TO MY CHILDREN, ANNA, JOY, SHEREE AND PATRICIA www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net CONTENTS Preface xiii Acknowledgements xv Chapter Basic Concepts 1.1 Thermodynamics 1.2 Basic Laws 1.3 Why Study Thermodynamics? 1.4 Dimensions and Units 1.5 Systems 1.6 Properties of a System 1.7 Equilibrium State 1.8 Processes and Cycles 1.9 CyclePad 1.10 Summary 1 10 12 23 24 26 29 Chapter Properties of Thermodynamic Substances 2.1 Thermodynamic Substances 2.2 Pure Substances 2.3 Ideal gases 2.4 Real gases 2.5 Incompressible Substances 2.6 Summary 31 31 31 54 63 65 69 Chapter First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Work 3.3 Heat 3.4 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System 3.5 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System Apply to Cycles 3.6 Closed System for Various Processes 3.7 Multi- Process 3.8 Summary 71 71 71 78 80 84 86 104 108 www.elsolucionario.net Finite-Time Thermodynamics 645 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Performance analysis for a real closed regenerated Brayton cycle via methods of finite-time thermodynamics, International Journal of Ambient Energy, 20(2), 95-104, 1999 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Performance analysis of a closed regenerated Brayton heat pump with internal irreversibility, International Journal of Energy Research, 23,10391050, 1999 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Optimum distribution of heat exchanger inventory for power density optimization of an endoreversible closed Brayton cycle, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 34(3), 422-427, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Performance of heat transfer irreversible regenerated Brayton refrigerators, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 34(5), 830-837, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power density analysis and optimization of a regenerated closed variable temperature heat reservoir Brayton cycle, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 34(11), 1727-1739, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power density optimization for an irreversible closed Brayton cycle, Open Systems and Information Dynamics, Open Systems and Information Dynamics, 8(3), 241-260, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Performance comparison of an endoreversible closed variable-temperature heat reservoir Brayton cycle under maximum power density and maximum power conditions, Energy Conversion and Management, 43(1), 33-43, 2002 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Performance comparison of an irreversible closed Brayton cycle under maximum power density and maximum power conditions, Exergy, an International Journal, 2(4), 345-351, 2002 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Cooling load density optimization of an irreversible simple Brayton refrigerator, Open Systems and Information Dynamics, 9(4), 325-337, 2002 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Performance analysis for an irreversible closed variable temperature heat reservoir intercooled regenerated Brayton cycle, Energy Conversion and Management, 44(17), 2713-2732, 2003 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power and efficiency analysis of an endoreversible closed intercooled regenerated Brayton cycle, international Journal of Exergy, 1(4), 475-494, 2004 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Important optimum criteria on the performance parameters of an irreversible Brayton heat engine, International Journal of Ambient Energy, 26(1), 37-44, 2005 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power optimization of an irreversible closed intercooled regenerated Brayton cycle coupled to variable-temperature heat reservoirs, Applied Thermal Engineering, 25(8-9), 1097-1114, 2005 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power optimization of an endoreversible closed intercooled regenerated Brayton cycle coupled to variable-temperature heat reservoirs, Applied Energy, 82(2), 183-197, 2005 Rankine Cycle Wu, C., Power optimization of a finite-time Rankine heat engine, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 10(2), 134-138, 1989 www.elsolucionario.net 646 Chih Wu Wu, C., Intelligent computer aided design on optimization of specific power of finite-time Rankine cycle using CyclePad, Journal of Computer Application in Engineering Education, 6(1), 9-13, 1998 Other finite time thermodynamic cycle literature including Atkinson, Combined and Cascaded, Diesel, Dual, Ericsson, Otto, Rallis, and Stirling cycles are provided in the following Atkinson Cycle Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Efficiency of an Atkinson engine at maximum power density, Energy Conversion and Management, 39(3/4), 337-342, 1998 Braysson Cycle Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Exergy analysis for a Braysson cycle, Exergy, an International Journal, 1(1), 41-45, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power, power density and efficiency optimization of an endoreversible Braysson cycle, Exergy, an International Journal, 2(4), 380-386, 2002 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Power and efficiency performance of an endoreversible Braysson cycle, International Journal of Thermal Science, 41(2), 201-205, 2002 Effects of heat transfer and friction on the performance of an irreversible air standard Miller cycle, International Communication of Heat and Mass Transfer, 32(8), 1045-1056, 2005 Combined and Cascaded Cycle Wu, C., G Karpouzian and R.L Kiang,, The optimal power performance of an endoreversible Combined cycle, Journal of the Institute of Energy, 30(3), 41-45, 1992 Wu, C., Power performance of a cascade Endo-reversible cycle, Energy Conversion and Management, 65(462), 41-45, 1990 Wu, C., Maximum obtainable power of a Carnot combined power plant, Heat Recovery Systems and CHP, 15(4), 351-355, 1995 Chen Jincan and C Wu, Maximum specific power output of a two-stage endo-reversible Combined cycle, Energy:The International Journal, 20(4), 305-309, 1995 Wu, C., Performance of a cascade endo-reversible heat pump system, The Institute of Energy Journal, 68(476), 137-141, 1995 Wu, C., Finite-time thermodynamic analysis of a two-stage combined heat pump system, International Journal of Ambient Energy, 16(4), 205-208, 1995 Chen Jincan and C Wu, General performance characteristics of a N-stage endo-reversible combined power cycle system at maximum specific power output, Energy Conversion and Management, 37(9), 1401-1406, 1996 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, The equivalent cycles of an n-stage irreversible combined refrigeration system, International Journal of Ambient Energy, 18(4), 197-204, 1997 Wu, C., Intelligent computer aided analysis of a Rankine/Rankine combined cycle, International Journal of Energy, Environment and Economics, 7(2), 239-244, 1998 www.elsolucionario.net Finite-Time Thermodynamics 647 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, A generalized model of a combined refrigeration cycle and its performance, International Journal of Thermal Sciences (Revue Generale de Thermique), 38(8), 712-718, 1999 Jincan Chen and C.Wu, Thermoeconomic analysis on the performance characteristics of a multi-stage irreversible combined heat pump system, ASME Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 122(4), 212-216, 2000 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Optimization of the rate of exergy output of a multi-stage endoreversible combined refrigeration system, Exergy, an International Journal, 1(2), 100-106, 2001 Diesel Cycle Wu, C and D.A Blank, The effect of combustion on a power optimized endo-reversible Diesel cycle, Energy Conversion and Management, 34(6), 493-498, 1993 Lingen Chen and C.Wu, Heat transfer effect on the net work and/or power versus efficiency characteristics for the air standard Diesel cycles, Energy: The International Journal, 21(12), 1201-1205, 1996 Dual Cycle Wu, C and D.A Blank, The effect of combustion on a power optimized endo-reversible Dual cycle, International Journal of Power and Energy Systems, 14(3), 98-103, 1994 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Finite thermodynamics performance of a Dual cycle, International Journal of Energy Research, 23(9), 765-772, 1999 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Effect of friction on the performance of Dual cycle, Exergy, an International Journal, 2(4), 340-344, 2002 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Optimum performance of an irreversible Dual cycle, Applied Energy, 79(1), 3-14, 2004 Ericsson Cycle Blank, D.A and C Wu, Performance potential of a terrestrial solar-radiant Ericsson power cycle from finite-time thermodynamics, International Power and Energy Systems, 15(2), 78-84, 1995 Blank, D.A and C Wu, Power limit of an endo-reversible Ericsson cycle with regeneration, Energy Conversion and Management, 37(1), 59-66, 1996 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Cooling and heating rate limits of a reversed reciprocating Ericsson cycle at steady state, Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Part A, Journal of Power and Energy, 214, 75-85, 2000 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Cooling and heating rate limits of a reversed reciprocating Ericsson cycle at steady state, Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Part A, Journal of Power and Energy, 214, 75-85, 2000 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Heat transfer effect on the performance of a magnetic Ericsson refrigerator, Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics, 27, 57-69, 2002 www.elsolucionario.net 648 Chih Wu Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, Optimization on the performance characteristics of a magnetic Ericsson refrigeration cycle affected by multi-irreversibilities, ASME Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 125(4), 318-324, 2003 Miller Cycle Wu, C., Performance analysis and optimization of a supercharged Miller cycle Otto engine, Applied Thermal Engineering, 23(5), 511-521, 2003 Mirror Cycle Wu, C., Performance analysis of a mirror gas turbine with split-shaft engine, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 3(1), 17-26, 2003 Otto Cycle Wu, C and D.A Blank, The effect of combustion on a work optimized endo-reversible Otto cycle, Journal of the Institute of Energy, 65(463), 86-89, 1992 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Heat transfer effects on the net work output and efficiency characteristic for an air-standard Otto cycles, Energy Conversion and Management, 39(7), 643-648, 1998 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C.Wu, The effects of variable specific heats of working fluid on the performance of an irreversible Otto cycle, International Journal of Exergy, 2(3), 274283, 2005 Rallis Cycle Wu, C., Analysis of an endo-reversible Rallis cooler, Energy Conversion and Management, 35(1), 79-85, 1994 Stirling Cycle Wu, C., Analysis of an endo-reversible Stirling cooler, Energy Conversion and Management, 34(12), 1249-1253, 1993 Blank, D.A and C Wu, Power optimization of an endo-reversible Stirling cycle with regeneration, Energy: The International Journal, 19(1), 125-133, 1994 Blank, D.A and C Wu, Power optimization of an extra-terrestrial, solar radiant Stirling heat engine, Energy:The International Journal, 20(6), 523-530, 1995 Lingen Chen, C Wu and F Sun, Optimum performance of irreversible Stirling engine with imperfect regeneration, Energy Conversion and management, 39(8), 727-732, 1998 Lingen Chen, C Wu and F Sun, Optimal performance of an irreversible Stirling cryocooler, International Journal of Ambient Energy, 20(1), 39-44, 1999 www.elsolucionario.net Finite-Time Thermodynamics 649 Lingen Chen, C Wu and F Sun, Performance characteristic of an endo-reversible Stirling refrigerator, International Journal of Power and Energy Systems, 19(1), 79-82, 1999 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Finite time exergoeconomic performance bound for a quantum Stirling engine, International Journal of Engineering Science, 38(2), 239-247, 2000 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Optimal zone on the performance of a generalized irreversible magnetic Stirling refrigerator, Open Systems and Information Dynamics, 8(3), 291-301, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Ecological optimization of an irreversible Stirling heat engine, International Journal of Ambient Energy, 22(4), 211-220, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Optimization of irreversible magnetic Stirling cryocoolers, International Journal of Engineering Science, 39(4), 361-368, 2001 Lingen Chen, F Sun and C Wu, Performance characteristics of a magnetic Stirling cooler, International Journal of Energy Research, 26(3), 217-228, 2002 13.13 SUMMARY Maximum efficiency and maximum coefficient of performance are not necessarily the primary concern in design of a real cycle Net power output and specific net power output in a heat engine, cooling load and specific cooling load in a refrigerator, and heating load and specific heating load in a heat pump are probably more important in industrial design of thermodynamic cycles A different criteria of real cycle performance is provided by finite time thermodynamics The basic finite time thermodynamic cycles are Carnot, Brayton and Rankine cycles Literature concerning other finite time thermodynamic cycles are also provided in this chapter www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net REFERENCES Balmer, Robert T., Thermodynamics, West Publishing Co., New York, 1990 Balzhiser, Richard E and Michael R Samuels, Engineering Thermodynamics, Prentice-Hall Publishing Co., New Jersey, 1977 Black, William Z, and James G Hartley, Thermodynamics, Third Edition, Harper-Collins College Publishers, New York, 1998 Cengel, Yunus A and Michael A Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, 1998 Granet, Irving and Maurice Bluestein, Thermodynamics and Heat Power, Sixth Edition, Prentice-Hall Publishing Co., New Jersey, 2000 Haberman, William, L and James E.A John, Engineering Thermodynamics, Allen and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1980 Huang, Francis F., Engineering Thermodynamics, Fundamentals and Applications, MacMillian Publishing Co., New York, 1976 Moran, Michael, J and Howard N Shapiro, Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons Publishing Co., New York, 2000 Rogers, G.F.C and Y.R Mayhew, Engineering Thermodynamics, Work and Heat Transfer, Fourth Edition, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd, Essex, England, 1992 Sonntag, Richard E., Claus Borgnakke, and Gordon J Van Wylen, Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, Fifth Edition, John Wiley and Sons Publishing Co., New York, 1998 Wark, Kenneth, Jr and Donald E Richards, Thermodynamics, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, 1999 Wu, Chih, Lingen Chen and Jincan Chen, Recent Advances in Finite Time Thermodynamics, Nova Science Publishing Co., New York, 1999 Wu, Chih, Thermodynamic cycles: computer-aided design and optimization, Marcel-Dekker Publ Inc., New York, 2004 www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net INDEX A C abatement, 467 access, xiii accuracy, 31, 54, 55, 56, 64 alternative, 63, 216, 448, 463 ambient air, 165, 172, 559 ammonia, 40, 43, 50, 53, 68, 121, 149, 212, 242, 243, 244, 307, 308, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 333, 334, 337, 483, 493, 494, 496, 497, 536, 543, 545, 547, 550, 554, 555, 556, 557, 560, 573, 579, 581, 583, 584, 595, 621, 622, 625, 631, 632 angular velocity, 368 argument, 56 assumptions, xiv, 27, 29, 64, 348, 380, 475 atmospheric pressure, 14, 15, 22, 62, 208, 215, 244, 312, 324, 333, 361, 364, 373, 566 atoms, 546, 547 automobiles, 355, 398 availability, 244, 248, 267, 330, 350 capillary, 146 capital cost, 503 carbon, 57, 58, 61, 62, 77, 90, 91, 98, 99, 175, 194, 230, 233, 237, 243, 252, 253, 256, 337, 396, 457, 458, 459, 546, 547, 570 carbon dioxide, 57, 58, 61, 62, 77, 90, 91, 98, 99, 194, 230, 233, 237, 243, 252, 253, 256, 337, 396, 457, 458, 459, 546, 547, 570 case study, xiii, 26 channels, 591 chemical composition, 31, 32, 69 chemical reactions, 168, 258 chlorine, 547 circulation, 222, 223, 224, 530, 533, 534, 538, 542, 544, 546 classroom, 24 CO2, 58, 59, 62, 90, 565 coal, 3, 5, 158, 168, 331 coffee, cohesion, xiv collector temperature, 308 combustion chamber, 11, 116, 117, 118, 119, 217, 221, 222, 359, 361, 365, 371, 373, 378, 382, 383, 385, 386, 390, 393, 394, 399, 400, 401, 425, 427, 429, 430, 432, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 440, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 458, 459, 463, 465, 467, 468, 487, 488, 489, 500, 502, 503, 504, 506, 507, 508, 520, 523 combustion processes, 387 community, 644 complement, 289 complexity, xiii, components, 26, 28, 165, 282, 334, 348, 350, 368, 369, 428, 448, 455, 463, 482, 491, 494, B behavior, 1, 10, 31, 55, 63, 168, 272, 409 binding, 18 binding energy, 18 biomass, 331 blocks, 23, 46 body temperature, 22 boilers, 215, 275 boils, 46, 329, 560 bonds, 18 boundary surface, 18, 108, 113, 156, 187 burning, 24, 82, 158, 216, 401, 471 www.elsolucionario.net Index 654 499, 523, 532, 540, 548, 551, 558, 560, 561, 573, 598 composition, 32, 334, 573 compressibility, 63, 64, 65 computation, 338 computer software, xiii, xiv, 26, 28, 29, 475 computer technology, xiii computing, 282, 428 concentration, 307, 308, 333, 560, 575 condensation, 272, 575 conditioning, 164, 175, 176, 448, 537, 538, 558, 559, 560, 561, 585 conduction, 589, 590 conductivity, 589 confidence, xiv conflict, 29, 475 conservation, 29, 80, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 257 construction, 503, 598, 621, 625, 626, 631 consumption, 3, 4, 5, 175, 389 continuity, 111 control, 11, 12, 29, 109, 138, 146, 156, 212, 348, 349, 356, 368, 398, 423, 454, 537, 547, 558 conversion, 4, 6, 17, 18, 151, 152, 215, 227, 252, 307, 308, 323, 334, 573, 575, 587, 598, 620, 625, 631, 632 cooling process, 100, 107, 119, 272, 281, 362, 363, 365, 374, 375, 376, 378, 379, 382, 392, 399, 400, 401, 418, 423, 425, 459, 479, 570, 584 copper, 23, 24, 31, 81 correlations, 63 corrosion, 353 costs, xiii, 332 cotton, 22 course work, xiv coverage, xiv crop production, 308, 330 crystalline, 180 curriculum, xiv cycles, xiii, xiv, 28, 92, 174, 176, 177, 181, 196, 219, 227, 262, 271, 272, 282, 304, 307, 308, 332, 336, 338, 348, 353, 387, 403, 409, 428, 431, 454, 463, 466, 475, 480, 481, 483, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 494, 498, 499, 502, 503, 514, 518, 523, 528, 529, 535, 547, 548, 550, 565, 566, 575, 576, 646, 647, 648, 649, 651 D database, 57 decomposition, 331 definition, 16, 54, 79, 81, 167, 169, 173, 181, 244 degradation, 239 demand, 5, 484, 486, 487, 518 density, 12, 13, 15, 21, 22, 23, 46, 64, 65, 69, 307, 323, 361, 373, 645, 646 deregulation, xiii designers, 576 desires, 363 destruction, 259 detonation, 377 deviation, 63 directionality, 167 discharges, 125, 167, 215, 281 disorder, 180 displacement, 12, 20, 71, 72, 76, 78, 79, 357, 358, 367 distribution, 333, 334, 574, 645 district heating, 514, 518 duration, 369, 397 E earth, 9, 14, 307, 312 economics, education, xiii, xiv, 26 Education, 19, 646 educators, xiv egg, 11 electric energy, 528 electricity, 485 electromagnetic, 589 electromagnetic wave, 589 electromagnetic waves, 589 electron, 18 emission, 331, 468 encouragement, 644 energy consumption, 3, 4, energy supply, 216 energy transfer, xiv, 1, 20, 78, 79, 108, 121, 180, 231, 234, 394, 588 England, 651 environment, xiii, 26, 131, 161, 195, 213, 228, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 267, 365, 378, 547 environmental advantage, 503 equality, 181, 185 equilibrium, xiv, 2, 16, 23, 24, 29, 32, 35, 46, 62, 78, 186, 195, 213, 214, 226, 244, 246, 247, 258, 267, 587, 588 equipment, 348, 473 erosion, 271, 336 www.elsolucionario.net Index evaporation, 222, 223, 224, 272, 332, 334, 530, 533, 534, 542, 544, 573 evening, 308 execution, 587 exposure, xiii extraction, 298, 300, 302 F failure, 131 family, 546 feet, 185 flame, 468 floating, 24 flue gas, 158, 343, 592, 594, 595 fluidized bed, 331 fluorine, 546 fluorine atoms, 546 focusing, 109 food, 212, 331 football, fossil, 3, 216 free energy, 308, 587 freezing, 35 friction, 115, 119, 140, 149, 168, 210, 238, 258, 282, 646, 647 fuel, xiii, 3, 4, 11, 116, 172, 216, 221, 222, 307, 308, 331, 350, 355, 357, 358, 363, 367, 368, 369, 371, 377, 389, 398, 401, 425, 445, 468, 471, 485, 509, 528, 598, 621, 625, 626, 631 fuel cell, 485 fuel flow rate, 398 G gas phase, 31, 69 gas turbine, 158, 160, 199, 206, 207, 209, 217, 331, 336, 425, 427, 433, 435, 436, 437, 439, 444, 448, 454, 455, 463, 467, 468, 473, 480, 485, 494, 499, 502, 503, 523, 528, 576, 577, 578, 579, 648 gases, vii, 19, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 69, 116, 122, 131, 147, 161, 172, 180, 206, 207, 226, 358, 388, 423, 479, 499, 528, 572, 585 gasoline, 82, 355, 357, 364, 367 generalization, 97 generation, xiii, 173, 185, 187, 194, 195, 207, 210, 212, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 528 graph, 29 gravitation, 18 gravitational field, 14, 18 655 grounding, xiv growth, 3, 4, growth rate, 3, 4, Gulf of Mexico, 631, 632 H hands, xiv heat capacity, 19, 66, 182, 587, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 616, 618, 619, 620, 624, 625, 626, 628, 630, 631 heat loss, 126, 131, 175, 461 heat removal, 174, 456, 468, 511, 569, 570 heating, 22, 45, 74, 82, 86, 100, 105, 106, 107, 115, 149, 165, 166, 172, 189, 202, 219, 221, 222, 224, 239, 272, 281, 282, 295, 298, 300, 305, 306, 330, 334, 336, 348, 362, 363, 365, 374, 375, 376, 379, 382, 389, 390, 391, 392, 399, 400, 403, 405, 408, 409, 412, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 432, 433, 455, 459, 528, 532, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 562, 569, 570, 574, 575, 584, 592, 594, 595, 644, 647, 649 heating rate, 647 heavy oil, helium, 57, 58, 61, 62, 75, 78, 82, 91, 95, 99, 100, 102, 103, 150, 158, 159, 195, 206, 230, 233, 240, 241, 252, 253, 256, 257, 261, 393, 394, 395, 396, 430, 484, 485, 486, 487, 493, 570, 571, 572, 592, 593, 594, 595, 634, 638, 639, 643 homework, 447 House, 165 housing, 368 human experience, hybrid, 463 hydrocarbons, 363, 546 hydrogen, 60, 393, 546, 570 hydrogen atoms, 546 hypertext, 28 I idealization, 92, 196, 226 identity, 113 in situ, 33 independent variable, xiv indication, 4, 16 indigenous, industrial application, 546 industry, xiii, 3, 115, 537 inefficiency, 167, 287, 537, 544 inequality, 179, 185, 226 www.elsolucionario.net Index 656 inertia, 368 infinite, 173, 246, 401, 459, 471, 612, 615 initial state, 21, 24, 25, 72, 78, 83, 84, 99, 100, 168, 178, 191, 192, 196, 227, 231, 232, 233, 238, 239, 250, 251, 266, 267, 364, 419, 420, 421 instruction, 26, 27 instruments, 195 integration, xiii, 3, 4, 235 interaction, 1, 2, 79, 80, 99, 104, 140, 146, 167, 172, 187, 213, 234, 247, 248, 257, 262, 587, 588 interactions, 1, 10, 63, 65, 146, 186, 187, 234, 240, 391, 403, 529 Internet, 27 interval, 80, 170 intuition, 338 investment, 558 iron, 168 isothermal, 24, 60, 74, 79, 80, 90, 91, 107, 168, 172, 175, 182, 183, 184, 194, 195, 198, 213, 214, 231, 269, 271, 272, 336, 349, 391, 393, 394, 395, 401, 403, 405, 406, 408, 409, 420, 459, 460, 462, 471, 473, 474, 529, 565, 567, 569, 570, 571, 596, 599, 600, 604, 605, 608 isothermal heating, 168, 175, 183, 529 J justification, 172, 180 L labor, xiii, land, 330 landfill gas, 331 laws, xiii, 1, 2, 6, 26, 29, 459, 570, 587 leakage, 282, 332 learning, xiii, xiv, 26, 28, 338 learning process, 338 limitation, 441 liquefaction, 572, 573 liquid phase, 32, 333 liquids, 31, 65, 131 lithium, 560 location, 27, 180, 308, 330 locus, 33 low temperatures, 295, 568, 572 lubricating oil, 592 M magnetization, 23 management, 648 manufacturing, 145 manure, 308, 330 market, 172 measurement, 13, 146, 159, 162, 165, 185 mechanical energy, media, xiii melt, 162 melting, 46 mercury, 14 methane, 40, 51, 68, 139, 195, 333, 388, 546 mixing, 11, 111, 112, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 168, 180, 193, 194, 195, 210, 212, 214, 215, 238, 258, 261, 298, 300, 302, 339, 348, 349, 449, 450, 451, 453, 467, 468, 469, 484, 485, 511, 512, 514, 516, 517, 518, 550, 560, 576 modeling, xiii, 334, 338, 574, 575, 588 models, xiii, 1, 168 moisture, 20, 46, 47, 131, 272, 273, 276, 278, 282, 289, 292, 293, 304, 336 moisture content, 20, 46, 47, 131, 272, 273, 276, 278, 282, 292, 293, 304, 336 mole, 60 molecular weight, 60 molecules, 1, 13, 18, 63, 64, 180 money, 172 motion, 1, 23, 72, 368 movement, 16 multimedia, xiii N natural environment, 401, 471 natural gas, neglect, 337, 561 New Jersey, 651 New York, 23, 588, 643, 651 nitrogen, 31, 32, 83, 100, 144, 468 nitrogen gas, 144 noise, 357, 368, 398 numerical analysis, 338 O obstruction, 146 oceans, 307, 323 octane, 357 oil, 4, 5, 32, 158, 331, 592 www.elsolucionario.net Index oil production, operator, 348 optimal performance, 427, 597 optimization, 26, 302, 463, 478, 479, 525, 588, 601, 603, 604, 608, 612, 615, 618, 620, 623, 624, 628, 630, 635, 636, 638, 641, 642, 644, 645, 646, 648, 649, 651 orientation, 308 oversight, xiii oxides, 468 oxygen, 24, 32 ozone, 546 P parameter, 26, 27, 29, 338, 343, 347, 444, 478, 479, 620 partial optimization, 601, 608, 612, 615, 618, 628, 630, 635, 636, 641, 642 partition, 53, 83, 180 pedagogy, xiii, xiv permeability, 312 permit, 332, 455 pH, 447 phase diagram, 45 physics, 63 plants, 523, 528, 598 polarization, 23 pollution, 330, 331, 359, 398 poor, 333, 358 population, ports, 368 potential energy, 18, 81, 82, 86, 113, 115, 146, 231, 234, 235, 238, 240, 244, 253, 463, 548, 551, 560 power generation, xiii, 92, 196, 307, 308, 337 power plants, 272, 276, 278, 299, 308, 324, 332, 333, 503, 598 preference, 17 pressure gauge, 14 probability, 334, 574, 575 production, 172, 173, 196, 259, 267, 307, 331 productivity, professionalism, xiv program, xiii, 26, 27, 475 pumps, 2, 3, 26, 134, 149, 164, 176, 177, 178, 209, 215, 226, 298, 300, 302, 307, 308, 339, 469, 470, 471, 483, 485, 491, 495, 510, 511, 512, 513, 515, 517, 518, 547, 558, 584, 585 657 Q quasi-equilibrium, 24, 25 query, 28 R radiation, 307, 308, 328, 547, 589, 590 Radiation, 308, 589 range, 27, 55, 69, 216, 307, 333, 336, 337, 364, 401, 471, 481, 497, 532, 569 reading, 21, 22, 36, 38, 39, 40 real time, 587 recovery, 145, 467, 484, 486, 487, 491, 492, 493, 495, 496, 497, 518 reduction, 92, 199, 331, 455, 468, 469, 511 refrigeration industry, 591 regeneration, 298, 304, 438, 446, 447, 448, 459, 469, 470, 479, 512, 513, 568, 647, 648 rejection, 172, 225, 269, 272, 280, 282, 287, 463, 596, 604, 605, 606, 610 relationship, 5, 63, 75, 97, 174, 190 relationships, 1, 6, 16, 26, 29, 35, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 55, 57, 65, 69, 157, 226 relaxation, 588 reserves, residues, 308, 330, 331 resistance, 357, 590 resolution, 29 resources, 3, 4, 308, 330 returns, 419, 420 room temperature, 55, 60, 66 S sacrifice, 54 safety, 54, 350 salt, 307, 328 saturation, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 46, 272, 280, 295, 332, 333, 535, 543, 545 savings, 528 sea level, 14, 22, 46 sea-level, 397 searching, 57 selecting, 16, 26 sensitivity, 26, 27, 29, 275, 277, 278, 283, 285, 298, 300, 301, 306, 316, 318, 338, 341, 342, 344, 345, 346, 349, 350, 359, 360, 371, 372, 385, 386, 411, 414, 443, 444, 445, 447, 465, 466, 467, 478, 500, 501, 523, 525, 526, 527, 538, 539, 542, 543, 551, 553, 564, 565, 582, 583, 605, 608, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, www.elsolucionario.net 658 617, 618, 625, 627, 628, 629, 630, 634, 635, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643 series, 24, 126, 481, 489, 490, 491, 498, 499, 547 severity, 3, shape, 171, 184 sign, 4, 72, 78, 80, 83, 568 simulation, 26, 350 skills, 26 software, xiii, xiv, 6, 26, 28, 29, 40, 57, 69, 100, 102, 226, 338, 409, 468, 475, 576 solar collectors, 311 solar energy, 307, 308, 323 solid phase, 180 solid waste, 331, 332 solidification, 572, 585 solubility, 328 specific heat, 12, 19, 20, 21, 54, 55, 57, 61, 65, 66, 69, 99, 357, 370, 381, 385, 389, 427, 432, 433, 437, 468, 563, 592, 648, 649 speed, 2, 25, 94, 126, 146, 247, 394, 435, 588, 644 speed of light, 247 spin, 18 stages, 115, 119, 282, 293, 304, 331, 338, 368, 438, 439, 443, 459, 480, 503 standard of living, standards, 5, 177, 368 steel, 11 storage, 308 strength, 473 stretching, 23 stroke, 355, 356, 358, 364, 365, 367, 368, 369, 378, 381, 388, 397, 398 students, xiii, xiv, 26, 182 substance use, 31 substitutes, 368 sulphur, 546, 547 summaries, xiv summer, 164, 558 Sun, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649 superheated steam, 53, 79, 148, 149, 287 supply, 5, 134, 209, 315, 317, 321, 322, 323, 329, 330, 468, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 522, 528 surface area, 122, 126, 132, 150, 151, 323, 589, 591, 597, 598, 601, 604, 605, 606, 610, 618, 620, 621, 625, 626, 631, 632 Sweden, 467 systems, xiii, xiv, 1, 2, 5, 16, 23, 26, 29, 31, 109, 115, 156, 157, 187, 244, 463, 546, 547, 560, 565, 566, 580, 585 Index T tanks, 11 tar, teaching, xiii, xiv, 26 technology, xiv, 331 temperature gradient, 307, 589 Texas, textbooks, xiv, 64, 113 theory, xiii, xiv, 173, 401, 471 thermal energy, 1, 2, 16, 23, 307, 323, 330, 528, 598, 620, 625, 631, 632 thermal expansion, 532 thermodynamic calculations, 64 thermodynamic cycle, 28, 308, 523, 588, 644, 646, 649 thermodynamic equilibrium, 2, 24, 46, 60 thermodynamic function, 35 thermodynamic properties, 12, 29, 35, 55, 334, 573 ttime, xiii, xiv, 3, 4, 5, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 40, 57, 75, 80, 81, 92, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 122, 126, 132, 138, 150, 151, 187, 196, 212, 213, 226, 235, 338, 358, 368, 383, 397, 503, 587, 588, 601, 602, 604, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 649 timing, 397, 398, 423 total energy, 4, 18, 113 trade, 27 trade-off, 27 tradition, 587 transformation, 2, 227 transition, 32, 34, 35, 334, 573 translation, 18 transport, 587, 589 tutoring, xiv U undergraduate, xiv uniform, 12, 235, 240, 253, 323, 334, 573 United States, 4, universal gas constant, 54 universe, 168, 178, 186, 213, 215, 226, 246, 247, 258 uranium, users, xiii, xiv, 26, 40, 338, 409 www.elsolucionario.net Index V vacuum, 15, 16, 21, 22, 53 validity, values, 24, 25, 26, 28, 35, 36, 40, 55, 57, 63, 84, 177, 188, 228, 305, 330, 383, 432, 478, 523, 525, 597 variable, 57, 69, 225, 247, 330, 398, 423, 432, 433, 437, 587, 618, 645, 648 variables, 475, 583, 584, 587 variation, 33, 57, 323, 397 velocity, 5, 18, 112, 150, 151 ventilation, 348, 448 vibration, 18, 368 659 W water heater, 116, 140, 295, 298, 300, 301, 302, 305, 306, 339, 484 water vapor, 32, 88, 90, 116, 137, 188 wear, 122, 271 web, xiii, 27 web browser, xiii weight ratio, 368 wells, 247, 312 wind, 3, 576, 578, 579 winter, 164, 175, 558 ... www.elsolucionario.net THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT POWERED CYCLES: A COGNITIVE ENGINEERING APPROACH www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT POWERED CYCLES: A COGNITIVE... Clausius Inequality 6.2 Entropy and Heat 6.3 Heat and Work as Areas 6.4 Entropy and Carnot Cycles 6.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems 6.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics for Open Systems... Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 12.1 Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump 12.2 Basic Vapor Refrigeration Cycle 12.3 Actual Vapor Refrigeration Cycle 12.4 Basic Vapor Heat Pump Cycle 12.5 Actual Vapor Heat