Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS KEY Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 79 Au Gold 196.9665 Period number H Hydrogen 1.0079 Group number, U.S system 1A (1) Group number, IUPAC system Li Lithium 6.941 11 Na Sodium 22.9898 19 K Potassium 39.0983 37 Rb Rubidium 85.4678 55 Cs Cesium 132.9055 87 Fr Francium (223) Main group metals Atomic number Symbol Name Atomic weight Transition metals Metalloids An element 8A (18) Nonmetals, noble gases 2A (2) 3A (13) Be B Beryllium 9.0122 Boron 10.811 13 12 Mg Magnesium 24.3050 20 Ca 3B (3) 21 Sc Calcium 40.078 Scandium 44.9559 38 39 Strontium 87.62 Yttrium 88.9058 Sr 56 Ba Barium 137.327 88 Ra Radium (226) 4B (4) 5B (5) 22 23 Titanium 47.867 Vanadium 50.9415 Ti 40 Y Zr Zirconium 91.224 57 72 La Hf Lanthanum 138.9055 Hafnium 178.49 89 104 Actinium (227) Rutherfordium (267) Ac Rf V 41 Nb Niobium 92.9064 73 Ta Tantalum 180.9479 105 Db Dubnium (268) 6B (6) 24 Cr Chromium 51.9961 42 Mo 7B (7) 25 Mn Manganese 54.9380 43 Tc Molybdenum Technetium 95.96 (98) 74 W Tungsten 183.84 106 Sg Seaborgium (271) 75 Re Rhenium 186.207 107 Bh Bohrium (272) 8B (8) 8B (9) 26 27 Fe Co Iron 55.845 Cobalt 58.9332 44 45 Ru Ruthenium 101.07 76 Rh Rhodium 102.9055 77 Os Ir Osmium 190.23 Iridium 192.217 108 109 Hs Mt 8B (10) 28 Ni Nickel 58.6934 46 Pd Palladium 106.42 78 Pt Platinum 195.084 110 Ds 1B (11) 29 Cu Copper 63.546 47 Ag Silver 107.8682 79 Au Gold 196.9666 111 Rg Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium (281) (280) (276) Hassium (277) 2B (12) 30 Zn Zinc 65.38 48 Cd Cadmium 112.411 80 Hg Mercury 200.59 112 — — (285) Al Aluminum 26.9815 31 Ga Gallium 69.723 49 In Indium 114.818 81 Tl Thallium 204.3833 113 — — (284) 4A (14) C 5A (15) N 6A (16) O Carbon 12.0107 Nitrogen 14.0067 Oxygen 15.9994 14 15 16 Silicon 28.0855 Phosphorus 30.9738 Sulfur 32.065 Si 32 Ge Germanium 72.64 50 Sn Tin 118.710 82 Pb Lead 207.2 114 — — (287) P 33 As Arsenic 74.9216 51 Sb Antimony 121.760 83 Bi Bismuth 208.9804 115 — — (288) S 34 Se 7A (17) F Fluorine 18.9984 17 Cl Chlorine 35.453 35 Br Selenium 78.96 Bromine 79.904 52 53 Tellurium 127.60 Iodine 126.9045 Te 84 Po Polonium (209) I 85 At Astatine (210) 116 He Helium 4.0026 10 Ne Neon 20.1797 18 Ar Argon 39.948 36 Kr Krypton 83.798 54 Xe Xenon 131.293 86 Rn Radon (222) 118 — — — (293) — (294) Numbers in parentheses are mass numbers of radioactive isotopes 58 Lanthanides Ce Cerium 140.116 90 Actinides H Li Be Na Mg K Ca Sc Rb Sr Y Cs Ba La Fr Ra Ac Ti Zr Hf Rf He B C N O F Ne Al Si P S Cl Ar V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg — — — — — — Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu AmCm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Th Thorium 232.0381 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 62 Pm Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium 140.9076 144.242 (145) 91 Pa Protactinium 231.0359 92 U Uranium 238.0289 This icon appears throughout the book to help locate elements of interest in the periodic table The halogen group is shown here 93 Np Sm Samarium 150.36 94 Neptunium (237) Pu Plutonium (244) 63 Eu Europium 151.964 95 Am Americium (243) 64 Gd Gadolinium 157.25 96 Cm Curium (247) 65 Tb Terbium 158.9254 97 Bk Berkelium (247) 66 Dy Dysprosium 162.500 98 Cf Californium (251) 67 Ho Holmium 164.9303 99 Es Einsteinium (252) 68 Er Erbium 167.259 100 Fm Fermium (257) 69 Tm Thulium 168.9342 101 Md Mendelevium (258) 70 Yb 71 Lu Ytterbium 173.054 Lutetium 174.9668 102 103 Nobelium (259) Lawrencium (262) No Elements for which the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has officially sanctioned the discovery and approved a name are indicated by their chemical symbols in this table Elements that have been reported in the literature but not yet officially sanctioned and named are indicated by atomic number The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC Lr Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements 2009, IUPAC Name Symbol Atomic Number Based on Relative Atomic Mass of 12C 5 12, where 12C is a neutral atom in its nuclear and electronic ground state.1 Atomic Weight Name Symbol Actinium2 Ac 89 (227) Aluminum Al 13 26.981 5386(8) Americium2 Am 95 (243) Antimony Sb 51 121.760(1) Argon Ar 18 39.948(1) Arsenic As 33 74.921 60(2) Astatine2 At 85 (210) Barium Ba 56 137.327(7) Berkelium2 Bk 97 (247) Beryllium Be 9.012 182(3) Bismuth Bi 83 208.980 40(1) Bohrium2 Bh 107 (272) Boron B 10.811(7) Bromine Br 35 79.904(1) Cadmium Cd 48 112.411(8) Calcium Ca 20 40.078(4) Californium2 Cf 98 (251) Carbon C 12.0107(8) Cerium Ce 58 140.116(1) Cesium Cs 55 132.905 4519(2) Chlorine Cl 17 35.453(2) Chromium Cr 24 51.9961(6) Cobalt Co 27 58.933 195(5) Copper Cu 29 63.546(3) Curium2 Cm 96 (247) Darmstadtium2 Ds 110 (281) Dubnium2 Db 105 (268) Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500(1) Einsteinium2 Es 99 (252) Erbium Er 68 167.259(3) Europium Eu 63 151.964(1) Fermium2 Fm 100 (257) Fluorine F 18.998 4032(5) Francium2 Fr 87 (223) Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25(3) Gallium Ga 31 69.723(1) Germanium Ge 32 72.64(1) Gold Au 79 196.966 569(4) Hafnium Hf 72 178.49(2) Hassium2 Hs 108 (277) Helium He 4.002 602(2) Holmium Ho 67 164.930 32(2) Hydrogen H 1.00794(7) Indium In 49 114.818(3) Iodine I 53 126.904 47(3) Iridium Ir 77 192.217(3) Iron Fe 26 55.845(2) Krypton Kr 36 83.798(2) Lanthanum La 57 138.905 47(7) Lawrencium2 Lr 103 (262) Lead Pb 82 207.2(1) Lithium Li [6.941(2)]† Lutetium Lu 71 174.9668(1) Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050(6) Manganese Mn 25 54.938 045(5) Meitnerium2 Mt 109 (276) Mendelevium2 Md 101 (258) Mercury Hg 80 200.59(2) Molybdenum Mo Neodymium Nd Neon Ne Neptunium2 Np Nickel Ni Niobium Nb Nitrogen N Nobelium2 No Osmium Os Oxygen O Palladium Pd Phosphorus P Platinum Pt Plutonium2 Pu Polonium2 Po Potassium K Praseodymium Pr Promethium2 Pm Protactinium2 Pa Radium2 Ra Radon2 Rn Rhenium Re Rhodium Rh Roentgenium2 Rg Rubidium Rb Ruthenium Ru Rutherfordium2 Rf Samarium Sm Scandium Sc Seaborgium2 Sg Selenium Se Silicon Si Silver Ag Sodium Na Strontium Sr Sulfur S Tantalum Ta Technetium2 Tc Tellurium Te Terbium Tb Thallium Tl Thorium2 Th Thulium Tm Tin Sn Titanium Ti Tungsten W Uranium2 U Vanadium V Xenon Xe Ytterbium Yb Yttrium Y Zinc Zn Zirconium Zr —2,3,4 —2,3 —2,3 —2,3 —2,3 —2,3 Atomic Number Atomic Weight 42 95.96(2) 60 144.242(3) 10 20.1797(6) 93 (237) 28 58.6934(4) 41 92.906 38(2) 14.0067(2) 102 (259) 76 190.23(3) 15.9994(3) 46 106.42(1) 15 30.973 762(2) 78 195.084(9) 94 (244) 84 (209) 19 39.0983(1) 59 140.907 65(2) 61 (145) 91 231.035 88(2) 88 (226) 86 (222) 75 186.207(1) 45 102.905 50(2) 111 (280) 37 85.4678(3) 44 101.07(2) 104 (267) 62 150.36(2) 21 44.955 912(6) 106 (271) 34 78.96(3) 14 28.0855(3) 47 107.8682(2) 11 22.989 769 28(2) 38 87.62(1) 16 32.065(5) 73 180.947 88(2) 43 (98) 52 127.60(3) 65 158.925 35(2) 81 204.3833(2) 90 232.038 06(2) 69 168.934 21(2) 50 118.710(7) 22 47.867(1) 74 183.84(1) 92 238.028 91(3) 23 50.9415(1) 54 131.293(6) 70 173.054(5) 39 88.905 85(2) 30 65.38(2) 40 91.224(2) 112 (285) 113 (284) 114 (287) 115 (288) 116 (293) 118 (294) 1. The atomic weights of many elements vary depending on the origin and treatment of the sample This is particularly true for Li; commercially available lithium-containing materials have Li atomic weights in the range of 6.939 and 6.996 Uncertainties are given in parentheses following the last significant figure to which they are attributed 2. Elements with no stable nuclide; the value given in parentheses is the atomic mass number of the isotope of longest known half-life However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and the atomic weight is tabulated for these Not yet named The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Get a Better Grade in Chemistry! Log in now to the leading online learning system for chemistry Score better on exams, get homework help, and more! • Master chemistry and improve your grade using OWL’s step-by-step tutorials, interactive simulations, and homework questions that provide instant answer-specific feedback Available 24/7 • Learn at your own pace with OWL, a study smart system that ensures you’ve mastered each concept before you move on • Access an e-version of your textbook enhanced with videos and animations, highlighting, the ability to add notes, and more To get started, use the access code that may have been packaged with your text or purchase access online Check with your instructor to verify that OWL is required for your course before purchasing www.cengage.com/OWL Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it This is an electronic version of the print textbook Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY sEVENTH EDITION DAVID W OXTOBY Pomona College H.P GILLIs University of California—Los Angeles ALAN CAMPION The University of Texas at Austin Images of orbitals in Chapters 4, 5, 6, and contributed by HATEM H HELAL California Institute of Technology and Cambridge University, UK KELLY P GAITHER The University of Texas at Austin Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Principles of Modern Chemistry, Seventh Edition David W Oxtoby, H.P Gillis, Alan Campion Publisher: Mary Finch Executive Editor: Lisa Lockwood Developmental Editor: Thomas Martin Assistant Editor: Jon Olafsson © 2012, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher Editorial Assistant: Krista Mastroianni Senior Media Editor: Lisa Weber Media Editor: Stephanie VanCamp Marketing Manager: Nicole Hamm Marketing Assistant: Julie Stefani Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Content Project Manager: Teresa L Trego Library of Congress Control Number: 2011926833 Design Director: Rob Hugel ISBN-13: 978-0-8400-4931-5 Art Director: John Walker ISBN-10: 0-8400-4931-5 Print Buyer: Karen Hunt Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Dean Dauphinais Production Service: Graphic World Inc Text Designer: Brian Salisbury Photo Researcher: Bill Smith Group Copy Editor: Graphic World Inc Illustrator: Graphic World Inc OWL Producers: Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein, and David Hart in the Center for Educational Software Development at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and Cow Town Productions Brooks/Cole 20 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd Cover Designer: RHDG | Riezebos Holzbaur To learn more about Brooks/Cole, visit www.cengage.com/brookscole Cover Image: Dr Eric Heller Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com Compositor: Graphic World Inc Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it IN APPRECIATION OF Mostafa A El-Sayed Karl F Freed William M Gelbart our PhD advisers for their distinguished careers in scientific research and education The search for truth is in one way hard and in another easy, for it is evident that no one can master it fully or miss it completely But each adds a little to our knowledge of nature, and from all the facts assembled there arises a certain grandeur (Greek inscription, taken from Aristotle, on the facade of the National Academy of Sciences building in Washington, D.C.) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.18 Index/Glossary Mobility (m) Proportionality constant relating the drift speed of a charged particle to the magnitude of the applied electric field, 1089 Moderator A substance that effectively slows high-velocity neutrons, 918 Molality (m) The number of moles of solute present per kilogram of solvent, 475 Molar absorption coefficient A measure of the amount of light absorbed by a M solution of a given compound (sometimes also called the molecular extinction coefficient), 975 Molar conductivity (Lm), 1088 Molar enthalpy of fusion The energy per mole for melting a solid at constant pressure, 545 Molar enthalpy of vaporization The energy per mole for vaporizing a liquid at constant pressure, 545 Molar heat capacity (cp), 531 Molar mass (M) The mass of one mole of a substance, 37 Molar volume The volume occupied by one mole of a substance, 39, 444 Molarity (M) The number of moles of solute per liter of solution, 474 Mole fraction (XA) The number of moles of a particular component in a mixture divided by the total number of moles of all components; XA 5 nA/ntot, 409, 474 Mole (mol) The SI base unit giving the amount of any that contains as many elementary particles as there are in 0.012 kg of 12C, 37–38 Molecular beams, 414, 867–868 Molecular crystals, 1051–1052, 1051f, 1057–1058 Molecular electrochemistry, 787–800 Molecular formula A chemical formula that specifies the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule, 40–41, 43 Molecular orbital (MOs) A one-electron wave function that is distributed over all the atoms in a molecule, 236, 245, 378 antibonding MOs, 252 bonding MOs, 252 linear combination of atomic orbitals method, 236, 247–248 heteronuclear diatomic molecules, 262–265 homonuclear diatomic molecules first-period atoms, 251–253 second-period atoms, 253–262, 268f hydrogen molecular ion, 248–251 photoelectron spectroscopy for molecules, 266–267, 267f Molecular shapes/structures, 115–120 and acid strength, 685–687 and electrostatic forces, 284–286 intermolecular forces, 449–455 predicting, 281–286 quantum mechanics and, 235–299 Molecular size, 38–40 Molecular spectroscopy, 102–103, 941–944 experimental methods in, 947–948 rotational spectroscopy, 102–103, 949–954, 962 spectral transitions, intensities of, 944–946 vibrational spectroscopy, 955–973 Molecules A group of two or more atoms bonded together by forces strong enough to maintain its existence for a reasonable period of time, 12, 65 electronic spectroscopy of See Electronic spectroscopy of molecules representations of, 65–70 scanning tunneling microscope, 26–27, 27f Momentum Velocity multiplied by mass, 411, A.12 Monomer unit A basic repeating unit in a long-chain polymer molecule, 1105 Monoprotic acid An acid capable of donating at most one hydrogen ion per molecule, 704 Monosaccharide A simple sugar containing only one ring, 1120 Morse potential energy function A model intramolecular potential energy function that accounts for the shapes of potential energy curves but also allows for analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation for nuclear vibrational motion, 960–961, 961f Mortar A mixture of portland cement with sand and water, 1081 Most probable speed The speed at which the Maxwell– Boltzmann distribution achieves its maximum value, at a particular temperature, 415 Motion of an object, A.12–A.14 Mulliken’s electronegativity scale, 88–91 Multiple bonds, 271 in organic carbon compounds, 278–280 Nanoscopic models, 5–6 Nanotubes, 323 Naphtha, 311 Natural logarithm Logarithms expressed in the base of e 5 2.7182818 , A.26 Negative force An attractive force that tends to pull two charged particles together is negative by convention, 770, A.17 Nematic phase of liquid-crystal formation A liquid crystal in which the molecules show a preferred orientation but their centers are distributed at random, 1117 Nernst equation A relationship giving the potential difference developed by an electrochemical cell as a function of the temperature and the concentrations and partial pressures of reactants and products; DE 5 DE° (RT/nF) ln Q, 781–787 Nernst heat theorem The statement that the entropy change in any process approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero, 590 Net ionic equation A chemical equation in which only those ions and molecules involved in the chemical change are represented; spectator ions are omitted, 480 Network solid, 1084 Neutralization reaction A reaction between an acid and a base, 484 Neutron diffraction, 926 Neutron emission Decay mechanism for nuclides with very small N/Z rations, involving loss of neutrons, 900 Neutron number (N), 894 Neutron scattering, 926 Newton The unit of force in the SI system, 76 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Index/Glossary Nicad batteries, 802 Nickel-cadmium cell, 802 Nitrate ions, 112 Noble gas An element of Group VIII of the periodic table, 72 Nodal line, 179 Node A region of no vibration (of zero amplitude) of a standing wave, 161, 168 Nonbonding atomic orbitals Atomic valence orbitals that not participate in formation of the bond in a particular molecule, 263–265 Nonideal solution A solution in which the vapor pressures of the components deviate from the predictions of Raoult’s law, 491–492 Nonlinear synthetic polymers, 1109–1110 Nonlinear triatomic molecules, 288–289 Nonmetal A substance lacking a metallic luster, having poor ability to conduct electricity, and lacking the malleability of metals, 71 Nonoxide ceramics, 1076, 1084–1086 Nonpolar Having no dipole moment, 120 Nonpolar liquids Liquids whose molecules are nonpolar, and in which only dispersion forces operate between molecules, 456–457 Nonpolar molecules, 120 Nonprimitive unit cells, 1039 Nonradiative transitions Transitions between quantum states of molecules that not result in the absorption or emission of radiation, 985 Nonsilicate ceramics, 1082–1086 Nonstoichiometric compound A solid compound in which the proportions of the constituent elements are continuously variable over some range, 11, 1054–1056 Nonvolatile solutes, phase equilibrium in, 491–499 Normal alkanes, 309–311 Normal boiling point The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals one atmosphere, 462 Normal hydrogen electrode (NHE), 773 Normal melting point The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium at a pressure of one atmosphere, 462 Normalized A probability distribution in which the probability weight for each possible event, summed over all possible events, has the value 1, 171, A.32 n-type semiconductor A semiconductor that conducts electric current through the motion of negatively charged particles (electrons) in its conduction band, 1093 Nuclear binding energies, 906–908 Nuclear chemistry, 891–892, 923 alpha decay, 900 beta decay, 900 decay kinetics, 908–912 decay process, 898–903 electron capture, 902 fission, 900, 917–922 mass-energy relationships, 903–908 neutron emission, 900 nuclear fusion, 922–923 nucleosynthesis, 923 positron emission, 901–902 I.19 proton emission, 900 radiation in biology and medicine, 913–917 radioactive dating, 911–913 radioactivity, 892–894 uranium enrichment, 428–429 Nuclear fission, 918 Nuclear fusion The exothermic union of two light nuclei to form a heavier nuclide, 922 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 966–973 Nuclear magneton A fundamental electromagnetic physical constant used to express nuclear magnetic moments, 967 Nuclear power reactor Controlled nuclear reactors that generate heat to drive electrical power generation plants, 920–922 Nuclear structure, 894–898 Nuclear wave function, 242 Nucleic acids, 1125–1128 Nucleons General name for protons and neutrons, the building blocks for nuclei, 894 Nucleosynthesis The production of heavier nuclides from lighter ones, especially in the interiors of stars, 923 Nucleotide A component of the genetic material DNA composed of a pyrimidine or purine base, a sugar, and a phosphate group, 1126–1128 Nucleus, 21–23 shell model of, 925–932 slow nuclei, 239–240 structure of, 28–29 Nuclides Distinct atomic species characterized by atomic number Z, mass number A, and nuclear energy state, 894 Number density Number of molecules per unit volume, usually number cm23, 396, 444 Number of moles To group atoms or molecules in counting units of NA 5 6.0221420 1023 to measure the moles in a substance, 37 Octahedral geometries, 361–362, 363f Octahedral site, 1046 Octane number A measure of the smoothness of combustion of gasoline in an automobile engine, 314 Octet rule Main-group elements lose, gain, or share electrons in chemical bonding in such a way as to attain a valence octet, 107–108, 113–114 Olivine A complex silicate of magnesium and iron used in refractories, 1071 Open system A thermodynamic system in which both matter and energy may be freely exchanged with the surroundings, 521 Optical displays, 1096–1097 Optical isomerism An isomer that is not superimposable on its own mirror image and therefore is capable of rotating the plane of polarization of a beam of planepolarized light passed through it or its solutions, 313–314 Optical properties of transition-metal complexes, 374–376 Orbital A wave function that is an allowed solution of the Schrödinger equation for an atom or molecule, 198 d orbitals, 206–209, 208f H12, 294–299 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.20 Index/Glossary Hartree orbitals, 194, 210–211 shielding effects, 212–214, 215f, 215t sizes and shapes, 211–212 hybridization for polyatomic molecules, 273–280 linear combination of atomic orbitals method See Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbitals See Molecular orbital nonbonding atomic orbitals, 263–265 p orbitals, 204–206 s orbitals, 200–204 self-consistent field (SCF) orbital approximation method, 210 sizes and shapes, 199–209 Hartree orbitals, 211–212 sp hybrid atomic orbitals, 273–274 sp2 hybrid atomic orbitals, 274–275, 276f sp3 hybrid atomic orbitals, 276–277, 278 Orbital approximation for atoms The use of a one-electron wave function for each electron in a many-electron atom, 211 Orbital approximation for molecules, 248 Order The power to which the concentration of a species is raised in the rate law for a reaction is the order of the reaction with respect to that species, 840 Organic acids and bases, 710–712 electronegativity, 712–713 resonance, 713–714 steric hindrance, 713 Organic carbon compounds, 278–280 Organic chemistry The study of the compounds of carbon, 308–309 Organic molecule bonding, 339–340 alkanes See Alkanes alkenes, 314–319 alkynes, 314–319 aromatic hydrocarbons, 319–321, 322f fullerenes, 322–323 functional group See Functional group hydrocarbons, 308–309 petroleum refining, 308–309 Organic molecules with delocalized electrons, 289 Orthosilicate, 1071 Osmotic pressure (p) The pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent the net diffusion of pure solvent through a semipermeable membrane into the solution, 498–499 Outcomes, A.30 Outer coordination sphere Nondirectional arrangement of ligands coordinated to metal atoms, 355 Overall reaction order The sum of the exponents of the species appearing in the rate expression for a reaction, 841 Oxidation number A number assigned to an atom in a molecule that reflects its state of oxidation, 120–122 Oxidation reduction reaction (redox reaction) A reaction in which electrons are transferred; a reaction in which the oxidation number of at least one element changes, 485–489 Oxidation states of transition-metal elements, 351–352 Oxide ceramics A class of ceramics in which silicon is a minor or nonexistent component, 1075, 1082–1083 Oxides of manganese, 122f Oxidized Having lost electrons in a chemical reaction, 485 Oxidizing agent A substance that causes the oxidation of another substance, while it itself is reduced, 776 Oxidoreductases, 872 Oxoacid An acid containing a hydrogen ion in combination with an oxoanion, 685 Ozone depletion, 1003–1009 p orbital A set of three degenerate atomic orbitals with angular momentum quantum number 51, 204–206 PANs Abbreviation for polyacylnitrates, a class of nitrogencontaining molecules that are associated with photochemical smog, 996 Paramagnetic substance The property of being attracted into an inhomogeneous magnetic field, 217 Parameter, 242 Partial pressure (PA) That part of the total pressure of a gas mixture due to one particular component, 408 Particle-in-a-box models, 172, 175f one-dimensional boxes, 172–176 three-dimensional boxes, 176–178 two-dimensional boxes, 176–178 wave functions for particles in cubic boxes, 180–182 wave functions for particles in square boxes, 178–180 Partition coefficient (K) The equilibrium constant describing the distribution of a solute species between two immiscible solvents, 650 Pascal (Pa) The SI unit of pressure; equal to N m22, 399 Passivation The phenomenon in which an active metal is protected from further oxidation by the formation of a thin oxide layer at its surface, 810 Pauli exclusion principle The statement that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of quantum numbers; more generally, two electrons with the same spin may not occupy the same point in space at the same time, 215 Pauling’s principle of electroneutrality, 88–91 p-block element An element that arises with the filling of a p orbital in the building up of the periodic table, 217 Peptide linkage The linkage formed by the reaction of the carboxyl group of one amino acid with the amine group of a second, with elimination of water, 1122 Percentage composition and empirical formula, 41 Percentage yield The actual yield of a reaction divided by the theoretical yield (and multiplied by 100%), 64 Period A row in the periodic table, 70 Periodic law The chemical and physical properties of the elements are periodic properties of their atomic numbers, 70 Periodic properties, 224–227 Periodic table A table that organizes the elements by atomic number and chemical properties into groups and periods, 64, 70–73, 71f shells and, 220–223 Periodic trends in ionizing energies, 226–227 Permittivity of the vacuum (I0), 73 Perovskite, 1083 Pesticides, 335–336 Petroleum refining, 308–309 pH A measure of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution; pH 5 2log [H3O1], 679–680 effect on solubility, 744–746 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Index/Glossary pH meter A galvanic cell in which the voltage is a linear function of the pH of the solution in the cell, 679–681, 785–787 Pharmaceuticals, 337–340 Phase A sample of matter that is uniform throughout, both in its chemical constitution and in its physical state, 459 Phase diagram For a one-component system, a plot of temperature against pressure, showing the state or states of matter that are stable under each set of conditions, 462–465 Phase equilibrium Equilibrium state in which two or more different phases coexist, for example, solid and liquid, 459–460, 474 nonvolatile solutes, 491–499 volatile solutes, 499–504 Phase transition A change in the physical state of a substance, 460–462 entropy, 583–584 and Gibbs free energy, 594–595 Phenol An organic compound which has an UOH substituted on an aromatic ring, 327 Phlogiston, 10 Phosphor A doped semiconductor capable of emitting light when excited, 1096–1097 Phosphorescence, 986 Phosphoryl chloride, 111 Photocathode, 158 Photochemical processes Chemical reactions initiated by the absorption of electromagnetic radiation, almost always visible or ultraviolet radiation, 984 Photocurrent, 158 Photoelectric effect The ejection of electrons from the surface of a substance by light; the energy of the electrons depends upon the wavelength of the light, not the intensity, 157–161 Photoelectrochemistry, 795–797 Photoelectron spectroscopy A type of spectroscopy in which the kinetic energies of electrons ejected by photons from an atom, molecule, or solid are measured; allows orbital energies to be determined, 220–223, 266–267, 267f Photoelectrons, 158 Photographic emulsion, 893 Photon A packet of electromagnetic radiation; the “particle” of light, 159 Photophysical processes Physical processes initiated by the absorption of electromagnetic radiation, almost always visible or ultraviolet radiation, 984 Photosynthesis, 1009–1014 artificial, 798 Physics overview, A.12–A.19 Pi (p) bonds, 271 p acceptors Alternate name for strong field ligands, 385 p donors A bond resulting from the occupancy of p molecular orbitals by electrons, 385 Pigments, 1096–1097 Pitch, 1118 Planck’s constant (h) The proportionality constant between the energy and the frequency of a photon; equal to 6.62608 10234 J s, 148 Planck’s hypothesis, 146–149 Planetary model of atom, 153 I.21 Plastics A polymeric material that is molded when hot and that hardens upon cooling, 1113 Point mass, 1113–1115 p–n junctions, 1094–1095 Point mass, A.12 Polar Having a dipole moment, 120 Polar covalent bond A bond intermediate in character between covalent and ionic, 64, 105 Polar liquids Liquids whose molecules have permanent dipole moments, 456 Polar molecules, 120 Polarizability A measure of the extent to which electrons in atoms or molecules are displaced by electric fields, most often the electric fields of electromagnetic radiation, leading to induced dipole moments, 451, 952 Polarization The distortion of the charge distribution of an atom or ion due to a nearby charge, 98 Polyatomic molecules, 271–273 dipole moments of, 118–120 orbital hybridization, 273–280 rotational spectroscopy, 962 vibrational spectroscopy, 962–966 wave function for electron-air bonds, 271–273 Polyene, 318 Polymer A compound of high molar mass comprised of repeating subunits, 1105 amino acids, 1122–1126 carbohydrates, 1120–1122, 1121f electrically conducting polymers, 1116–1117 natural polymers, 1119–1128 nucleic acids, 1126–1128 nucleotides, 1126–1128 polysaccharides, 1120–1122, 1121f proteins, 1122–1126 synthetic See Synthetic polymers Polymerization reactions for synthetic polymers, 1106–1110 Polypeptide A polymer of amino acid monomer units, 1122 Polyprotic acid An acid capable of donating more than one hydrogen ion per molecule to base acceptors, 704 pH on solution composition, effect of, 706–707 titration of, 718–719 weak polyprotic acids, 704–706 Polysaccharide A polymer formed by linking simple sugars together in long chains, 1120–1122, 1121f Polyunsaturated oil, 331 Portland cement A building material made by a hightemperature reaction of lime with clay to form a calcium aluminum silicate; when mixed with water, sand, and aggregate, it makes a concrete that can be poured in place and allowed to harden to give a strong solid, 1080 Positive charges, A.17 Positron A positively charged fundamental particle; the antiparticle of the electron, 895 Positron emission A mode of radioactive decay in which a nuclide emits a positron and a neutrino as one of its protons transforms into a neutron, 901–902 Positron Emission Tomography, 914–915 Postulates, Potential difference, 767 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.22 Index/Glossary Potential energy curves Representation of the potential energy of an object as a function of its position relative to a selected reference point, 420 force, stability and, A.16–A.17 representing energy conversion by, A.15, A.15f Potential energy (Ep) The energy that a particle has by virtue of being attracted to (or repelled by) other particles, A.14–A.15 in atoms, 73–78 comparison of curves, 453 Coulomb potential energy, A.18 in molecules, 91–94 Potential energy function, 73–74 Pottery, 1077–1078 Powers and logarithms, A.24–A.26 Precipitation selective precipitation of ions, 751–754 and solubility product, 740–744 Precipitation reaction The formation of a solid from solution; the reverse of dissolution, 480 Precision, A.3 Prefixes Greek prefixes used in the SI system of units to indicate orders of magnitudes, A.10 Pressure (P) The force exerted by a gas or other material per unit area on the walls of its container, 398–401 Gibbs free energy of a gas, dependence on, 624 heat transfer at constant pressure, 532–533 vapor pressure, 459–460 Pressure-volume work, 525 Primary alcohol, 327 Primary amine, 334 Primary cells A battery (galvanic cell) that must be discarded when its energy has been transferred and its voltage gone to zero, 801 Primary kinetic isotope effects, 866 Primitive unit cell A unit cell containing one lattice point, 1038 Principle quantum number (n), 195–196 Probability, 170, A.30 random variables, A.30–A.31 average values of, A.32 continuous, and probability functions, A.32–A.33 theoretical, experimental tests of, A.33 Probability density function A continuous function that describes the probability of finding the value of a dependent variable within an infinitesimally small region around each value of the independent variable, A.33 Probability function (P[X]) A function, which may be discrete or continuous, that describes the probability of finding the value of a dependent variable at or near each value of the independent variable, A.31–A.32 continuous random variables and, A.32–A.33 Probable value Xmp, A.31 Product, 643–644 Product constant for water, 677 Promotion A concept introduced by Linus Pauling to account for the filling of nearly degenerate hybrid orbitals, 273 Propagation The second stage in a chain reaction, 855 Proportional counters A class of radiation counters that measures both the energy and the intensity of ionizing radiation, 894 Proteins A naturally occurring longchain polymer composed of amino acid subunits, 332–333, 1122–1126 heme, 364–365 Proton emission A rare event in which a proton is emitted from a nucleus to bring the neutron/proton ratio closer to the line of stability, 900 Proton (p), 28–29 p-type semiconductor A semiconductor that conducts electricity through the apparent motion of positively charged particles (holes) in its valence band, 1093 Pure substance A sample of matter that cannot be separated into different components by a physical process, Pyrometallurgy The recovery of elemental metals from their ores through high-temperature chemical reactions, 810–811 Quanta, 147 Quantum electrodynamics A relativistic quantum theory that accounts for the interactions between matter and radiation, 169–170 Quantum mechanics The fundamental branch of physics that describes the properties, interactions, and motions of atomic and subatomic particles, 64, 139–141 Bohr model, 153–157 bonds See Bond(s) discrete energy levels, predicting, 153–157 electromagnetic radiation, 142–145 energy quantization in atoms See Energy quantization in atoms light, 141–144 and molecular structure, 235–299 particle-in-a-box models See Particle-in-a-box models Schrödinger equation, 167–171 wave motion, 141–144 wave-particle duality See Wave-particle duality Quantum numbers, 195–197, 210 Quantum state Any state of a quantum system characterized by a unique set of quantum numbers, 196 Quantum yield The fraction of events that leads to a particular outcome divided by the total number of possible outcomes, 988 Quarks, 897 Quaternary compounds, Quotient of integers, 12 rad, 913 Radial charge density distribution function p(r), 212 Radial node A sphere about the nucleus on which and 2 are zero, 204 Radial probability density The probability per unit volume of finding a particle (such as an electron) at a distance r away, 202 Radiation in biology and medicine, 913–917 Radiative transitions Transitions between quantum states of molecules that result in the absorption or emission of radiation, 985 Radical A species in which one or more valence electrons are unpaired; radicals are often but not always highly reactive; often occurs as an intermediate in reactions, 314 Radioactive dating, 911–913 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Index/Glossary Radioactivity, 892–894 Radiotracers A radioactive element, or a compound that contains a radioactive element, that is used to follow the course of chemical reactions or to follow the movement of substances, primarily in living organisms, 901, 914, 915 Raman scattering A form of inelastic light scattering in which part of the energy of an incident photon is transferred to an atom or molecule resulting in a scattered photon with lower energy, 942 Random copolymer A polymer made from two or more types of monomer units, arranged at random along the chain, 1109 Random variables, A.30–A.31 average values of, A.32 continuous, and probability functions, A.32–A.33 Raoult’s law A relationship between the vapor pressure P1 of component of an ideal solution, its mole fraction X1, and the vapor pressure P° of the pure substance: P1 5 X1, 491 Rate constant (k) The proportionality constant between the rate of a reaction and the concentrations of the species that appear in the rate law, raised to the appropriate powers, 839 Rate expression or rate law An equation relating the rate of a reaction to the concentrations of species present in the reaction mixture, 839 Rate-determining step, 850 Reactant, 643–644 Reaction coordinate, 858–859 Reaction dynamics That branch of chemistry concerned with understanding the microscopic details of reactive encounters as they relate to chemical kinetics, 859 Reaction enthalpy The energy change in a chemical reaction carried out at constant pressure, 542–546 Reaction intermediate A chemical species that is formed and consumed in the course of a reaction and does not appear in the chemical equation representing the reaction, 848 Reaction mechanism A series of elementary reactions, together with their rates, that describe the detailed steps by which a reaction proceeds, 836, 846–855 Reaction path The route followed as reactant molecules, atoms, or ions interact to give products, 858 Reaction quotient (Q) A positive number in which the ratio of concentrations or partial pressures of products raised to powers corresponding to their stoichiometric coefficients are divided by concentrations or partial pressures of reactants similarly raised to powers, 639, 647 Reaction stoichiometry acid–base titrations, 481–484 oxidation-reduction titrations, 485–489 Reactions, 835–836, 878 activated complex, 858–859, 865 activity, 628–630 catalysis, 869–873 chain reactions, 855 collision theory, 859–864 diffusion-controlled reactions, 868 direction of change in empirical description, 639, 642–646 thermodynamic explanation, 646–650 elementary reactions, 847 I.23 endothermic reactions, 543, 645 equilibrium reactions for gas-phase and heterogeneous reactions, 638 exothermic reactions, 543, 645 first order reactions, 840, 843–844 gas-phase reaction rate constants, 856–858 and Gibbs free energy, 595–597 ideal gases and equilibrium, thermodynamic description of, 624–627 ideal solutions and equilibrium, thermodynamic description of, 627–628 integrated rate laws, 843–846 isotope effects in, 866–867 kinetics and chemical equilibrium, 849–850 law of mass action for reactions in solutions, 620–621 law of mass action for reactions involving pure substances and multiple phases, 621–623 mass relationships in, 47–49 measuring rates, 837–839 mechanisms, 846–850, 850–855 order of, 839–842 polymerization reactions for synthetic polymers, 1106–1110 precipitation reaction, 480 involving pure solids and liquids and multiple phases, 628–630 radioactive decay, 908–912 rate laws, 839–845 rates of, 836–839, 850–859 reaction coordinate, 858–859 second order reactions, 840, 844–846 in solution, 868–869 steady-state approximation, 853–854 temperature, effect of on rates, 856–859 transition state theory, 864–865 zeroth order reactions, 840 Reactive cross section The cross sectional area of a molecule that is effective as a target for collision and reaction, 860 Rechargeable batteries, 802–805 Recrystallization Powerful method of the purification of substances by dissolution and subsequent precipitation, 734 Rectification The conversion of alternating current into direct current, 1094 Redox reactions, 485–489 Redox titration, 490–491 Reducing agent A substance that causes the reduction of another substance, while it itself is oxidized, 776 Reduction potential diagram A convenient diagram that summarizes the potentials for oxidations and reductions of a chemical species and for determining its propensity to disproportionate, 777–778 Reforming reaction, 326 Reforming reaction [1] Generation of aromatic hydrocarbons from straight-chain alkanes, 320–321 Reforming reaction [2] Generation of hydrogen and carbon monoxide by the high-temperature reaction of methane (or another hydrocarbon) with water, 327, 619 Refractory A ceramic material that withstands a temperature of more than 1500°C without melting, 1083 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.24 Index/Glossary Relative atomic mass The dimensionless mass of an atom, measured on a relative scale with the mass of a 12C atom equal to 12, 13, 15 Relative molecular mass The sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements contained in the molecule, each one multiplied by the number of atoms of that element in the molecule, 25 rem, 913 Representative element An element of Groups I through VIII of the periodic table; a main-group element, 70 Repulsive charges A force between two particles that pushes them apart, A.17 Repulsive forces Forces that correspond to negative slope of the potential energy curve, 452–453 Resistance (R) Property of a system that measures the difficulty of passing electrical current through that system; depends on geometry and composition of the system, 1087 Resistivity (r) Property of a substance or material that measures the difficulty of passing electrical current through it, regardless of geometry, 1087 Resonance and organic acids and bases, 713–714 Resonance hybrid The “true” Lewis structure represented by the combination of two or more resonance structures, 112 Reverse micelles, 1119 Reverse osmosis The nonspontaneous movement of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane driven by an external force, 499 Reversible process A process that proceeds through a series of equilibrium states, and can be reversed by an infinitesimal change in an external force, 523 Rigid walls Walls that not deform when arbitrarily large external forces are applied, 521 Rigidity Tendency to maintain shape under stress, 446–447 Rock-salt structure of ionic crystals, 1047 See also Sodium chloride structure Root-mean-square speed A measure of the typical speed of molecules at thermal equilibrium; equal to the square root of the average of the squares of the speeds of the molecules, 413 Rotational spectroscopy bond angles and lengths, 102–103 diatomic molecules, 949–954 polyatomic molecules, 962 Rounded off, A.6 Rubber, 1115–1116 Rutherford, Ernest, 22–23 Rydberg (Ry) A unit of energy used in atomic spectroscopy; equal to 2.18 10218 J, 155 s orbital Nondegenerate atomic orbitals with angular momentum quantum number , 200–204 Sacrificial anode A piece of an active metal (such as magnesium) placed in electrical contact with a metal (such as iron) that is to be protected from oxidation, 810 Salt bridge A tube containing a salt solution that is used to connect two half-cells in an electrochemical cell; allows the passage of ions, but prevents mixing of the half-cell electrolytes, 765 Salt solubility, 746 Salts of bases, solubility of, 746 Saturated A carbon atom bonded to four other atoms, the maximum number allowed by its valence, 314, 331 Saturated calomel electrode A standard electrode that consists of a platinum wire in contact with a paste of liquid mercury, calomel (Hg2Cl2), and a saturated solution of Hg2Cl2, 778 Saturated hydrocarbon, 314, 734 Saturated solutions A solution in equilibrium with a solid solute, 734 Saturated triglycerides, 331 s-block element, 217 Scanning tunneling microscopy of atoms, 26–27 at single molecule level, 26–27, 27f Schottky defect A vacant site in a crystal where the pattern indicates an atom should be found, 1054 Schrödinger equation The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics that relates the wave function of one or more particles to their masses and potential energies, 167–171 Scientific law, Scientific notation, A.2 Scientific revolution, 139 Scintillation counter An instrument for the detection of radioactive decay based on the counting of light pulses produced by radiation when it enters a crystal, 893 Second law of thermodynamics, 580–581 Second order reaction A reaction that has a total order of 2, as determined by the sum of the exponents of the concentration terms in the rate law; if a reaction is second order in a single species A, the concentration of A changes with time according to 1/[A] 5 2kt 1 1/[A]0, 840, 844–846 Secondary Refers to batteries that cannot be recharged in electrochemistry or to isotope effects at atoms adjacent to the reactive site in kinetics, 801, 866 Secondary alcohol, 327 Secondary amine, 334 Secondary battery, 802 Secondary cell, 801 Secondary kinetic isotope effects, 866 Selection rule A rule that governs the probability of a particular transition between quantum states, 950 Self-consistent field (SCF) orbital approximation method Generating approximate one-electron wave functions for each electron in a many-electron atom or molecule by estimating the effective field set up by all the other electrons and obtaining the wave function for that effective field; the process is repeated iteratively until the effective field and approximate wave function no longer change upon further iterations, 210 Semiconductor A substance having electrical conductivity that is small but still greater than that of an electrical insulator and that increases with temperature, 72, 1053, 1092, 1093–1095, 1096f Semimetal A material intermediate in character between a metal and a nonmetal, 71, 1053 Semipermeable Allowing passage of small molecules but not of large molecules, 498 Separation of variables, 176 Sequester To coordinate a species so strongly that it is prevented from taking part in its ordinary reactions, 367 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Index/Glossary Shear viscosity The measure of the resistance of a substance to flow, 446 Shell A group of subshells in the electron configuration of an atom that have similar energies, 212 Shell model for atomic structure A model of the atom in which the electrons are envisaged as occupying a series of concentric shells centered around the nucleus, 82 Shell models of the atom, 82–85 for many-electron atoms, 210–214, 215f, 215t of the nucleus, 925–932 and the periodic table, 220–223 Shift reaction, 619 SI units, A.9–A.11 Sialon An alloy of silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and nitrogen, 1085 Side-centered unit cell A unit cell having lattice points at the center of one pair of parallel cell faces as well as at the eight corners, 1039 Sigma () bond A bond resulting from the occupancy of s molecular orbitals by electrons, 271 Sigma () donor Alternate name for intermediate field ligands, 385 Significant figures, A.5–A.7 Silicate A compound containing silicon and oxygen and formed from the linking together of structural units, 1070–1072 Silicate ceramics Ceramics made from aluminosilicate clay minerals, 1075, 1077–1081 Silicon bonding, 1090–1093 Silicon carbide, 1086 Silicon nitride, 1084 Simple cubic lattice A crystal lattice in which the unit cell comprises a simple cube, with one atom located at each vertex, 1042 Simultaneous algebraic equations, 632 Single bond, 268–271 Sintering The partial merging of grains in a solid by diffusion at a temperature less than the melting point, 1077 Slope of line, A.21 Slow nuclei, 239–240 Smectic phase of liquid-crystal formation A liquid crystal in which molecules show a preferred orientation and a layered structure, 1117 Smelting The melting and reduction of metals from their ores, 811 Soda-lime glass Common glass of approximate composition Na2O · CaO · (SiO2)6, 1079 Sodium chloride structure of ionic crystals An ionic crystal structure that consists of two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices of cations and anions, 1047 Soft acids, 354 Solar energy conversion, 798–799 Solids, 1035–1036 alloys, 1056 amorphous solids, 1056 bulk properties, 443–449 compressibility, 445 crystals See Crystal I.25 diffusion, 447–448 fluidity, 446–447 glasses, 1056 ionic equilibria between solids and solutions, 737–740 ionic solids, solubility of, 735–736, 737t molar volume, 444 phase diagrams, 462–465 phase equilibrium, 459–460 phase transitions, 460–462 rigidity, 446–447 surface tension, 448–449 thermal expansion, 446 Solubility The amount of a solute that dissolves in a fixed volume of a particular solvent at a given temperature, 479, 735 complex ions and, 746–751 of hydroxides, 744–745 ionic solids, 735–736, 737t and Ksp, 738–740 of metal sulfides, 753–754 of salts of bases, 746 Solubility equilibria, 733–734, 750 complex ions and solubility, 746–751 features of, 734–735 ionic equilibria between solids and solutions, 737–740 ions, selective precipitation of, 751–754 pH on, effects of, 744–746 precipitation and solubility product, 740–744 Solubility product The amount of a solute that dissolves in a fixed volume of a particular solvent at a given temperature, 738, 740–744 Solute One of the minor components in a solution, 473, 491–499 Solution A homogeneous system that contains two or more substances, 473–474, 508 acid and base properties in aqueous solutions, 677–680 aqueous solutions of ionic species, 479–481 aqueous solutions of molecular species, 478–479 boiling-point elevation, 492–495 colloidal suspensions, 504–505 composition of, 474–478 dissolved species, natures of, 478–481 distillation, 501–504 freezing-point depression, 495–497 Henry’s law, 500 ideal solutions and equilibrium, thermodynamic description of, 627–628 ionic equilibria between solids and solutions, 737–740 law of mass action for reactions in, 620–621 nonvolatile solutes, 491–499 osmotic pressure, 498–499 oxidation-reduction titrations, 485–489 pH on solution composition, effect of, 706–707 phase equilibrium in nonvolatile solutes, 491–499 volatile solutes, 499–504 precipitation from, 741–742 preparation of, 476–478 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.26 Index/Glossary reaction stoichiometry acid–base titrations, 481–484 oxidation-reduction titrations, 485–489 saturated solutions, 734 supersaturated solutions, 735 unsaturated solutions, 734 vapor-pressure lowering, 492 volatile solutes, 499–504 Solvate The process of surrounding solute molecules with solvent molecules, 734 Solvation, 734 Solvation shell The shell of solvent molecules that surrounds a solute molecule, 479 Solvent The major component in a solution, 473 sp hybrid atomic orbitals A pair of hybrid orbitals constructed from one s and one p orbital oriented 180° with respect to one another, 273–274 sp2 hybrid atomic orbitals A set of three hybrid orbitals constructed from one s and two p orbitals oriented 120° with respect to each another, 274–275, 276f sp3 hybrid atomic orbitals A set of four hybrid orbitals constructed from one s and three p orbitals oriented 109.5° with respect to each another, 276–277, 278 Specific heat capacity (cs) The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one kelvin at constant pressure, 527, 531 Spectator ion An ion that does not take part directly in a chemical reaction but is present in the reaction system, 480 Spectrochemical series An ordering of ligands according to their ability to cause crystal field splittings, 375 Spectrograph An instrument used to record the wavelengths of light emitted by atoms or molecules, 149–150, 150f, 151f Spectrophotometers, 828 Spectroscopy electronic spectroscopy See Electronic spectroscopy of molecules molecular See Molecular spectroscopy nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 966–973 Spectrum, 149–150 Speed (u or s) The rate at which a molecule is moving, in meters per second, 410 average speed, 415, A.12 Sphalerite structure, 1048 Spherical harmonics A set of functions used to describe angular momenta in atoms, 197 Spin quantum number (ms) A quantum number that describes the magnetic properties of a particle; takes on the values ± for an electron, 210 Spin-spin coupling The presence of nuclear spins on atoms adjacent to the atom to which a nucleus of interest is bonded affects the local magnetic field at that nucleus, leading to characteristic patterns used to identify functional groups in NMR spectroscopy, 971 Spin-spin splitting, 969 Spontaneous processes, 571–572 entropy See Entropy (S) Gibbs free energy See Gibbs free energy nature of, 572–575 nature of spontaneous processes at fixed T and P, 592–593 Square-planar complexes, 370–372 Square-planar geometries, 362, 363f, 366 Stable equilibrium That state of a system in which the net force acting is zero, A.17 Standard atmosphere (atm) A unit of pressure; equal to 101,325 Pa; the daily pressure at sea level varies in the vicinity of one standard atmosphere, 399 Standard cell potential The potential of an electrochemical potential when all of its components exist under standard conditions, as defined thermodynamically, 772 Standard cell voltage (DEº), 772 Standard deviation A measure of the uncertainty in the average value of a property described by a Gaussian distribution, A.4 Standard enthalpy (DHº) The enthalpy change for the reaction that produces products in their standard states from the reactants, also in their standard states, 547 Standard enthalpy of formation (DHfº) The enthalpy change for the reaction that produces one mole of a compound in its standard state from its elements, also in their standard states, 547 Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) A standard reference electrode constructed from inert platinum metal, H2 gas, and an acidic solution, with the latter two components at unit activity, 773 Standard molar entropy (Sº) The entropy of one mole of a substance, 590–591 Standard molar Gibbs free energy of formation DGfº The Gibbs free energy of formation of one mole of a substance from the most stable forms of its elements in their standard states at a specified temperature, 595 Standard reduction potentials, 773–776, A.43–A.44 Standard state, 546 Standard-state enthalpies, 546–549 Standard-state entropies, 590–592 Standing wave A wave that vibrates in a fixed region, 161 State function A property of a system that is uniquely determined by the present state of a system and not at all by its history, 523, 574 Stationary state A standing wave that exists indefinitely, 170 Statistical mechanics The branch of science that studies the relation between the structure of molecules and macroscopic observations, 395 Statistical thermodynamics The study of the relation between the statistical properties of a large number of particles and macroscopic observations, 575 Steady state concentration of O3, 999 Steady states, 617 Steady-state approximation The approximation that the concentrations of reactive intermediates remain approximately constant during the course of a reaction, 853–854 Steric factor A factor (less than unity) in the Arrhenius equation that accounts for the fact that reactants must have a particular range of relative orientations in order to react, 864 Steric hindrance Physical blocking of a reactive site by a bulky component, 713 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Index/Glossary Steric number (SN) The number of atoms bonded to a central atom plus the number of lone pairs on the central atom, 116, 118f, 119t Steric strain, 312 Steroids Naturally occurring compounds that derive formally from cholesterol, 339–340 Stoichiometry The study of mass relationships in chemical reactions, 43 Straight-chain alkanes A type of hydrocarbon consisting of chains of carbon atoms bonded to one another by single bonds, with enough hydrogen atoms on each carbon atom to bring it to the maximum bonding capacity of four, 309–311 Strain energy, 311 Stratosphere, 993 Stratospheric chemistry, 998–1003 Strong acid An acid that has a Ka greater than 1, 678–679 Strong base A base that has a Ka greater than 1, 678–679 Strong field configuration Alternate for low-spin configurations, used because they occur at large values of the crystal field, 370 Strong field ligand A ligand that induces a large crystal field splitting in a transition-metal complex, 370 Strong force The force between nucleons that binds them together in the nucleus, 897 Structural clay products, 1077–1078 Sublimation A phase transition in which gas forms directly from a solid, 464 Subshell A group of orbitals in an atom with the same energy, 212 Substance A material that cannot be separated by physical means into two or more materials with different properties, Substitutional alloy An alloy in which some of the metal atoms in a crystal lattice are replaced by other atoms, 1056 Substrate A reactant molecule that is capable of binding to the active site of an enzyme, 872 Sugar Small carbohydrate rings with the empirical formula CH2O, 1120 Superconductor A material offering zero resistance to the passage of an electric current, 1083–1084 Supercooling A process by which materials reach kinetically metastable states at temperatures below their equilibrium melting points, 462 Supercritical fluid Term applied to a substance held at a temperature and pressure that exceed its critical pressure and temperature; at these conditions the distinction between liquid and gas no longer exists, 463 Superheating The phenomenon in which a liquid temporarily attains a temperature exceeding its boiling point without boiling, 462 Superposition, 144 Supersaturated solution A solution that temporarily contains more of a solute than the equilibrium quantity, 735 Supersaturated solutions, 735 Surface tension The resistance of the surface of a liquid to an increase in its area, 448–449 Surroundings The part of the universe that lies outside a system, 521 Symmetry In a molecule or crystal, the set of rotations, reflections, and other changes that, when applied to the I.27 structure, give a structure indistinguishable from the original, 1036 Syndiotactic form Polymer structure in which side groups alternate in regular position between sides along the backbone chain, 1114 Synthesis, Synthesis gas A mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, produced by the reaction of water vapor and a hydrocarbon (or coke) that is used as the starting point in the synthesis of methanol and other chemicals, 326 Synthetic metals, 1116–1117 Synthetic polymers fibers, 1111–1112 nonlinear synthetic polymers, 1109–1110 plastics, 1113–1115 polymerization reactions for, 1106–1110 rubber, 1115–1116 System A real or imagined portion of the universe that is confined by boundaries or mathematical constraints, 521 Tangent line, A.27 Temperature (T or t) The degree of hotness or coldness of an object as measured on some defined scale, 402–405 effects of, on DG, 596–597 effects of changing on equilibrium, 645 entropy and, 584–585 equilibrium constant, dependence of, 648 kinetic theory of gases, 410–413 reaction rates, effect on, 856–859 vapor pressure, dependence of in equilibrium, 649–650 Termination The final stage in a chain reaction, 855 Termolecular An elementary reaction that involves the simultaneous collision of three reactants, 847 Ternary compounds, Tertiary alcohol, 327 Tertiary amine, 334 Tesla (T) The SI unit for magnetic field strength, 967 Tetrahedral complexes, 370–372 Tetrahedral geometries, 362, 363f, 366 Tetrahedral site, 1046 Theoretical probability A prediction of the outcome(s) of an experiment based upon a theoretical model, A.33 Theoretical yield The amount of a product of a reaction predicted from stoichiometry assuming that the reaction proceeds without loss or side-reaction, 50–51 Thermal cracking The breaking down of long-chain hydrocarbon molecules in petroleum through heat, 319 Thermal energy, 520, 527–528 See also Heat (q) Thermal equilibrium A macroscopic condition of a system characterized by the constancy of its pressure and temperature, 417 Thermal expansion, 446 Thermal shock The failure of a ceramic due to large, localized thermal expansion, 1075 Thermochemistry The study of heat effects in chemical reactions, 503 adiabatic processes, 542, 551, 553–556, 576 bond enthalpies, 549–550 isothermal process, 551–553 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.28 Index/Glossary reaction enthalpies, 542–546 reversible processes in ideal gases, 551–556 standard-state enthalpies, 546–549 Thermodynamic efficiency () The ideal efficiency an engine would have if it could be operated in a purely reversible fashion, 581, 600 Thermodynamic equilibrium constant, 619, 625–626 Thermodynamic equilibrium state, 614 Thermodynamic process A process that leads to a change in the thermodynamic state of a system, 522 Thermodynamic properties, A.35–A.42 Thermodynamic state A macroscopic, time-independent condition of a system at thermal and mechanical equilibrium characterized by a well-defined temperature and pressure, 522 Thermodynamic universe The system and the surroundings for a process, 521, 574 Thermodynamics, 519–520 bomb calorimeters, 532 direction of change in chemical reactions, 646–650 enthalpy, 532–533 equilibrium, thermodynamic description of, 623–630 first law of, 529–530 heat and work for ideal gases, 536 heat capacities for ideal gases, 534–536 heat, 527–528, 536 heat capacity, 530–531, 534–536 heat transfer at constant pressure, 532–533 heat transfer at constant volume, 532 internal energy, 526–527 processes, 521–523 second law of, 580–581 states, 521–523 statistical thermodynamics, 576 systems, 521–523, 524f thermochemistry See Thermochemistry third law of, 590–591 work, 524–526, 536 Thermolecular reaction, 847, 922–923 Thermosphere, 993 Third law of thermodynamics The entropy of any pure substance in its equilibrium state approaches zero at the absolute zero of temperature, 590–591 Thompson, J.J., 17–19 Titration A process in which a measured volume of solution of known concentration of one reactant is added to a second solution containing the other reactants; an indicator is added to signal the point at which the reaction is complete, 482–483 of polyprotic acids, 718–719 redox titration, 490–491 strong acid with strong base, 699–701 weak acid with strong base, 701–703 Titration curve A plot of the pH of a solution as a function of the amount of acid or base added to a base or acid, 699 Total energy, 78f Transferases, 872 Transistor Solid state amplifiers in which the current that pass through the device is controlled by a voltage, much like the flow through a faucet is controlled by the position of the valve, 1095 Transition state The location of the highest energy configuration of a reacting system on a potential energy diagram, 858 Transition state theory, 864–865 Transition-metal element An element in the 10 middle groups of the third, fourth, and fifth periods of the periodic table, 70, 71f, 348, 385–386 coordination chemistry See Coordination chemistry/ complexes crystal field theory See Crystal field theory optical properties, 374–376 oxidation states of, 351–352 physical properties of, 348–352 spectrochemical series, 374–376 Transitions between energy states, 149–151, 150f Transuranic element Man-made elements with atomic numbers greater than that of uranium, 923 Traveling wave A wave that propagates through space, 161 Triatomic nonhydrides, 286 linear, 287–288 nonlinear, 288–289 Triglyceride An ester formed from glycerol by reacting all three of its hydroxy groups with fatty acids, 331 Triple bond Three pairs of electrons shared between two atoms, 108 Triple point The condition of temperature and pressure in which three phases of a substance coexist in equilibrium, 463 Triplet state An atomic or molecular quantum state that contains two electrons with parallel spins, a total spin of and a degeneracy g 5 3, 983 Troposphere, 993 Tropospheric chemistry, 994–998 Trouton’s rule, 584 Tunneling current, 27 Turning point, 76 Turnover number kcat The number of substrate molecules that react per enzyme molecule per second, 874 Unbound motion, 77, 78f Uncertainty principle, 167 Unimolecular reaction An elementary reaction in which a single reactant molecule decomposes, 847 Unit cell The repeating motif or building unit from which a crystal could be constructed by simple stacking operations, 1038–1039 Unit conversions, A.9–A.11 Units, A.9 Unsaturated hydrocarbon A compound of hydrogen and carbon that contains double or triple carbon–carbon bonds, 314–315 Unsaturated solution, 734 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Index/Glossary Upfield Protons in compounds with resonances shifted to stronger magnetic fields than other compounds, towards tetramethylsilane (TMS), the standard NMR reference compound, 970 Uranium enrichment, 428–429 Vacancy, 1054 Valence Refers to the outermost electrons in an atom, 64 Valence band (VB) A band of occupied electron energy states responsible for bonding in a semiconductor, 795, 1091 Valence bond A method for describing bonding in molecules that focuses on the central role of the two-electron, twocenter bond, a local picture, 1091–1092 and LCAO methods, 286–293 Valence bond (VB) theory Bonding theory in which electrons are viewed as localized either between particular pairs of atoms or as lone pairs on atoms, 236, 268 coordination complex bonding, 376–383 linear combination of atomic orbitals method compared, 286–293 orbital hybridization, 273–280 single bonds, 268–271 wave function for electron-pair bonds multiple bonds, 271 polyatomic molecules, 271–273 Valence electron An electron (in the valence shell of an atom) that can take part in chemical bonding, 64, 84–85 Valence shell The outermost unfilled shell of electrons surrounding the nucleus of an atom, 84–85 Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory, 64, 115–120, 281 Valence shell expansion The participation of more than eight electrons in the bonding of a molecule or molecule-ion, 113–114 van der Waals equation of state An equation of state used to express the physical behavior of a real gas: (P 1 an2/V2)(V nb) 5 nRT, 418–420 van der Waals forces, 452 van der Waals radius The effective size of an atom or molecule; equal to the maximum distance at which nonbonded interaction with other atoms or molecules causes repulsion, 453 van’t Hoff equation An equation relating the temperature dependence of the equilibrium constant to the enthalpy change in the reaction; (K2/K1) (DH°/R) [(1/T1) (1/T2)], 648–649 Vapor pressure (Pvap) The pressure of the vapor coexisting with a confined liquid or solid at any specified temperature, 459–460, 649–650 Vapor-pressure lowering The vapor pressure of a solvent decreases when a nonvolatile solute is added, 492 Variational principle A principle in quantum mechanics that states that the energy of a molecule calculated using an approximate wavefunction will always be higher than the true energy, 291 Velocity A vector that specifies both the speed and direction of motion, 410 average velocity, A.12 Vibrational energy distribution, 557–558 I.29 Vibrational fine structure Peaks appearing in electronic absorption, emission, or photoelectron spectroscopy that are attributable to the excitation of vibrational transitions, 980 Vibrational spectroscopy diatomic molecules, 955–962 polyatomic molecules, 962–966 Vibronic bands Transitions that correspond to simultaneous electronic and vibrational transitions between quantum states, 988 Virial theorem States that the average kinetic and the average potential energy of a system of particles interacting only through electrostatic forces are related as follows: = V , 93–94 Visible light, 1096 Volatile solutes, phase equilibrium in, 500 Voltmeter An instrument used to measure electrical potential differences, 767 Volume effects of changing on equilibrium, 644–645 equivalent volume, 700 heat transfer at constant volume, 532 law of combining volumes, 14 Volumetric flask A flask that contains an accurately known volume of liquid when filled exactly to a calibration mark at a specified temperature, 476 VSEPR theory, 64, 115–120, 281 Vulcanization The process of treating crude or synthetic rubber or similar plastic material chemically to give it useful properties, 1115 Water autoionization of, 677–678 electrolysis of, 816–818 special properties of, 457–458 structure of, 118f Water gas shift reaction The reaction between carbon monoxide and water that is the dominant method for the commercial production of hydrogen gas, 619 Wave function () A function that describes the properties of a particle; its square (2) is proportional to the probability of finding the particle at a particular point in space, 168 electronic wave function, 242 for electron-pair bonds multiple bonds, 271 polyatomic molecules, 271–273 single bonds, 268–271 for H12 orbitals, 294–295, 296f–297f hydrogen atom, 197–198 nuclear wave function, 242 for particles in cubic boxes, 180–182 for particles in square boxes, 178–180 in Schrödinger equation, 170–171 Wave motion, 141–144 Wavelength () The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs in a wave, 141 Wave-particle duality The result that light and small particles such as electrons behave as waves in some experiments and as particles in others, 157 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it I.30 Index/Glossary de Broglie waves, 161–162 electron diffraction, 162–165 Heisenberg indeterminacy principle, 165–167 indeterminacy and uncertainty, 165–167 photoelectric effect, 157–161 Weak acid An acid that has a Ka smaller than 1, 681, 689–692 Weak base A base that has a Kb smaller than 1, 687, 689, 691–692 Weak electrolyte An electrolyte that dissociates only to a negligible extent in solution, 681 Weak field configurations High-spin configurations that result from small crystal field splittings, 370 Weak field ligand A ligand that induces only a small crystal field splitting in a transition-metal complex, 370 Work function The energy required to ionize an electron from a bulk solid, analogous to the ionization energy for gas-phase atoms and molecules, 160 Work (w) The product of the external force F acting on a body and its displacement d; when work is done on a system, the system’s energy increases; when work is done by a system, the system’s energy decreases, 524–526, 536 Writing balanced chemical equations, 43–45 X-ray scattering by crystals, 1039–1042 Zeolite An aluminosilicate having significant amounts of open space in its interior structure, 1074–1075 Zero-point energy The quantized energy associated with zeropoint motion; En 5 (1/2)hn, 175, 237 Zero-point motion Nuclear motion that occurs even at absolute zero (0 K), 957 Zeroth order reaction A reaction that has a total order of 0; that is, one that proceeds at a rate that is independent of the concentrations of the species present in the reaction mixture, 840 Zinc blende structure of ionic crystals, 1048 Zinc-mercuric oxide cell A primary cell using the reaction Zn(s) 1 HgO(s) 1 H2O() → Zn(OH)2(s) 1 Hg() to generate a voltage, 802 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Locations of Some Important Tables of Data Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression Constants Bond Enthalpies Formation Constants of Coordination Complexes in Aqueous Solution Ionization Constants Ka of Acids at 25°C Nuclide Masses Physical Properties of the Elements Radioisotope Decay Modes and Rates Reduction Potentials at 25°C Solubility Product Constants Ksp at 25°C Thermodynamic Properties Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures Wave Functions for One-Electron Atoms page 494 page 550 page 747 page 682 page 895 page A.45 page 909 page A.43 page 738 page A.35 page 460 page 199 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Physical Constants Avogadro’s number Bohr radius Boltzmann’s constant Electron charge Faraday constant Masses of fundamental particles: Electron Proton Neutron Permittivity of vacuum Planck’s constant Ratio of proton mass to electron mass Speed of light in a vacuum Standard acceleration of terrestrial gravity Universal gas constant NA 6.02214179 1023 mol21 a0 0.52917720859 Å 5 2917720859 10211 m kB 1.3806504 10223 J K21 e 1.602176487 10219 C F 96,485.3399 C mol21 me 9.10938215 10231 kg mp 1.672621637 10227 kg mn 1.674927211 10227 kg e0 8.854187817 10212 C22 J21 m21 h 6.62606896 10234 J s mp/me 1836.15267247 c 2.99792458 108 m s21 (exactly) g 9.80665 m s22 (exactly) R 8.314472 J mol21 K21 R 0.0820574 L atm mol21 K21 Values are taken from the 2006 CODATA recommended values, as listed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology Conversion Factors Ångström Atomic mass unit Calorie Electron volt Foot Gallon (U.S.) Liter Liter-atmosphere Metric ton Pound Rydberg Standard atmosphere Torr Å 10210 m u 1.660538782 10227 kg u 1.492417830 10210 J 931.494028 MeV (energy equivalent from E mc2) cal 4.184 J (exactly) eV 1.602177 10219 J eV 96.485335 kJ mol ft 12 in 0.3048 m (exactly) gallon quarts 3.785412 L (exactly) L 1023 m23 103 cm3 (exactly) L atm 101.325 J (exactly) t 1000 kg (exactly) lb 16 oz 0.4539237 kg (exactly) Ry 2.17987197 10218 J Ry 1312.7136 kJ mol Ry 13.60569193 eV atm 1.01325 105 Pa atm 1.01325 105 kg m21 s22 (exactly) torr 133.3224 Pa Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it ... intrinsic, inherent characteristics of that material and cannot be extracted from it The history of the alchemists shows the origin of a certain duality in the nature of modern chemistry, which persists... approach that was followed in the first three editions Alternatively, they could cover Chapter between Chapter and Chapter 9, as was done in the fourth and fifth editions This approach has the advantage... substantial sampling of applications of the principles of chemistry Chapter Summary Immediately at the end of each chapter is a summary that ties together the main themes of the chapter in a retrospective