Preview Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge, Michelle Driessen (2020)

Preview Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge, Michelle Driessen (2020) Preview Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge, Michelle Driessen (2020) Preview Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge, Michelle Driessen (2020) Preview Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge, Michelle Driessen (2020) Preview Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge, Michelle Driessen (2020)

This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S Julia Burdge Michelle Driessen Introductory Chemistry AN ATOMS FIRST APPROACH Second Edition Fundamental Constants Avogadro’s number (NA) 6.0221418 × 1023 Electron charge (e) 1.6022 × 10−19 C Electron mass Faraday constant (F) Gas constant (R) 9.109387 × 10−28 g 96,485.3 C/mol e− 0.0821 L ⋅ atm/K ⋅ mol 8.314 J/K ⋅ mol 62.36 L ⋅ torr/K ⋅ mol 1.987 cal/K ⋅ mol Planck’s constant (h) 6.6256 × 10−34 J ⋅ s Proton mass 1.672623 × 10−24 g Neutron mass 1.674928 × 10−24 g Speed of light in a vacuum 2.99792458 × 108 m/s Some Prefixes Used with SI Units tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10−2 giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10−3 mega (M) 106 micro ( µ) 10−6 kilo (k) 103 nano (n) 10−9 deci (d) 10−1 pico (p) 10−12 Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships lb = 453.6 g in = 2.54 cm (exactly) mi = 1.609 km km = 0.6215 mi pm = × 10−12 m = × 10−10 cm atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101,325 N/m2 = 101,325 Pa cal = 4.184 J (exactly) L ⋅ atm = 101.325 J 1J=1C×1V ?°C = (°F − 32°F) × ?°F = 5°C 9°F 9°F × (°C) + 32°F 5°C 1K ?K = (°C + 273.15°C) ( 1°C ) Na Mg K Rb Cs Fr Lanthanum 138.9 89 La Yttrium 88.91 57 Y Scandium 44.96 39 Radium (226) Metalloids Rf Cr Mn 25 7B Tc Actinides Ru Iron 55.85 44 Fe 26 Ta Db Tantalum 180.9 105 W Sg Tungsten 183.8 106 Re Bh Rhenium 186.2 107 58 Thorium 232.0 Th Cerium 140.1 90 Ce 61 Mt Pa Protactinium 231.0 U Uranium 238.0 62 Rg Gold 197.0 111 Au Silver 107.9 79 Ag Copper 63.55 47 29 Cu 64 Gd Cn Mercury 200.6 112 Hg Cadmium 112.4 80 Cd Zinc 65.41 48 30 Zn 2B 12 Terbium 158.9 97 65 Tb Curium (247) Ge Silicon 28.09 32 Si Carbon 12.01 14 As Phosphorus 30.97 33 P Nitrogen 14.01 15 Nh Thallium 204.4 113 Tl Indium 114.8 81 In Fl Lead 207.2 114 Pb Tin 118.7 82 Sn Mc Bismuth 209.0 115 Bi Antimony 121.8 83 Sb Gallium Germanium Arsenic 69.72 72.64 74.92 49 50 51 Ga Aluminum 26.98 31 Al Boron 10.81 13 N 5A 15 Lv Polonium (209) 116 Po Tellurium 127.6 84 Te Selenium 78.96 52 Se Sulfur 32.07 34 S Oxygen 16.00 16 O 6A 16 Ts Astatine (210) 117 At Iodine 126.9 85 I Bromine 79.90 53 Br Chlorine 35.45 35 Cl Fluorine 19.00 17 F 7A 17 67 Ho Cf Es Dysprosium Holmium 162.5 164.9 98 99 66 Dy Thulium 168.9 101 69 Ytterbium 173.0 102 70 Tm Yb Fm Md No Erbium 167.3 100 68 Er Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) Pu Am Cm Bk Europium Gadolinium 152.0 157.3 95 96 63 Eu Neptunium Plutonium Americium (237) (244) (243) Np Ds Platinum 195.1 110 Pt Palladium 106.4 78 Pd Nickel 58.69 46 28 Ni 10 1B 11 C B 4A 14 3A 13 Main group Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine (293) (293) (280) (285) (286) (289) (289) (276) (281) Nd Pm Sm 60 Hs Hassium (270) Ir Iridium 192.2 109 Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 91 92 93 94 59 Pr Os Osmium 190.2 108 Rhodium 102.9 77 Rh Cobalt 58.93 45 Co 27 8B Average atomic mass Symbol Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium (98) 101.1 92.91 95.94 74 73 76 75 Nb Mo Vanadium Chromium Manganese 54.94 50.94 52.00 41 42 43 V 24 6B An element Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium (267) (272) (268) (271) Lanthanides Actinium (227) Hafnium 178.5 104 Hf Zirconium 91.22 72 Zr Titanium 47.87 40 Ti 23 22 21 Sc 5B 4B C Carbon 12.01 Transition metals Name Atomic number Key Periodic Table of the Elements 3B Ra Ac Barium 137.3 88 Ba Strontium 87.62 56 Sr Calcium 40.08 38 Ca Magnesium 24.31 20 Nonmetals Metals Francium (223) Cesium 132.9 87 Rubidium 85.47 55 Potassium 39.10 37 Sodium 22.99 19 Beryllium 9.012 12 Lithium 6.941 11 Be 2A Group number Hydrogen 1.008 H 1A Li Period number Main group Lawrencium (262) Lr Lutetium 175.0 103 71 Lu Oganesson (294) Og Radon (222) 118 Rn Xenon 131.3 86 Xe Krypton 83.80 54 Kr Argon 39.95 36 Ar Neon 20.18 18 Ne Helium 4.003 10 He 8A 18 7 List of the Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses* Element Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copernicium Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Flerovium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Livermorium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass† Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cn Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm Fl F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lv Lu Mg Mn Mt 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 112 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 114 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 116 71 12 25 109 (227) 26.9815386 (243) 121.760 39.948 74.92160 (210) 137.327 (247) 9.012182 208.98040 (272) 10.811 79.904 112.411 40.078 (251) 12.0107 140.116 132.9054519 35.453 51.9961 58.933195 (285) 63.546 (247) (281) (268) 162.500 (252) 167.259 151.964 (257) (289) 18.9984032 (223) 157.25 69.723 72.64 196.966569 178.49 (270) 4.002602 164.93032 1.00794 114.818 126.90447 192.217 55.845 83.798 138.90547 (262) 207.2 6.941 (293) 174.967 24.3050 54.938045 (276) Element Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Moscovium Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Nihonium Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Oganesson Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Tennessine Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Symbol Atomic Number Md Hg Mo Mc Nd Ne Np Ni Nh Nb N No Og Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Ts Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 101 80 42 115 60 10 93 28 113 41 102 118 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 117 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 Atomic Mass† (258) 200.59 95.94 (289) 144.242 20.1797 (237) 58.6934 (286) 92.90638 14.0067 (259) (294) 190.23 15.9994 106.42 30.973762 195.084 (244) (209) 39.0983 140.90765 (145) 231.03588 (226) (222) 186.207 102.90550 (280) 85.4678 101.07 (267) 150.36 44.955912 (271) 78.96 28.0855 107.8682 22.98976928 87.62 32.065 180.94788 (98) 127.60 (293) 158.92535 204.3833 232.03806 168.93421 118.710 47.867 183.84 238.02891 50.9415 131.293 173.04 88.90585 65.409 91.224 *These atomic masses show as many significant figures as are known for each element The atomic masses in the periodic table are shown to four significant figures, which is sufficient for solving the problems in this book †Approximate values of atomic masses for radioactive elements are given in parentheses Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach SECOND EDITION Julia Burdge COLLEGE OF WESTERN IDAHO Michelle Driessen UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY Published by McGraw-Hill Education, Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States This book is printed on acid-free paper LWI 21 20 19 ISBN 978-1-260-56586-7 MHID 1-260-56586-6 Cover Image: ©ketkarn sakultap/Getty Images All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page Design Icon Credits: Animation icon: ©McGraw-Hill Education; Hot Spot Icon: ©LovArt/Shutterstock.com The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites mheducation.com/highered To the people who will always matter the most: Katie, Beau, and Sam —Julia Burdge To my family, the center of my universe and happiness, with special thanks to my husband for his support and making me the person I am today —Michelle Driessen And in memory of Raymond Chang He was a brilliant educator, a prolific writer, an extraordinary mentor, and a dear friend —Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen About the Authors Julia Burdge holds a Ph.D (1994) from The University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho; and a Master’s Degree from The University of South Florida Her research interests have included synthesis and characterization of cisplatin analogues, and development of new analytical techniques and instrumentation for measuring ultra-trace levels of atmospheric sulfur compounds ©David Spurgeon She currently holds an adjunct faculty position at The College of Western Idaho in Nampa, Idaho, where she teaches general chemistry using an atoms first approach; but spent the lion’s share of her academic career at The University of Akron in Akron, Ohio, as director of the Introductory Chemistry program In addition to directing the general chemistry program and supervising the teaching activities of graduate students, Julia established a future-faculty development program and served as a mentor for graduate students and postdoctoral associates Julia relocated back to the Northwest to be near family In her free time, she enjoys precious time with her three children, and with Erik Nelson, her husband and best friend Michelle Driessen earned a Ph.D in 1997 from the University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa Her research and dissertation focused on the thermal and photochemical reactions of small molecules at the surfaces of metal nanoparticles and high surface area oxides Following graduation, she held a tenure-track teaching and research position Courtesy of Michelle Driessen at Southwest Missouri State University for several years A family move took her back to her home state of Minnesota where she held positions as adjunct faculty at both St Cloud State University and the University of Minnesota It was during these adjunct appointments that she became very interested in chemical education Over the past several years she has transitioned the general chemistry laboratories at the University of Minnesota from verification to problem-based, and has developed both online and hybrid sections of general chemistry lecture courses She is currently the Director of General Chemistry at the University of Minnesota where she runs the general chemistry laboratories, trains and supervises teaching assistants, and continues to experiment with active learning methods in her classroom Michelle and her husband love the outdoors and their rural roots They take every opportunity to visit their family, farm, and horses in rural Minnesota viii Brief Contents 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Atoms and Elements  Electrons and the Periodic Table  30 Compounds and Chemical Bonds  74 How Chemists Use Numbers  122 The Mole and Chemical Formulas  164 Molecular Shape  196 Solids, Liquids, and Phase Changes  238 Gases  272 Physical Properties of Solutions  312 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations  348 Using Balanced Chemical Equations  386 Acids and Bases  420 Equilibrium  458 Organic Chemistry  484 Biochemistry  510 Nuclear Chemistry  526 Electrochemistry  542 Appendix  Mathematical Operations  A-1 Glossary  G-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems  AP-1 Index  I-1 COMPOUNDS AND CHEMICAL BONDS  74 3.1 Matter: Classification and Properties  75 • States of Matter  75 • Mixtures  76 • Properties of Matter  78 3.2 Ionic Bonding and Binary Ionic Compounds  81 3.3 Naming Ions and Binary Ionic Compounds  85 • Naming Atomic Cations  86 • Naming Atomic Anions  87 • Naming Binary Ionic Compounds  87 3.4 Covalent Bonding and Molecules  89 • Covalent Bonding  90 • Molecules  90 • Molecular Formulas  93 ■  Fixed Nitrogen in Fertilizers  96 ©Shutterstock/EpicStockMedia 3.5 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds  97 3.6 Covalent Bonding in Ionic Species: Polyatomic Ions  99 ■  Product Labels  100 ■  Product Labels  101 ■  Hydrates  104 3.7 Acids  105 3.8 Substances in Review  107 Visualizing Chemistry – Properties of Atoms  108 • Distinguishing Elements and Compounds  110 • Determining Whether a Compound Is Ionic or Molecular  111 • Naming Compounds  111 HOW CHEMISTS USE NUMBERS  122 4.1 Units of Measurement  123 • Base Units  123 • Mass, Length, and Time  124 • Metric Multipliers  124 ■  Henrietta Swan Leavitt  125 • Temperature  128 ■  The Fahrenheit Temperature Scale  129 4.2 Scientific Notation  132 • Very Large Numbers  133 • Very Small Numbers  134 • Using the Scientific Notation Function on Your Calculator  135 4.3 Significant Figures  137 • Exact Numbers  137 • Measured Numbers  137 ■  Arthur Rosenfeld  141 • Calculations with Measured Numbers  142 4.4 Unit Conversion  146 • Conversion Factors  146 ■  The Importance of Units  148 • Derived Units  149 ■  The International Unit  151 • Dimensional Analysis  152 4.5 Success in Introductory Chemistry Class  154 ©David Clapp/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS  164 5.1 Counting Atoms by Weighing  165 • The Mole (The “Chemist’s Dozen”)  165 • Molar Mass  167 • Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Atoms  169 5.2 Counting Molecules by Weighing  171 • Calculating the Molar Mass of a Compound  171 • Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Molecules (or Formula Units)  173 • Combining Multiple Conversions in a Single Calculation  175 ■  Redefining the Kilogram  177 ■  Derek Muller  178 5.3 Mass Percent Composition  178 ©epa european pressphoto agency b.v./Alamy ■  Iodized Salt  180 5.4 Using Mass Percent Composition to Determine Empirical Formula  181 ■  Fertilizer & Mass Percents  183 5.5 Using Empirical Formula and Molar Mass to Determine Molecular Formula  184 xii MOLECULAR SHAPE  196 6.1 Drawing Simple Lewis Structures  197 • Lewis Structures of Simple Molecules  197 • Lewis Structures of Molecules with a Central Atom  199 • Lewis Structures of Simple Polyatomic Ions  199 6.2 Lewis Structures Continued  202 • Lewis Structures with Less Obvious Skeletal Structures  202 • Lewis Structures with Multiple Bonds  203 • Exceptions to the Octet Rule  204 ■  Bleaching, Disinfecting, and Decontamination  204 6.3 Resonance Structures  205 6.4 Molecular Shape  207 ©Robin Treadwell/Science Source ■  Flavor, Molecular Shape, and Bond-Line Structures  208 • Bond Angles  212 ■  Molecular Shapes Resulting from Expanded Octets  213 6.5 Electronegativity and Polarity  215 • Electronegativity  215 • Bond Polarity  217 • Molecular Polarity  219 ■  How Bond Dipoles Sum to Determine Molecular Polarity  221 6.6 Intermolecular Forces  222 • Dipole-Dipole Forces  222 • Hydrogen Bonding  223 • Dispersion Forces  225 ■  Linus Pauling  227 • Intermolecular Forces in Review  228 SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND PHASE CHANGES  238 7.1 General Properties of the Condensed Phases  239 7.2 Types of Solids  240 • Ionic Solids  240 • Molecular Solids  240 • Atomic Solids  242 • Network Solids  243 ■  A Network Solid as Hard as Diamond  244 7.3 Physical Properties of Solids  247 • Vapor Pressure  247 • Melting Point  248 ©Larry Keller, Lititz Pa./Getty Images 7.4 Physical Properties of Liquids  251 • Viscosity  251 • Surface Tension  251 ■  Surface Tension and the Shape of Water Drops  252 • Vapor Pressure  253 • Boiling Point  254 ■  High Altitude and High-Pressure Cooking  256 7.5 Energy and Physical Changes  257 • Temperature Changes  257 • Solid-Liquid Phase Changes: Melting and Freezing  259 • Liquid-Gas Phase Changes: Vaporization and Condensation  260 • Solid-Gas Phase Changes: Sublimation  261 GASES  272 8.1 Properties of Gases  273 • Gaseous Substances  274 • Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases  275 8.2 Pressure  276 • Definition and Units of Pressure  276 • Measurement of Pressure  279 ■  Fritz Haber  280 8.3 The Gas Equations  281 • The Ideal Gas Equation  281 ■  Pressure Exerted by a Column of Fluid 285 âEric Delmar/Getty Images ã The Combined Gas Equation  285 • The Molar Mass Gas Equation  286 8.4 The Gas Laws  289 • Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship  289 • Charles’s Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship  291 ■  Automobile Air Bags and Charles’s Law  294 • Avogadro’s Law: The Moles-Volume Relationship  294 ■  Amanda Jones  295 8.5 Gas Mixtures  297 • Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures  297 • Mole Fractions  299 ■  Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy  300 xiv PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS  312 9.1 General Properties of Solutions  313 ■  Honey – A Supersaturated Solution  314 ■  Instant Hot Packs  315 9.2 Aqueous Solubility  315 9.3 Solution Concentration  316 • Percent by Mass  316 ■  Trace Concentrations  317 • Molarity 319 ã Molality 321 âMcGraw-Hill Education/Brian Rayburn, photographer ã Comparison of Concentration Units  321 9.4 Solution Composition  324 ■  Robert Cade, M.D.  326 9.5 Solution Preparation  328 • Preparation of a Solution from a Solid  328 • Preparation of a More Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution  329 Visualizing Chemistry – Preparing a Solution from a Solid  330 Serial Dilution  332 9.6 Colligative Properties  334 • Freezing-Point Depression  334 • Boiling-Point Elevation  335 ■  Ice Melters  336 • Osmotic Pressure  337 ■  10 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS  348 10.1 Recognizing Chemical Reactions  349 10.2 Representing Chemical Reactions with Chemical Equations  352 • Metals  353 • Nonmetals  353 • Noble Gases  353 • Metalloids  353 10.3 Balancing Chemical Equations  354 ■  The Stoichiometry of Metabolism  358 10.4 Types of Chemical Reactions  359 • Precipitation Reactions  359 • Acid-Base Reactions  364 ■  Oxygen Generators  365 • Oxidation-Reduction Reactions  367 ■  Antoine Lavoisier  372 ■  Dental Pain and Redox  374 10.5 Chemical Reactions and Energy  376 10.6 Chemical Reactions in Review  376 ©Lindsay Upson/Getty Images 11 USING BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS  386 11.1 Mole to Mole Conversions  387 11.2 Mass to Mass Conversions  389 11.3 Limitations on Reaction Yield  391 • Limiting Reactant  392 • Percent Yield  395 ■  Combustion Analysis  397 ■  Alka-Seltzer  398 11.4 Aqueous Reactions  400 11.5 Gases in Chemical Reactions  405 • Predicting the Volume of a Gaseous Product  405 • Calculating the Required Volume of a Gaseous Reactant  406 ■  Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac  408 11.6 Chemical Reactions and Heat  409 ©Michael Donne/Science Source 12 ACIDS AND BASES  420 12.1 Properties of Acids and Bases  421 ■  James Lind  422 12.2 Definitions of Acids and Bases  423 • Arrhenius Acids and Bases  423 • Brønsted Acids and Bases  423 • Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs  424 12.3 Water as an Acid; Water as a Base  426 12.4 Strong Acids and Bases  428 12.5 pH and pOH Scales  431 ©Aflo Co., Ltd./Alamy ■  Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach  438 ■  Lake Natron  439 12.6 Weak Acids and Bases  440 12.7 Acid-Base Titrations  444 ■  Using Millimoles to Simplify Titration Calculations  446 12.8 Buffers  447 xvi 13 EQUILIBRIUM  458 13.1 Reaction Rates  459 Visualizing Chemistry – Collision Theory  462 13.2 Chemical Equilibrium  464 ■  How Do We Know That the Forward and Reverse Processes Are Ongoing in a System at Equilibrium?  466 13.3 Equilibrium Constants  466 ■  Sweet Tea  467 • Calculating Equilibrium Constants  467 • Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant  470 13.4 Factors That Affect Equilibrium  471 ■  Hemoglobin Production at High Altitude  471 • Addition or Removal of a Substance  472 • Changes in Volume  474 • Changes in Temperature  475 ©Eric Audras/Getty Images 14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY  484 14.1 Why Carbon Is Different  485 14.2 Hydrocarbons  486 • Alkanes  487 • Alkenes and Alkynes  487 • Reactions of Hydrocarbons  489 14.3 Isomers  490 ■  Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils  491 ■  Representing Organic Molecules with Bond-Line Structures  493 14.4 Functional Groups  494 14.5 Alcohols and Ethers  495 14.6 Aldehydes and Ketones  497 ■  Percy Lavon Julian  498 14.7 Carboxylic Acids and Esters  499 14.8 Amines and Amides  500 14.9 Polymers  502 ©Andre Geim & Kostya Novoselov/Science Source 15 BIOCHEMISTRY  510 15.1 Biologically Important Molecules  511 • Glycerol  511 • Fatty Acids  511 • Amino Acids  511 ■  Marie Maynard Daly  512 • Sugars  513 • Phosphates  513 • Organic Bases  513 15.2 Lipids  514 • Fats  514 • Phospholipids 515 ã Steroids 516 15.3 Proteins 516 âhlansdown/Getty Images • Primary Structure  519 • Secondary Structure  519 • Tertiary Structure  519 • Quaternary Structure  520 15.4 Carbohydrates  520 • Monosaccharides  520 • Disaccharides  520 • Polysaccharides  521 15.5 Nucleic Acids  522 16 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY  526 16.1 Radioactive Decay  527 16.2 Detection of Radiation and Its Biological Effects  530 ■  Radioactivity in Tobacco  532 16.3 Dating Using Radioactive Decay  532 16.4 Medical Applications of Radioactivity  534 ■  How Nuclear Chemistry Is Used to Treat Cancer  535 16.5 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion  535 Visualizing Chemistry – Nuclear Fission and Fusion  536 ■  Lise Meitner  538 ©Andrey Gorulko/iStock/Getty Images xviii 17 ELECTROCHEMISTRY  542 17.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Using the Half-Reaction Method  543 17.2 Batteries  547 Visualizing Chemistry – Construction of a Galvanic Cell  548 • Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries  551 • Lead Storage Batteries  552 • Lithium-Ion Batteries  553 • Fuel Cells  553 17.3 Corrosion  554 17.4 Electrolysis  556 • Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride  556 • Electrolysis of Water  556 Appendix: Mathematical Operations  A-1 Glossary  G-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems  AP-1 Index  I-1 ©TEK IMAGE/Getty Images Preface Introductory Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen has been developed and written using an atoms first approach specific to introductory chemistry It is a carefully crafted text, designed and written with the introductorychemistry student in mind The arrangement of topics facilitates the conceptual development of chemistry for the novice, rather than the historical development that has been used traditionally Its language and style are student friendly and conversational; and the importance and wonder of chemistry in everyday life are emphasized at every opportunity Continuing in the Burdge tradition, this text employs an outstanding art program, a consistent problemsolving approach, interesting applications woven throughout the chapters, and a wide range of end-of-chapter problems Features ∙ Logical atoms first approach, building first an understanding of atomic structure, followed by a logical progression of atomic properties, periodic trends, and how compounds arise as a consequence of atomic properties Following that, physical and chemical properties of compounds and chemical reactions are covered—built upon a solid foundation of how all such properties and processes are the consequence of the nature and behavior of atoms ∙ Engaging real-life examples and applications Each chapter contains relevant, interesting stories in Familiar Chemistry segments that illustrate the importance of chemistry to other fields of study, and how the current material applies to everyday life Many chapters also contain brief historical profiles of a diverse group of important people in chemistry and other fields of scientific endeavor ∙ Consistent problem-solving skill development Fostering a consistent approach to problem solving helps students learn how to approach, analyze, and solve problems 282 CHAPTER Gases Each worked example (Sample Problem) is divided into logical steps: Strategy, Setup, Solution, and SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.2 Using the Ideal Gas Equation to Calculate Volume Think About It; and each is followed by three pracCalculate the volume of a mole of ideal gas at room temperature (25°C) and 1.00 atm tice problems Practice Problem A allows the stuStrategy Convert the temperature in °C to temperature in kelvins, and use the ideal gas equation to solve for the unknown volume dent to solve a problem similar to the Sample Setup The data given are n = 1.00 mol, T = 298 K, and P = 1.00 atm Because the pressure is expressed in atmospheres, we use R = 0.0821 L · atm/K · mol to solve for volume in liters Problem, using the same strategy and steps WherSolution L · atm (1 mol) (0.0821 (298 K) ever possible, Practice Problem B probes underK · mol ) V= = 24.5 L atm standing of the same concept(s) as the Sample Problem and Practice Problem A, but is sufficiently THI N K AB O UT I T With the pressure held constant, we should expect the volume to increase with increased temperature Room temperature different that it requires a slightly different apis higher than the standard temperature for gases (0°C), so the molar volume at room temperature (25°C) should be higher than the molar volume at 0°C—and it is proach Practice Problem C often uses concept art or molecular models, and probes comprehension of Practice Problem A TTEMPT What is the volume of 5.12 mol of an ideal gas at 32°C and 1.00 atm? Practice Problem B UILD At what temperature (in °C) would mole of ideal gas occupy 50.0 L (P = 1.00 atm)? underlying concepts The consistent use of this apPractice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE The diagram on the left represents a sample of gas in a container with a movable proach gives students the best chance for developpiston Which of the other diagrams [(i)–(iv)] best represents the sample (a) after the absolute temperature has been doubled; (b) after the volume has been decreased by half; and (c) after the external pressure has been doubled? (In each case, assume that the only variable that has changed is the one specified.) ing a robust set of problem-solving skills ∙ Outstanding pedagogy for student learning The Checkpoints and Student Notes throughout each chapter are designed to foster frequent self-­ assessment and to provide timely information regarding common pitfalls, reminders of important (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) information, and alternative approaches Rewind and Fast Forward links help to illustrate and reinforce Student Note: It is a very common mistake to fail to convert to absolute temperature when solving a gas problem Most often, temperatures are given in degrees Celsius The ideal gas equation only works when the temperature used is in kelvins Remember: K = °C + 273 xx SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.3 Using the Ideal Gas Equation to Calculate Pressure Calculate the pressure of 1.44 mol of an ideal gas in a 5.00­L container at 36°C Strategy Rearrange the ideal gas law (Equation 8.1) to isolate pressure, P Convert the temperature into kelvins, 36 + 273 = 309 K xxi Preface connections between material in different chapters, and enable students to find pertinent review material easily, when necessary ∙ Key Skills pages are reviews of specific skills that the authors know will be important to students’ understanding of later chapters These go beyond simple reviews and actually preview the importance of the skills in later chapters They are additional opportunities for self-assessment and are meant to be revisited when the specific skills are required later in the book KEY SKILLS Molecular Shape and Polarity Having determined molecular shape, we determine overall molecular polarity of each molecule by examining the individual bond dipoles and their arrangement: O Molecular polarity is tremendously important in determining the physical and chemical properties of a substance Indeed, molecular polarity is one of the most important consequences of molecular shape To determine the shape of a molecule, we use a stepwise procedure: Draw a correct Lewis structure [ Sections 6.1 and 6.2] Count electron groups on the central atom Remember that an electron group can be a lone pair or a bond, and that a bond may be a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond Apply the VSEPR model [ Section 6.4] to determine electron-group geometry Consider the positions of the atoms to determine the molecular shape, which may or may not be the same as the electron-group geometry Determine whether or not the individual bonds are polar S Cl O S and O have electronegativity values of 2.5 and 3.5, respectively Therefore, the bonds are polar Consider the examples of SO2, C2H2, and CH2Cl2 We determine the molecular shape of each as follows: Draw the Lewis structure Count the electron groups on the central atom(s) Apply VSEPR to determine electrongroup geometry C and H have electronegativity values of 2.5 and 2.1, respectively Therefore, the bonds are considered nonpolar H C H Cl The C H bonds are nonpolar C and Cl have electronegativity values of 2.5 and 3.0, respectively Therefore, the C Cl bonds are polar Cl O S O H C Cl H C C H Only in C2H2 the dipole-moment vectors cancel each other C2H2 is nonpolar, SO2 and CH2Cl2 are polar H electron groups: electron groups on each central atom: ∙ single bond ∙ triple bond electron groups: electron groups arrange themselves in a trigonal plane electron groups arrange themselves linearly electron groups arrange themselves in a tetrahedron S H C C H ∙ double bond ∙ single bond ∙ lone pair O Consider positions of atoms to determine molecular shape H C C H Even with polar bonds, a molecule may be nonpolar if it consists of equivalent bonds that are distributed symmetrically Molecules with equivalent bonds that are not distributed symmetrically—or with bonds that are not equivalent, even if they are distributed symmetrically—are generally polar ∙ single bonds Key Skills Problems Cl O With lone pair on the central atom, the molecular shape is bent With no lone pairs on the central atom, the molecular shape is linear H C H Cl With no lone pairs on the central atom, the molecular shape is tetrahedral 233 bur48912_ch06_196-237.indd 233 8/29/18 7:52 PM 6.1 Determine the molecular shape of selenium dibromide a) linear b) bent c) trigonal planar d) trigonal pyramidal e) tetrahedral 6.3 Which of the following species is polar? a) OBr2 b) GeCl4 c) SiO2 d) BH3 e) BeF2 6.2 Determine the molecular shape of phosphorus triiodide a) linear b) bent c) trigonal planar d) trigonal pyramidal e) tetrahedral 6.4 Which of the following species is nonpolar? a) NCl3 b) SeCl2 c) SO2 d) CF4 e) AsBr3 234 bur48912_ch06_196-237.indd 234 ∙ Author-created online homework All of the online homework problems were developed entirely by co-author Michelle Driessen to ensure seamless integration with the book’s content A Student-Focused Revision For the second edition, real student data points and input, derived from our LearnSmart users, were used to guide the revision LearnSmart Heat Maps provided a quick visual snapshot of usage of portions of the text and the relative difficulty students experienced in mastering the content With these data, we targeted specific areas of the text for revision/augmentation: ∙ If the data indicated that the subject covered was more difficult than other parts of the book, as evidenced by a high proportion of students responding incorrectly to LearnSmart probes, the text content was substantively revised or reorganized to be as clear and illustrative as possible ∙ When the data showed that students had difficulty learning the material, the text was revised to provide a clearer presentation by rewriting the section or providing additional sample problems to strengthen student problem-solving skills This process was used to direct all of the revisions for this new edition The following “New to This Edition” summary lists the more major additions and refinements 8/29/18 7:52 PM Students—study more efficiently, retain more and achieve better outcomes Instructors— focus on what you love—teaching SUCCESSFUL SEMESTERS INCLUDE CONNECT For Instructors You’re in the driver’s seat Want to build your own course? 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Sure And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too 65% Less Time Grading They’ll thank you for it Adaptive study resources like SmartBook® help your students be better prepared in less time You can transform your class time from dull definitions to dynamic debates Hear from your peers about the benefits of Connect at www.mheducation.com/highered/connect Make it simple, make it affordable Connect makes it easy with seamless integration using any of the major Learning Management Systems—Blackboard®, Canvas, and D2L, among others—to let you organize your course in one convenient location Give your students access to digital materials at a discount with our inclusive access program Ask your McGraw-Hill representative for more information ©Hill Street Studios/Tobin Rogers/Blend Images LLC Solutions for your challenges A product isn’t a solution Real solutions are affordable, reliable, and come with training and ongoing support when you need it and how you want it Our Customer Experience Group can also help you troubleshoot tech problems—although Connect’s 99% uptime means you might not need to call them See for yourself at status.mheducation.com For Students Effective, efficient studying Connect helps you be more productive with your study time and get better grades using tools like SmartBook, which highlights key concepts and creates a personalized study plan Connect sets you up for success, so you walk into class with confidence and walk out with better grades I really liked this app it “ made it easy to study when — you don't have your textbook in front of you ” - Jordan Cunningham, Eastern Washington University ©Shutterstock/wavebreakmedia Study anytime, anywhere Download the free ReadAnywhere app and access your online eBook when it’s convenient, even if you’re offline And since the app automatically syncs with your eBook in Connect, all of your notes are available every time you open it Find out more at www.mheducation.com/readanywhere No surprises The Connect Calendar and Reports tools keep you on track with the work you need to get done and your assignment scores Life gets busy; Connect tools help you keep learning through it all 13 14 Chapter 12 Quiz Chapter 11 Quiz Chapter 13 Evidence of Evolution Chapter 11 DNA Technology Chapter Quiz Chapter DNA Structure and Gene and more Learning for everyone McGraw-Hill works directly with Accessibility Services Departments and faculty to meet the learning needs of all students Please contact your Accessibility Services office and ask them to email accessibility@mheducation.com, or visit www.mheducation.com/accessibility for more information xxiv Preface New to This Edition ∙ Chapter New graphics were added to illustrate the use of atomic number and mass number; and to elucidate the concept of average atomic mass The importance of different isotopes is now illustrated with an environmental example ∙ Chapter New graphics illustrate the process of determining and writing electron configurations, and new arrows and highlights in the text make it easier for students to understand the process Improvements to Figure 2.1 clarify the relationship between frequency and wavelength ∙ Chapter Changes to Figure 3.6 further clarify the process by which sodium and chlorine react to form sodium chloride ∙ Chapter A new section of text and a new graphic help students understand how Greek prefixes are used to tailor units to the magnitude of a measurement; and a new set of Sample and Practice Problems gives them the opportunity to practice The coverage of significant figures has been augmented with new highlighting and arrows to clarify the concept—and the unit-conversion section has been expanded to highlight the conversion of units that are raised to powers A new Profiles in Science box features the work of astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt ∙ Chapter New Sample and Practice Problems help students visualize the ratios of combination expressed by chemical formulas, and clarify the process of calculating formula masses A new Profiles in Science box features the work of physicist and science educator Derek Muller ∙ Chapter Arrows and highlighting have been added to the text to further clarify the process of drawing Lewis structures, and new text has been added to the table of electron-group geometries and molecular shapes ∙ Chapter Sample Problem 8.1 has been expanded to highlight conversion factors that are derived from the different units of pressure, and how they are used to convert between the units A new Profiles in Science box features the work of inventor Amanda Jones ∙ Chapter Section 9.1 has been redesigned to illustrate the concepts of solubility, saturation, and supersaturation A new sequence of photos illustrates the formation and resolution of a supersaturated solution ∙ Chapter 10 New highlighting and arrows help to clarify the processes of writing molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations A new Student Note helps students understand what is actually oxidized and reduced in a redox reaction ∙ Chapter 11 New figures along with Sample and Practice Problems, including new molecular art, have been added to enhance the introduction to limiting reactants and percent yield ∙ Chapter 12 New graphics have been added to clarify the steps in calculations involving molarity; and a new Thinking Outside the Box feature has been added to illustrate the use of millimoles to simplify calculations ∙ Chapter 13 A new color scheme has been used in the molecular art that introduces equilibrium in order to enhance students’ conceptual understanding ∙ Chapter 14 A new Profiles in Science box features the work of chemist Percy Julian ∙ Chapter 15 A new Profiles in Science box features the work of chemist Marie Maynard Daly ∙ Chapter 16 A new Profiles in Science box features the work of physicist Lise Meitner Additional Instructor and Student Resources Instructor resources available through Connect include the following: ∙ A complete Instructor’s Solutions Manual that includes solutions to all of the end-ofchapter problems ∙ Lecture PowerPoint slides that facilitate classroom discussion of the concepts in the text ∙ Textbook images for repurposing in your personalized classroom materials ∙ Clicker questions for each chapter ∙ A comprehensive bank of assignable test questions Students can purchase a Student Solutions Manual that contains detailed solutions and explanations for the odd-numbered problems in the text Acknowledgments We wish to thank the many people who have contributed to the development of this new text The following individuals reviewed the text and provided invaluable feedback Pamela Auburn, Ph.D., Lone Star College Marguerite H Benko, Ph.D., Ivy Tech Community   College Jing-Yi Chin, Suffolk County Community College Bernadette Corbett, Metropolitan Community College Tamika T Duplessis, Delgado Community College Louis C Fadel, Ivy Tech Community College Carol Green, St Charles Community College Carol A Martinez, Central New Mexico Community   College Andrea N Matti, Ph.D., Wayne State University Ed Miskiel, Community College of Philadelphia Mya A Norman, University of Arkansas-Fayetteville David W Pratt, University of Vermont Brandon Tenn, Merced College Vidyullata Waghulde, St Louis Community College,   Meramec Veronica Wheaton, American River College (Los Rios   Community College District) The following individuals helped write and review learning goal-oriented question content for this text’s SmartBook: Margaret Ruth Leslie Katie Malara Barbara Pappas Laura Wally Additionally, we wish to thank our incredible team: Managing Director Kathleen McMahon, Executive Marketing Manager Tami Hodge, Product Developer Marisa Dobbeleare, Program Manager Jolynn Kilburg, Senior Content Project Manager Sherry Kane, Senior Designer David Hash, and Accuracy Checker John Murdzek Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen ... G-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems  AP-1 Index  I-1 ©TEK IMAGE/Getty Images Preface Introductory Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen has been developed and... parentheses Introductory Chemistry An Atoms First Approach SECOND EDITION Julia Burdge COLLEGE OF WESTERN IDAHO Michelle Driessen UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY Published by McGraw-Hill... written using an atoms first approach specific to introductory chemistry It is a carefully crafted text, designed and written with the introductorychemistry student in mind The arrangement of topics