Introductory chemistry essentials 5th global edtion by tro

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Periodic Table of the Elements GROUP 1A H 1.01 hydrogen PERIOD Li 6.94 K 39.10 3B magnesium 20 21 Ca 40.08 Sc 4B 5B 22 23 Ti V 6B 24 Cr 25 Mn 8B 26 Fe 8B 27 Co scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese 54.94 55.85 iron cobalt 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 87.62 88.91 Rb 85.47 Cs 132.91 cesium 87 Fr (223) francium 44.96 Sr strontium Y yttrium 56 Ba 137.33 barium 57 La 138.91 zirconium 72 Hf 178.49 hafnium 89 104 (227) (261) 88 radium Zr 91.22 lanthanum Ra (226) 47.88 Ac actinium Lanthanide series Rf Nb 92.91 niobium 73 Ta 180.95 Mo 95.95 Tc (99) molybdenum technetium 74 W ruthenium rhodium 76 77 190.23 Os Ir tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium 105 106 107 108 109 (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) Sg 186.21 Rh 102.91 192.22 iridium Db 183.85 75 Re Ru 101.07 58.93 Bh Hs Mt rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium 58 59 60 61 62 63 Ce 140.12 cerium 90 Actinide series 50.94 52.00 7B calcium 55 Mg 24.31 potassium rubidium 9.01 12 19 hydrogen 11 sodium 1.01 Be beryllium Na H 2A lithium 22.99 Atomic number Element symbol Atomic mass* Element name 1 Th (232) thorium Pr Nd 140.91 144.24 91 92 Pm (147) praseodymium neodymium promethium Pa (231) protactinium U (238) uranium 93 Np (237) neptunium Sm 150.36 samarium 94 Pu (244) plutonium Eu 151.97 europium 95 Am (243) americium *The mass number of an important radioactive isotope—not the atomic mass— is shown in parentheses for those elements with no stable isotopes CVR_TRO0295_05_SE_FEP.indd 807 28/08/14 10:16 PM Metals 18 8A Metalloids 13 3A Nonmetals B 10.81 14 4A C 12.01 15 5A N 14.01 16 6A O 16.00 nitrogen oxygen fluorine 13 14 15 16 17 Al Si P S 12 2B aluminum silicon phosphorus 30.97 32.06 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 nickel 46 Pd 106.42 palladium 78 Pt Cu 63.55 copper 47 Ag 107.87 silver 79 Au Zn 65.39 zinc 48 Cd 112.41 cadmium 80 Hg 19.00 carbon 11 1B Ni F boron 10 8B 58.69 17 7A 26.98 Ga 69.72 gallium 49 In 114.82 indium 81 Tl 28.09 Ge 72.63 germanium 50 Sn 118.71 tin 82 Pb As 74.92 arsenic 51 Sb 121.75 antimony 83 Bi sulfur Se 78.97 Cl Br 79.90 127.60 126.90 neon 18 Ar I iodine 85 At argon Kr 83.80 krypton 54 Xe 131.29 xenon 86 Rn 195.08 196.97 gold mercury 204.38 207.2 bismuth astatine (222) lead polonium (210) thallium 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (292) 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 platinum Ds Rg darmstadtium roentgenium Gd 157.25 gadolinium 96 Cm (247) curium Tb 158.93 terbium 97 Bk (247) 200.59 Cn Dy 162.50 dysprosium 98 Cf (251) — Ho 164.93 holmium 99 Es (252) berkelium californium einsteinium Fl Er 167.26 erbium 100 Fm (257) fermium 208.98 — Tm 168.93 thulium 101 Md (258) (209) 20.18 36 53 84 10 Ne 35 52 Po helium 39.95 bromine tellurium He 4.00 35.45 chlorine selenium Te Lv Yb 173.04 ** Lu lutetium 102 103 (259) (260) mendelevium nobelium — (294) 174.97 ytterbium No radon Lr lawrencium **Discovered in 2010, element 117 is currently under review by IUPAC CVR_TRO0295_05_SE_FEP.indd 808 28/08/14 10:16 PM Introductory Chemistry Essentials A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM This page is intentionally left blank A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM Introductory CHEMISTRy Essentials Fifth Edition Global Edition Nivaldo J Tro Westmont College Global Edition Contributions by Ho Yu Au-Yeung The University of Hong Kong Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM Editor in Chief: Adam Jaworski Acquisitions Editor: Chris Hess, Ph.D Director of Development: Jennifer Hart Executive Marketing Manager: Jonathan Cottrell Associate Team Lead, Program Management, Chemistry and ­Geosciences: Jessica Moro Program Manager: Coleen Morrison Development Editor: Erin Mulligan Editorial Assistant: Caitlin Falco Marketing Assistant: Nicola Houston Team Lead, Project Management, Chemistry and Geosciences: Gina M Cheselka Project Manager: Beth Sweeten Head of Learning Asset Acquisition, Global Edition: Laura Dent Senior Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Priyanka Ahuja Project Editor, Global Edition: Anuprova Dey Chowdhuri Media Production Manager, Global Edition: M Vikram Kumar Senior Manufacturing Controller, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber Production Management: Lumina Datamatics Compositor: Lumina Datamatics Illustrator: Precision Graphics Image Lead: Maya Melenchuk Photo Researcher: Peter Jardim, PreMedial Global Text Permissions Manager: Michael Farmer Text Permission Researcher: Electronic Publishing Services Inc Interior Design Manager: Mark Ong Interior Designer: Wanda Espana, WeeDesign Cover Design Manager: Jonathan Boylan Cover Designer: Shree Mohanambal Inbakumar, Lumina Datamatics Operations Specialist: Christy Hall Cover Art: © Laborant/Shutterstock Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on p PC-1 Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2015 The rights of Nivaldo J Tro to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Introductory Chemistry Essentials, 5th edition, ISBN 978-0-321-91873-4, by Nivaldo J Tro, published by Pearson Education, Inc © 2015 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners ISBN 10: 1-292-06133-2 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-06133-7 (Print) ISBN 13: 978-1-488-68349-7 (PDF) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 Typeset in Minion Pro by Lumina Datamatics® Printed and bound by CTPS in China A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM To Annie About the Author Nivaldo Tro, is a Professor of Chemistry at Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a faculty member since 1990 He received his Ph.D in chemistry from Stanford University for work on developing and using optical techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces in ultra high vacuum He then went on to the University of California at Berkeley, where he did post doctoral research on ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution Since coming to Westmont, Professor Tro has been awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, from Research Corporation, and from the National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric surfaces He has been honored as Westmont's outstanding teacher of the year three times and has also received the college's outstanding researcher of the year award Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, reading to his children, and being outdoors with his family  ​5 A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM Brief Contents Preface The Chemical World Measurement and Problem Solving Matter and Energy Atoms and Elements Molecules and Compounds Chemical Composition Chemical Reactions Quantities in Chemical Reactions Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table 10 Chemical Bonding 11 Gases 12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces 13 Solutions 14 Acids and Bases 15 Chemical Equilibrium 16 Oxidation and Reduction 17 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry Appendix: Mathematics Review 20 36 46 90 128 162 200 238 282 318 358 392 444 480 520 562 608 644 MR-1 Glossary G-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1 Photo Credits Index PC-1 I-1  ​6 A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM Contents Preface 20 The Chemical World 36 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 37 39 39 40 Soda Pop Fizz Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things All Things Are Made of Atoms and Molecules The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think Everyday Chemistry ​Combustion and the Scientific Method 1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed Chapter in review Key Terms Exercises Measurement and Problem Solving 2.1 2.2 2.3 Measuring Global Temperatures Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small ­ Numbers Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision 42 42 43 44 44 46 47 47 50 Counting Significant Figures ​ ​51 Exact Numbers ​ ​52 Chemistry in the Media ​The COBE Satellite and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Our Cosmic Past 53 2.4 2.5 2.6 Significant Figures in Calculations 54 Multiplication and Division ​ ​54 Rounding ​ ​54 Addition and Subtraction ​ ​55 Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division and Addition/Subtraction ​ ​56 The Basic Units of Measurement 58 The Base Units ​ ​58 Prefix Multipliers ​ ​59 Derived Units ​ ​60 Problem Solving and Unit Conversion Converting Between Units ​ ​61 General Problem-Solving Strategy ​ ​63 ■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Solving Unit Conversion Problems 2.7 2.8 2.9 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems Units Raised to a Power Chemistry and Health ​Drug Dosage Density ​64 65 67 68 70 Calculating Density ​ ​70 Density as a Conversion Factor ​ ​71 Chemistry and Health ​Density, Cholesterol, and Heart Disease 73 2.10 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map ■ Problem-Solving Procedure  ​Solving Numerical Problems 61 Chapter in review Key Terms Exercises 73 ​74 75 81 81  ​7 A01_TRO1337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-7 protons in, 135–137 transition, 139–140, 175 Emission beta-plus, 652 of light, 241, 242, 325–327, 646 positron, 652–653 Emission spectrum, 326–327 Empirical formula molar mass, 222–223 Empirical formulas, 168, 219–222 Endothermic reaction(s) energy changes in, 105–106 enthalpy in, 298 enthalpy of reaction for, 299–300 and equilibrium, 585, 586 evaporation as, 452 Energy, 102–115 activation, 564, 590–594 calculations with, 111–114 chemical, 103 in chemical vs physical changes, 105–106 electrical, 102 of evaporation and condensation, 452 forms of, 102–103 and frequency/wavelength, 324–325 and heat capacity, 110–114 ionization, 343–345 kinetic, 102, 449–450 law of conservation of, 102, 103 of melting and freezing, 455 potential, 102, 105 quantized, 327 and temperature, 106–110 thermal, 102, 106, 299–300, 445 units of, 103–104 English system, 58 Enthalpy, 298–301 Enthalpy of reaction (∆Hrxn), 299–301 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 182, 428, 469, 492, 656, 683 Enzymes, 593–594, 743 Epicurus, 677 Equations chemical (See Chemical equations) for problem solving, 61 Equilibrium, 562–598 calculating equilibrium constants, 575–576 and catalysts, 592–594 and concentration changes, 580–582 defined, 563 and definition of life, 563–564 dynamic, 450, 562, 568–571 and equilibrium constants for ­reactions, 571–573 heterogeneous, 574 Le Châtelier’s principle for, 578–587 and paths of reactions, 590–591 and rates of chemical reactions, 564–568 solubility-product constant for, 587–589 and temperature changes, 585–587 using equilibrium constants, 577–578 and volume changes, 582–584 Equilibrium constant (Keq) calculating, 575–576 and catalyst, 593 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd for heterogeneous equilibrium, 574 large vs small, 572–573 rate of reaction vs., 590 using, 577–578 writing, for reactions, 571–572 Equivalence point, 531 Ester linkages, 738–740 Esters, 705–707, 738 Estrogen, 741 Ethane, 460, 462, 695 Ethanol, 700 combustion of, 262 formation of, 701 as gasoline additive, 288 oxidation of, 705 Ethene, 691, 695 Ethers, 701–702 Ethyl alcohol, 94, 97, 482, 548, 631 Ethylbenzene, 697 Ethyl butanoate, 706 Ethylene, 691, 708 See also Ethene Ethylene glycol, 501, 548 Ethyl methyl ether, 701 Ethyne, 691, 692 Evaporation (vaporization), 449–454 boiling, 451–452 energetics of, 452 heat of vaporization, 453–454 as physical change, 99 Exact numbers, 52 Excitation, emission of light and, 327 Excited state, 331 Exothermic reaction(s) condensation as, 452 energy changes in, 105–106 enthalpy in, 298 enthalpy of reaction for, 299 and equilibrium, 585, 586 Expanded octets, 368 Experimental data, empirical formula from, 220–222 Experiments, 40, 41 Exponential part (scientific notation), 48, MR-2 Exponents in equilibrium expressions, 571 in scientific notation, 48, MR-2 F Fahrenheit (°F) scale, 106–109 Falsifiability, 40 Families of elements, 140–141 of organic compounds, 699 Fats, 738–740, 742–743 Fatty acids, 737–738 FCVs (fuel-cell vehicles), 608–610 FCX Clarity, 609 FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 201, 742 Fermi, Enrico, 660 Fermium, 660 Fetus, oxygen for, 584 Feynman, Richard, 39 Fibrous proteins, 750 Film-badge dosimeters, 654 22/09/14 11:10 PM I-8 ​  ​| ​  Index Filtration, 101 Find information, in problem solving, 63 Fission, nuclear, 660–663 Flash-freezing, 469 Flavors, 444–445 Fleming, Alexander, 40 Fluoridation of water, 219 Fluoride, 219 Fluorine, 140, 320, 340, 462 Fluorine ion, 142 Fly-fishing lures, 448 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 201, 742 Formaldehyde, 460, 703 Formalin, 703 Formic acid, 525, 706 Formula mass, 184–185, 208 Formula units, 170–171, 467 Fossil fuels, combustion of, 282–283, 683 Francium, 137 Freezing, 454–457 Freezing point depression, 500–502 Freon-46 refrigerant, 201 Frequency (v), 321, 324–325 Fructose, 222–223, 593, 734 °F (Fahrenheit) scale, 106–109 Fuel cells, 609–610, 625, 628–629 Fuel-cell breathalyzer, 631 Fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs), 608–610 Fuels fossil, 282–283, 683 oxygenated, 288 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident, 663 Functional groups, 699–707 alcohols, 700–701 aldehydes, 702–704 amines, 707 carboxylic acids, 704–707 esters, 705–707 ethers, 701–702 ketones, 702–704 Fusion (melting), 455–457 Fusion, nuclear, 663–664 G Galactose, 734 Galvanic cells, 625–627 Gamma (g) radiation, 651–652 Gamma rays, 323, 324, 651–652 Gases, 392–434 Avogadro’s law for, 411–412 Boyle’s law for, 399–404 Charles’s law for, 405–409 in chemical reactions, 423–428 collecting, over water, 422–423 combined gas law, 409–411 evaporation and condensation, 449–454 and extra-long straws, 392–394 formation of, in reactions, 240–242 greenhouse, 282–283 ideal gas law, 413–419 kinetic molecular theory, 394–396 liquids and solids vs., 446 mixtures of, 419–423 pressure in, 396–399 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd properties of, 94 sublimation, 457–458 in water, 486–488 Gas-evolution reactions, 239, 241, 258–259, 528 Gasoline, 94 additives in, 288 burning of, 103 ethanol in, 701 properties of, 97 surface tension of, 448 viscosity of, 448 Gay-Lussac’s law, 414 Geiger-Müller counter, 654 Gene expression, 759 Genes, 730–732, 753, 754 Genetic defects, radiation and, 665 Genome, human, 731–732 Geometry electron, 371, 372 molecular, 168, 369–374 Germanium, 138, 139 Given information, in problem solving, 63 Global temperatures, 46–47 Global warming, 47 Globular proteins, 750 Glowing, 646 Glucose as monosaccharide, 733–734 in photosynthesis and respiration, 621 in solution, 495 structure of, 732–733 from sucrose, 593 Glycogen, 735 Glycolic acid, 548 Glycolipids, 741 Glycosidic linkages, 734 Gold, 529, 623 Gold foil experiment, 131–132 Goodyear blimp, 319 Gram(s) counting atoms by, 203–208 counting molecules by, 208–211 of elements and compounds, 213–214 moles and, 204–206, 208–209 Graphite, 90, 95 Grease, 379 Greenhouse gases, 282–283 Ground state, 330–331 Groups of electrons, 369 of elements, 140–141 Guanine, 753, 756 Guyton de Morveau, Louis-Bernard, 42 H Hahn, Otto, 660 Hair bleaching of, 615 length of wet vs dry, 750 Half-cells, 625 Half-life of nuclides, 655–657 Half-reaction method of balancing ­equations, 616–620 Half-reactions, redox, 616–620 Halogens, 140, 141 22/09/14 11:10 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-9 Lewis structures of, 363 properties of, 340 in substitution reactions, 695 Hand pump, operation of, 399, 400 Hanford, Washington, 148 Hard water, 589 Heartburn, 530 Heart disease, 73 Heat changes in, during reactions, 298–301 defined, 106 as evidence of reaction, 241, 242 and temperature change, 111–114 Heat capacity, 110–114 Heat of fusion (∆Hfus), 455–457 Heat of vaporization (∆Hvap), 453–454 Helium, 135, 136, 203 as atomic element, 169 dispersion forces in, 459 emission of light by, 325, 326 as gas, 94 Lewis structure, 360 orbital diagram, 332 on periodic table, 140 properties of, 318–320 as pure substance, 95 Heme groups, 748 Hemoglobin, 584, 748, 750 Henry’s law, 487 2-Heptanone, 704 Heterogeneous equilibrium, 574 Heterogeneous mixtures, 96 Hexamethylenediamine, 709 Hexane, 685, 687 Hexoses, 734 ∆Hfus (heat of fusion), 455–457 Hindenburg, 319 H+ ions, 525, 526 Hiroshima, Japan, 661 HIV-protease, 358, 359 H3O+ See Hydronium ions Hoffman, Roald, 43 Homogeneous mixtures, 96, 482–483 Honda, 609 Hot-air balloons, 405 ∆Hrxn (enthalpy of reaction), 299–301 Huheey, James E., 521 Human genome, 731–732 Human Genome Project, 731–732 Human insulin, 759 Hund’s rule, 333, 334 ∆Hvap (heat of vaporization), 453–454 Hydrobromic acid, 180, 529 Hydrocarbons, 681–699 alkanes, 682–691 alkenes, 691–694 alkynes, 691–694 aromatic, 696–699 combustion of, 683, 694–695 defined, 681 isomers of, 687–688 reactions of, 694–696 unsaturated, 691–694 uses of, 686 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd Hydrochloric acid, 180, 624 and iron, 529 and magnesium, 528 and potassium hydroxide, 527 and potassium oxide, 529 and sodium bicarbonate, 259, 528 and sodium hydroxide, 257, 530–532 stock solutions of, 495–496 as strong acid, 533–534 uses of, 522–523 Hydrofluoric acid, 534–535 Hydrogen, 590 from acid reactions, 528–529 collecting, over water, 422–423 combustion of, 262 from decomposition reactions, 165, 264 from electrolysis of water, 629–630 electronegativity of, 375 emission of light by, 325–327 ground state of, 330 and iodine, 564, 566–569 Lewis structure, 362, 363 as molecular element, 169 and nitrogen, 285–286, 585 orbital diagram of, 332 and oxygen, 240, 262, 590 and propene, 696 properties of, 162–164, 318–320 as reducing agent, 611 as terminal atom, 364 Hydrogenation reactions, 695–696 Hydrogen bombs, 664 Hydrogen bonding, 462–465 Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells, 609–611, 628–629 Hydrogen peroxide, 168, 219, 615 Hydronium ions (H3O+), 525 in acidic solutions, 539 determining concentration of, 536 and ion product constant for water, 539 pH and concentration of, 542–544 Hydrophilic (term), 741 Hydrophobic (term), 741 Hydroxide ions See OH- ions Hyperosmotic solutions, 505 Hypochlorite, 178 Hypoosmotic solutions, 505 Hypotheses, 40 Hypoxia, 421 I Ibuprofen, 68 Ice, 93 density, 447, 469 energetics of melting, 455 and heat capacity of water, 111 melting point, 454 as molecular solid, 466, 467 sublimation of, 458 Ideal gas constant, 413 Ideal gases, behavior of, 419 Ideal gas law, 413–419, 582 Incompressibility, 395 Indicators, 531 Indinavir, 358 22/09/14 11:10 PM I-10 ​  ​| ​  Index Infrared light, 323 Inorganic compounds, 678–679 Insoluble (term), 249–253 Instantaneous dipoles, 459 Insulin, 747, 748, 754, 759 Interferon, 732 Intermolecular forces defined, 445 dipole–dipole, 460–461 dispersion, 459–460 and flavors, 444–445 hydrogen bonding, 462–465 ion–dipole, 463–464 and surface tension, 448, 449 and viscosity, 448 International Bureau of Weights and Measures, 59 International System of units (SI units), 58–60 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), 688 Intravenous solutions, 505 Inverse logarithms, 543, MR-5 Iodine and hydrogen, 564, 566–569 on periodic table, 138, 140 Iodine-131 isotope, 666 Ion–dipole forces, 463–464 Ionic bonds, 360, 376–377 Ionic charge, oxidation state vs., 613 Ionic compounds, 208 bonding in, 361–362 molecular view of, 170–171 naming, 174–179, 183 in solution, 495, 525 writing formulas for, 172–174 Ionic equations, 256–257 Ionic solids, 467, 485 Ionization, 525, 534, 535, 649 Ionization energy, 343–345 Ionizing power, 649 Ionone, 704 Ion product constant for water (Kw), 539–541 Ion pumps, 343 Ions See also specific ions concentrations of, 495 of elements, 142–145, 340–341 monoatomic, 172 polyatomic, 167–168, 173, 177–178, 365–367 spectator, 256 Iron, 93 and acid rain, 182 as atomic solid, 467, 468 chemical symbol, 136 and hydrochloric acid, 529 on periodic table, 138 rusting of, 98, 610, 630, 632 Iron(II) hydroxide, 177 Iron(III) chloride, 176 Iron ions, 175 Iron ore, 201 Isobutane, 687 Isomers, 687–688 Isoosmotic solutions, 505 Isopropyl alcohol, 92, 699, 701 Isotopes, 145–148 See also specific isotopes Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 10 Isotope scanning, 665–666 IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), 688 J James Bond, 521, 529 Joule (J), 103 Joule, James, 103 K Kekulé, Friedrich August, 696 Kelvin (K) scale, 106–109, 407 Keq See Equilibrium constant Keratin, 749, 750, 754 Ketones, 702–704, 732 Kevlar, 710 Kilogram (kg), 58, 59 kilo- prefix, 59 Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 103 Kinetic energy, 102, 449–450 Kinetic molecular theory, 394–396, 419 Krypton, 140, 660 K (Kelvin) scale, 106–109, 407 Ksp (solubility-product constant), 587–589 Kw (ion product constant for water), 539–541 kWh (kilowatt-hour), 103 Kwolek, Stephanie, 710 L L (liter), 60 Lactic acid, 706 Lake Monoun, Cameroon, 481 Lake Nyos, Cameroon, 480–482, 485–489 l (wavelength), 321, 324–325 Laundry detergents, 240 Lavoisier, Antoine, 40–42, 101 Lavoisier, Marie, 41 Law of conservation of energy, 102, 103 Law of conservation of mass, 40, 41, 101–102 Law of constant composition, 164–165 Lead, 136, 148, 469 Lead-acid storage batteries, 628 Lead(IV) oxide, 628 Le Châtelier’s principle, 578–587 and concentration change, 580–582 population analogy for, 578–579 and temperature change, 585–587 and volume change, 582–584 Leucippus, 130 Lewis, C.S., 569 Lewis, Gilbert N., 359 Lewis model, 359–360 Lewis structures, 360–369 and bonding model, 359–360 covalent, 362–364 of covalent compounds, 364–368 of ionic compounds, 361–362 and octet rule, 367–368 of ozone, 370 of polyatomic ions, 365–367 resonance structures, 368–369 valence electrons in, 360–361 22/09/14 11:10 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-11 Life definition of, 563–564 origin of, 680 Light emission of, 241, 242, 325–327, 646 and emission spectra, 325–327 frequency of, 321 infrared, 323 properties of, 320–325 ultraviolet, 264, 323 visible, 323 white, 321, 326 Lightning, 135 “Like dissolves like” rule, 483 Limestone, 182 Limiting reactants (limiting reagents), 291–298 Linear geometry, 370 Linear relations, 405 Lipid bilayers, 741 Lipids, 737–743 defined, 737 fats and oils, 738–740, 742–743 fatty acids, 737–738 phospholipids, glycolipids, and steroids, 740–741 Liquid(s) distillation of, 101 evaporation and condensation, 449–454 in heterogeneous equilibrium, 574 incompressibility of, 395 melting and freezing, 454–457 properties of, 94, 446–447 separating solids from, 101 surface tension and viscosity of, 447–449 water’s properties as, 468–469 Liter (L), 60 Lithium, 140, 205, 333, 611 Lithium ions, 142, 250 Lithium sulfide, 258 Litmus paper, 522, 524 Logarithmic scale, 541–542 Logarithms, MR-4–MR-5 London forces, 459–460 Lone pair, 363 The Lord of the Rings (J.R.R Tolkien), 569 Los Alamos, New Mexico, 661 Lowery, Thomas, 526 Lysine, 744 Lysozyme, 750, 753 M M See Molarity m (meter), 58 m (molality), 500–501 Macroscopic world, atomic and molecular vs., 168 Magnesium and copper ions, 621–622 electron configuration, 340 in hard water, 589 and hydrochloric acid, 528 on periodic table, 138, 140 valence electrons, 144 Magnesium bromide, 529 Magnesium carbonate, 240 Magnesium chloride, 528 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 11 Magnesium ions, 240, 622 Magnesium oxide, 175, 529 Main-group elements, 338 ions of, 143–144 properties of, 139, 140 valence electrons of, 360 Malic acid, 523 Manhattan Project, 661 Maple syrup, 448 Mass(es) atomic, 147–149, 184 conservation of, 101–102 counting atoms based on, 203–208 counting molecules based on, 208–211 counting nails based on, 202 critical, 661 defined, 59 formula, 184–185, 208 law of conservation of, 40, 41, 101–102 mass-to-mass conversions, 287–291 molar, 204–206, 213, 222–223, 417–419 of reactants, 294–298 Mass number (A), 146, 650 Mass percent composition (mass percent) from chemical formulas, 217–218 of compounds, 216–219 of solutions, 488–491 Mass-to-mass conversions, 287–291 Mathematical operations in algebra, MR-1–MR-2 with scientific notation, MR-2–MR-4 Matter changes in, 99–101 charge on, 135 classifying, 93–97 composition of, 94–97 conservation of mass in, 101–102 defined, 91–92 nuclear theory of the atom and solid, 134 properties of, 97–98 states of, 93–94 in your room, 90–91 Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), 469, 492 Measurement(s) age, 658–660 density, 70–73 global temperatures, 46–47 radiation exposure, 665 scientific notation for, 47–49 significant figures for, 50–54 units of measure, 58–60 Medicine radioactivity in, 644–646, 665–666 solutions in, 505 Meitner, Lise, 660, 661 Meitnerium, 660 Melting, 454–457 Melting point, 454 Membranes of cells, 505, 506 semipermeable, 504–505 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 137, 138, 319 Mendelevium, 137 Mercury 22/09/14 11:10 PM I-12 ​  ​| ​  Index as atomic element, 169 chemical symbol, 136 emission of light by, 325 as liquid, 94 as metallic atomic solid, 468 in water, 469 Mercury barometer, 397–398 Messenger RNA (mRNA), 757–758 Metallic atomic solids, 467, 468 Metallic character, 345–346 Metalloids, 138–139 Metal oxides, acids and, 529 Metals and acids, 520–522, 528–529, 624–625 activity series of, 622–623 alkali, 140, 144, 183, 320, 339–340 alkaline earth, 140, 141, 144, 183, 340 in names of ionic compounds, 174–175 on periodic table, 138, 139 redox reactions of nonmetals and, 611 transition, 139–140, 175 Meter (m), 58 Methane, 699 in Bunsen burners, 299 and chlorine, 695 combustion of, 243–245, 251, 610 formulas and models of, 168 and oxygen, 243–245 Methanoic acid (formic acid), 525, 706 Methanol, 462, 699, 701 Methyl butanoate, 706 Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), 288 Metric system, 58 Microwaves, 323 Milk of magnesia, 257, 260, 530 Miller, Stanley, 680 Millimeter of mercury (mmHg), 397–398 milli- prefix, 59 Miscibility, 460 Mixtures compounds vs., 164 defined, 94 of gases, 419–423 heterogeneous, 96 homogeneous, 96, 482–483 separating, 101 mmHg (millimeter of mercury), 397–398 mol See Mole(s) Molality (m), 500–501 Molarity (M), 491–495, 575 in calculations, 493–495 defined, 491 and ion concentrations, 495 Molar mass, 213 converting grams and moles with, 204–206 and empirical formulas, 222–223 from ideal gas law, 417–419 Molar solubility, 588–589 Molar volume, 426–427 Molecular compounds molecular view of, 169–170, 171 naming, 179, 183 in solution, 495, 525 Molecular elements, 169, 171 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 12 Molecular equations, 255–256 Molecular formulas, 168, 219, 222–223 Molecular geometry of artificial sweeteners, 374 electron vs., 371, 372 representing, 373–374 VSEPR theory for predicting, 369–373 Molecular models, 168 Molecular solids, 466–467 Molecules, 37, 39–40 in composition of matter, 92 counting, by the gram, 208–211 diatomic, 169, 170 of molecular solids, 466 polarity of, 377–379 shapes of, 369–374 temperature and motion of, 106–110 Mole(s) (mol) and Avogadro’s law, 411–412 converting grams and, 204–206, 208–209 converting number of atoms and, 203–204 defined, 203 of elements and compounds, 212–213 in ideal gas law, 413–419 mole-to-mole conversions, 285–287 of reactants, 293–294 size of, 208 Mole-to-mole conversions, 285–287 Monoatomic ions, 172 Monomers, 708, 711 Monoprotic acids, 534 Monosaccharides, 733–734 Monosubstituted benzenes, 697–698 Monounsaturated fatty acids, 737 Morphine, 546 Motor oil, viscosity of, 448 Mount Everest, 421 mRNA (messenger RNA), 757–758 MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether), 288 Multiplication, 54, 56–57, MR-3 Multistep unit conversion problems, 65–67, 69 Mylanta™, 260, 530 Myristic acid, 737 N Nagasaki, Japan, 661 Nails, by the pound, 202 n-alkanes (normal alkanes), 684–686 Narcotics, 546 Natural gas, combustion of, 261, 299 See also Methane Natural radioactive decay series, 657–658 Natural radioactivity, 655–658 Neon electron configuration, 340 emission of light by, 325, 326 isotopes of, 145, 146, 647 on periodic table, 140 Net ionic equations, 256–257 Neutralization reactions, 257–258, 260, 527–528 Neutral solutions, 539, 541 Neutrons discovery of, 132 of isotopes, 145–147 properties of, 133–135 22/09/14 11:10 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-13 Nickel, 92 Nicotine, 546 Nitrates, 177, 469 Nitric acid, 181, 523, 624 Nitrite, 177 Nitrogen in air, 96, 419–420 from decomposition of ammonia, 165 and hydrogen, 285–286, 585 hydrogen bonding with, 462 Lewis structure, 364 and oxygen, 299–300 on periodic table, 138 smell of, 677 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 428 Nitrogen monoxide, 299–300 Nitrogen narcosis, 422 Nitrogen oxides, 683 NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), 428 Noble gases, 140 boiling points, 460 dispersion forces in, 460 electron configurations, 334 properties of, 320, 339 Nonbonding atomic solids, 467, 468 Nonelectrolyte solutions, 485 Nonideal gases, behavior of, 419 Nonmetals, 138, 139, 611 Nonpolar covalent bonds, 376–377 Nonpolar molecules, 378–379 Nonvolatile liquids, 450 Normal alkanes (n-alkanes), 684–686 Normal boiling point, 451 Nuclear chemistry discovery of fission, 660–661 electricity from fission, 662–663 fusion, 663–664 Nuclear equations, 648–653 Nuclear fission, 660–663 Nuclear fusion, 663–664 Nuclear medicine, 644, 645 Nuclear power, 662–663 Nuclear radiation See Radiation Nuclear theory of the atom, 131–134 Nucleic acids, 752–754 Nucleotides, 464, 752, 754 Nucleus, 132, 648, 732 Nuclides half-life of, 655–657 parent and daughter, 648–649 Numerical problems, 73–75 Nutrasweet™, 374 Nylon 6,6 polymer, 709, 710 O O3 See Ozone Obama, Barack, 663 Observations, 40 Octane, combustion of, 261, 262, 282, 283, 288–289 Octet rule, 360, 367–368 Octets, 360, 365, 368 OH- ions (hydroxide ions) in basic solutions, 539–540 concentration of, in base solutions, 538 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 13 in definition of acids/bases, 525 and ion product constant for water, 539 and pOH scale, 544–545 Oil(s), 738–740 dietary, 742–743 and vinegar, 461 and water, 375, 378–379 Oleic acid, 737 Oppenheimer, J R., 661 Orbital diagrams, 332–335 Orbitals, 328–339 and Bohr orbits, 329 electron configurations in, 332–335 orbitals 1s, 330 orbitals 2p, 331 orbital 2s, 331 orbitals 3d, 332 types of, 329–332 Orbits, Bohr, 326–328, 329 Organic chemistry, 676–716 alcohols, 700–701 aldehydes and ketones, 702–704 alkanes, 682–691 alkenes and alkynes, 691–694 amines, 707 aromatic hydrocarbons, 696–699 carboxylic acids and esters, 704–707 defined, 678 ethers, 701–702 functional groups, 699–707 hydrocarbons, 681–699 isomers, 687–688 polymers, 708–711 and properties of carbon atom, 679–681 reactions, 694–696 scent of organic molecules, 676–678 and vitalism, 678–679 Organic compounds, 678–679 Organic molecules, scent of, 676–678 Orientation, in collision theory, 564 Osmosis, 504–506 Osmosis cells, 504 Osmotic pressure, 505 Oxidation, 610–613, 616 Oxidation–reduction (redox) reactions, 240, 608–636 balancing equations for, 616–621 in batteries, 625–629 corrosion, 630, 632 definitions of oxidation and reduction, 610–613 electrolysis, 629–631 in fuel-cell vehicles, 608–610 identifying, 260–262 and oxidation states, 613–616 spontaneous, 621–625 Oxidation states (oxidation numbers), 613–616 Oxidizing agents, 611, 612 Oxyacids, 180, 181, 183 Oxyanions, 177 Oxygen, 94, 169 in air, 96, 419, 420 in Bunsen burners, 299 from combustion reactions, 101–102, 261–262 from decomposition of water, 165, 264 in definition of oxidation/reduction, 611 22/09/14 11:10 PM I-14 ​  ​| ​  Index for developing fetus, 584 from electrolysis of water, 629–630 electronegativity of, 375 in fuel-cell breathalyzer, 631 and hydrocarbons, 694 and hydrogen, 240, 590 hydrogen bonding with, 462 in hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell, 609–611, 628–629 Lewis structure, 362–364 and methane, 243–245 and nitrogen, 299–300 as oxidizing agent, 611 partial pressure limits, 421–422 on periodic table, 138 properties of, 162–164 in redox reactions, 260 in silicates, 128 smell of, 677 and sodium, 261 valence electrons, 144 Oxygenated fuels, 288 Oxygen toxicity, 421 Ozone (O3), 683 as air pollutant, 428 and CFCs, 215 depletion/destruction of, 267, 592–593 Lewis structure, 370 from side reactions, 288 P p (mathematical function), 544 Pa (Pascal), 397 Parent nuclides, 648–649 Partial ionization, 535 Partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, 696 Partial pressure, 420–422 Parts per billion (ppb), 488 Parts per million (ppm), 488 Pascal (Pa), 397 Pauli exclusion principle, 332 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 492 Peebles, P J E., 53 Penetrating power, 649 Pentane isomers of, 687 miscibility, 460, 461 structural formula and boiling point, 684–685 Penzias, Arno, 53 Peptide bonds, 745 Percent, 145 Percent composition of gases, 422 Percent mass to volume, 505 Percent natural abundance, 145 Percent yield, 292–298 Perchlorate, 178 Periodic (term), 138 Periodic law, 138, 319 Periodic table, 136–142 atomic numbers and chemical symbols, 136–137 and charges of ions, 143–144 and electrons of elements, 336–339 patterns in, 138–142 trends in, 341–346 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 14 Permanent dipoles, 460 Perpetual motion machines, 103 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 492 Petroleum, 461 See also Gasoline Phenol, 697 Phenolphthalein, 532 Phenyl group, 698 Philips’ milk of magnesia, 530 Phlogiston, 42 Phosphatidylcholine, 741 Phospholipids, 740 Phosphorescence, 646 Phosphoric acid, 536 Phosphorus, 338 Phosphorus-30 isotope, 652 Photons, 322, 327 Photosynthesis, 621 pH scale, 541–544 Physical changes, 99–101, 105–106 Physical properties, 97–98 Platinum, 628, 631 Plum-pudding model of atom, 131 pOH scale, 544–545 Polar covalent bonds, 375–377 Polarity of bonds vs molecules, 377–379 and dipole–dipole force, 460–461 and electronegativity, 375–377 Polarization, 460 Polar molecules, 377–379 Pollution, 182, 428, 469, 492 Polonium, 137, 647 Polyatomic ions, 178 in chemical formulas, 167–168 in ionic compounds, 173, 177–178 Lewis structures of, 365–367 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 492 Polyethylene, 708 Polymers, 708–711, 735 Polypeptides, 745, 758 Polysaccharides, 735 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, 737 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 708–709 POPs (persistent organic pollutants), 492 Positron emission, 652–653 Positrons, 652 Potassium, 136, 140, 361 Potassium chloride, 529 Potassium hydroxide, 258, 524, 527 Potassium ions, 343 Potassium nitrate, 177, 486 Potassium oxide, 529 Potassium uranyl sulfate, 646 Potential difference, 626 Potential energy, 102, 105 Pound, counting nails by the, 202 Pounds per square inch (psi), 398 Power (for work) ionizing, 649 nuclear, 662–663 penetrating, 649 Power (mathematical), units raised to, 67–70 ppb (parts per billion), 488 22/09/14 11:10 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-15 ppm (parts per million), 488 Precipitate, 252 Precipitation reactions (precipitation), 240, 241, 252–255, 485 Precision, significant figures and, 50–54 Prefix multipliers, 59–60 Pressure in airplane cabins, 400 and Boyle’s law, 399–404 and combined gas law, 409–411 in gases, 396–399 and ideal gas law, 413–419 osmotic, 505 partial, 420–422 in soda pop, 38 and solubility, 487 standard temperature and, 426–427 total, 420–422 units of, 397–399 and using straws, 392–394 vapor, 423, 450 and volume, 582 Primary protein structure, 747, 748 Principal quantum number, 330 Principal shell, 330 Prius, 103 Problem solving with algebra, MR-1–MR-2 general strategy, 63–64 multistep unit conversion problems, 65–67 numerical problems, 73–75 and significant figures in calculations, 54–57 unit conversion problems, 61–63 for units raised to a power, 67–70 Products, 99, 243 mass of reactants and, 287–291 moles of reactants and, 285–287 Proof, alcoholic beverage, 701 Propane, 300, 684, 696 2-Propanol, 701 See also Isopropyl alcohol Propene, 696 Properties (of matter), 97–98 Protease inhibitors, 359 Proteins, 743–751 amino acids in, 743–746 defined, 743 structure of, 747–751 synthesis of, 757–759 Protons discovery of, 132 in elements, 135–137 properties of, 133–135 Proust, Joseph, 164 psi (pounds per square inch), 398 Pure substances, 94–96 Putrescine, 707 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 708–709 Q Quantification, 42–43 Quantities, 52 Quantities in reactions, 282–306 and climate change, 282–284 enthalpy, 298–301 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 15 and ingredients in recipes, 284–285 and initial masses of reactants, 294–298 limiting reactants, 291–298 mass-to-mass conversions, 287–291 mole-to-mole conversions, 285–287 percent yield, 292–298 theoretical yield, 292–298 Quantized energy, 327 Quantum, 327 Quantum-mechanical model of atom, 320 and chemical properties of elements, 339–341 development of, 328–329 Quantum-mechanical orbitals See ­Orbitals Quantum number, 327, 330 Quartz, 93 Quaternary protein structure, 747, 751 R Radiation alpha, 648–650 beta, 650–651 in cancer treatment, 324 detecting, 654–655 effects of, 664–665 electromagnetic, 320–325, 651 gamma, 651–652 measuring exposure to, 665 and stability of isotopes, 148 Radiation detectors, 654–655 Radioactive (term), 148, 645 Radioactive isotopes, 148 Radioactivity defined, 645 detecting, 654–655 discovery of, 646–647 and effects of radiation on life, 664–665 measuring age with, 658–660 in medicine, 644–646, 665–666 natural, 655–658 types of, 647–653 Radiocarbon dating, 658–660 Radiotherapy, 666 Radio waves, 323 Radium, 647, 649 Radium-222 isotope, 650 Radon, 656, 665 Radon-220 isotope, 656 Rain, acid, 182 Rana sylvatica, 502 Random coils, 749 Rapture of the deep, 422 Rate of chemical reaction (reaction rate), 564–568 and activation energy, 590–591 and collision theory, 564–565 and concentration, 566 equilibrium constant vs., 590 and temperature, 567–568 Reactants, 99, 243 initial masses of, 294–298 initial moles of, 293–294 limiting, 291–298 mass of products and, 287–291 moles of products and, 285–287 22/09/14 11:10 PM I-16 ​  ​| ​  Index Reaction rate See Rate of chemical reaction Reactions, 238–273 acid–base, 257–258, 260, 527–530 addition, 695–696 in aqueous solutions, 248–257 in automobiles, 239–240 classifying, 262–267 defined, 99 empirical formulas from, 222 equations for, 243–248 equilibrium constants for, 571–573 evidence of, 240–243 gases in, 423–428 gas-evolution, 239, 241, 258–259, 528 in grade school volcanoes, 238–239 of hydrocarbons, 694–696 hydrogenation, 695–696 in laundry detergents, 240 oxidation–reduction (See Oxidation–­reduction reactions) paths of, 590–591 precipitation, 240, 241, 252–255, 485 quantities in (See Quantities in ­reactions) reversible, 568–569 side, 288 substitution, 695 writing balanced equations for, 245–248, 255–257 Reactors, 662, 673 Reason, 40 Receptors, protein, 747 Recipes, ingredients in, 284–285 Recrystallization, 486 Red blood cells, 506, 748 Redox reactions See Oxidation–reduction reactions Reducing agents, 611, 612 Reduction, 610–613, 616 rem (roentgen equivalent man), 665 Resonance structures, 368–369 Respiration, 621 Reversible reactions, 568–569 R groups, amino acid, 743–745 Ribonucleic acid See RNA Ribose, 752 Ribosomes, 758 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 752, 753, 757–758 Rock candy, 486 Roentgen, 665 Roentgen equivalent man (rem), 665 Roosevelt, Franklin, 661 Rounding, significant figures and, 54–55 Rubbing alcohol, 701 See also Isopropyl alcohol Rubidium, 140 Rusting, 98, 610, 630, 632 Rutherford, Ernest, 131–134, 647, 649 S s (second), 58, 59 Saccharin, 374 Sacramento, California, 110 Sacrificial anode, 632 Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), 469 Salt bridges, 625 Salts, 258, 527–528 See also Table salt Sameness, equilibrium as, 563 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 16 San Francisco, California, 110 Saturated fats, 739 Saturated fatty acids, 737, 738 Saturated hydrocarbons, 682–686 See also Alkanes Saturated solutions, 484–485 Saturation, 484–485 Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 130 Scents of organic molecules, 676–678 Schrödinger, Erwin, 91, 320 Scientific laws, 40 Scientific method, 40–42 Scientific notation, 47–49, MR-2–MR-4 Scientific theories, 41 Scintillation counter, 655 Scuba diving, 400–402, 421–422 Seawater, 96, 461, 505, 506 Second (s), 58, 59 Secondary protein structure, 747–750 Semiconductors, 139 Semipermeable membranes, 504–505 Serine, 744, 753 Shifts, in reactions, 580 Shroud of Turin, 659 Sickle-cell anemia, 748 Side chains, amino acid, 743–745 Side reactions, 288 Significant figures (significant digits), 50–54 in calculations, 54–57 counting, 51–52 and exact numbers, 52 for inverse logarithms, 544 Silicates, 128 Silicon, 128, 136, 139, 336 Silk, 749 Silver, 136, 623 Silver chloride, 249, 265, 588–589 Silver nitrate, 249, 265 Silver plating, 630 Simple carbohydrates, 735 Simple sugars, 735 Single-displacement reactions, 264–265 SI units (International System of units), 58–60 Smog, 683 Snorkels, 404 SO2 (sulfur dioxide), 428 Soap, 379 Soap scum, 240 Soda pop drinking, with straws, 392–394 fizz in, 36–38, 486, 487 Sodium chemical symbol, 136 and chlorine, 260, 273 electron configuration, 334, 340 ionization of, 343 Lewis structure, 362 and oxygen, 261 on periodic table, 138, 140 properties of, 163, 320 reactivity, 142 Sodium acetate, 547 Sodium bicarbonate, 178, 524 and acetic acid, 239, 259 22/09/14 11:10 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-17 and hydrochloric acid, 259, 528 Sodium carbonate, 240, 252 Sodium chloride, 175, 213 in diet, 200–201 formation of, 260, 273 formula, 172 formula mass, 184 ions in, 142 mass percent, 216, 489 properties of, 163 and silver nitrate, 265 in water, 248–249, 463, 483–484 Sodium hydroxide, 257, 524, 530–532 Sodium ions, 142, 174, 343 Sodium nitrate, 265 Sodium nitrite, 178 Sodium oxide, 261 Solid(s) amorphous, 93, 447 crystalline, 93, 447, 466–468 formation of, in reactions, 240–242 in heterogeneous equilibrium, 574 melting and freezing, 454–457 from precipitation reactions, 252–255 properties of, 93, 446, 447 separating liquids from, 101 sublimation of, 457–458 in water, 483–486 Solubility, 484 in aqueous solutions, 248–251 molar, 588–589 and pressure, 487 and temperature, 486–487 Solubility-product constant (Ksp), 587–589 Solubility rules, 250–251, 587 Soluble (term), 249–251 Solute defined, 482, 483 determining amount of, 489–491, 493–495 Solution maps, 62–63, 107 Solutions, 480–512 See also Aqueous solutions acidic, 539, 541, 617–619 amount of solute in, 489–491, 493–495 basic, 539–541, 619–620 boiling point elevation, 502–503 carbon dioxide in Lake Nyos, 480–482 chemical equations for reactions in, 255–257 dilution of, 495–497 freezing point depression, 500–502 of gases in water, 486–488 as homogeneous mixtures, 482–483 mass percent, 488–491 molarity, 491–495 osmosis in, 504–506 of solids in water, 483–486 stoichiometry of, 497–500 Solvents, 482–483, 500 Solve step (problem solving), 64 Sort step (problem solving), 63 Sour Patch Kids candy, 521, 522 Space-filling models, 168 Species, defined, 256 Specific heat capacity (specific heat), 110 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 17 Spectator ions, 256 Spin, electron, 332 Spontaneous redox reactions, 621–625 Spy movies, acids in, 520–522 Stability of systems, 105 Standard temperature and pressure (STP), 426–427 Starch, 735 States of matter, 93–94, 99, 446 See also specific states, e.g., Gases Steam, 93, 96 Steam burns, 452 Stearic acid, 738–739 Steel, 70 Steroids, 741 Stimulants, 546 STM (scanning tunneling microscope), 130 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 492 Stock solutions, 495–496 Stoichiometry, 284 See also Quantities in reactions and enthalpy of reaction, 300–301 for solutions, 497–500 Stomach acid, neutralizing, 260 STP (standard temperature and ­pressure), 426–427 Strassmann, Fritz, 660 Strategize step (problem solving), 63–64 Straws, extra-long, 392–394 Strong acids, 533–534 Strong bases, 537 Strong electrolytes, 534 Strong electrolyte solutions, 249 Strontium, 140 Structural formulas, 168, 682–685 Sublimation, 457–458 Subscripts, in chemical equations, 245 Subshells, 330–333 Substances, pure, 94–96 Substituents, 688, 689 Substitution reactions, 695 Subtraction, 55–57, MR-3–MR-4 Subunits, protein, 751 Sucrase, 593 Sucrose break down of, 593 chemical formula, 166 as disaccharide, 734 molecular geometry, 374 properties of, 162 Sugar(s), 701, 735 See also Table sugar Sulfonic acid, 615 Sulfur, 362, 613, 615 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 428 Sulfuric acid, 523 in lead-storage batteries, 628 and lithium sulfide, 258 neutralization of, 498 and potassium hydroxide, 258 strength of, 536 and zinc, 529 Sulfurous acid, 181, 536 Sulfur oxides, 683 Sun, nuclear fusion in, 663 Supersaturated solutions, 485 Surface tension, 448, 449 Surroundings, 105 22/09/14 11:10 PM I-18 ​  ​| ​  Index Synthesis, protein, 757–759 Synthesis reactions, 263–264 Systems, 105 T Table salt See also Sodium chloride chemical formula, 166 as compound, 96, 162–164 as crystalline solid, 93 as inorganic compound, 678 as ionic compound, 171 as ionic solid, 467 solutions of, 485 Table sugar, 96, 162–164 See also Sucrose characteristics, 38 chemical formula, 166 as disaccharide, 734 mole of, 208 as organic compound, 678 solutions of, 485 Tastants, 374 Taste, molecular shape and, 374 Technetium-99 isotope, 148, 666 Temperature-dependent properties, 453 Temperature(s) and Charles’s law, 405–409 in combined gas law, 409–411 and energy, 106–110 equilibrium and changes in, 585–587 and equilibrium constants, 575 global, 46–47 heat and changes in, 111–114 and heat capacity, 110–111 in ideal gas law, 413–419 and rate of reaction, 567–568 and solubility, 486–487 and standard pressure, 426–427 vapor pressure vs., 423 Temporary dipoles, 459 Terminal atoms, 364 Tertiary protein structure, 747, 750–751 Testosterone, 741 Tetrahedral geometry, 371 Theoretical yield, 292–298 Theories, scientific, 41 Thermal energy, 445 defined, 102 and enthalpy of reaction, 299–300 and temperature, 106 Thiols, 615 Thirsty solutions, 504 Thomson, J J., 131 Thorium-232 isotope, 648–649, 655 Thorium-234 isotope, 648 Threonine, 753 Thymine, 753, 756 Tiburon, California, 129 Tin, 136 Titanium, 70, 292–293 Titrations, 530–533 TNT (trinitrotoluene), 105 Tolkien, J.R.R., 569 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 18 Torr, 398 Torricelli, Evangelista, 398 Total pressure, 420–422 Trailing zeros, 52 Transition elements (transition metals), 139–140, 175 Triethylamine, 128, 677, 678 Triglycerides, 738–740, 742–743 Trigonal planar geometry, 370 Trigonal pyramidal geometry, 371 Trimethylamine, 707 Trinitrotoluene (TNT), 105 Triple bonds, 364 Tristearin, 738–739 Tritium, 664 Tums™, 178, 260 Tylenol, 68 U Ultraviolet (UV) light, 264, 323 Unit conversion problems, 61–63 multistep, 65–67, 69 with units raised to a power, 67–70 Units of measure, 47, 58–60 derived, 60 energy, 103–104 prefix multipliers for, 59–60 pressure, 397–399 raised to a power, 67–70 volume, 60 Unsaturated fats, 739 Unsaturated fatty acids, 737, 738 Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 691–694 Unsaturated solutions, 485 Uracil, 753 Uranic rays, 646–647 Uranium, 135, 136 decay series of, 665 and discovery of radioactivity, 646 in fission experiments, 660–661 and radon, 656 Uranium-235 isotope, 661, 662 Uranium-238 isotope, 648, 652, 657–658 Urea, 679 Urey, Harold C., 680 UV (ultraviolet) light, 264, 323 V v (frequency), 321, 324–325 Valence electrons and chemical properties, 338–341 and ion formation, 143–144 and periodic table position, 336 representing, 360–361 Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, 369–373 Vanillin, 678, 703–704 Vaporization See Evaporation Vapor pressure, 423, 450 Vectors, 377 Vegetable oil, 696 Vinegar, 238–240, 461, 705 Viscosity, 448 Visible light, 323 Vital force, 678 22/09/14 11:10 PM Index ​  ​| ​ ​ I-19 Vitalism, 678–679 Volatile liquids, 101, 450 Volcanoes, grade school, 238–239, 259 Voltage, 626, 627 Voltaic cells, 625–627 Volume and Avogadro’s law, 411–412 and Boyle’s law, 399–404 and Charles’s law, 405–409 in combined gas law, 409–411 equilibrium and changes in, 582–584 in ideal gas law, 413–419 molar, 426–427 percent mass to, 505 units for, 60 VSEPR (valence shell electron pair ­repulsion) theory, 369–373 W Water, 95, 96, 170 See also Aqueous ­solutions in acid–base chemistry, 526–529, 538–541 boiling point, 451–452 chemical formula, 165 collecting gases over, 422–423 from combustion reactions, 101–102, 243–245, 480–482, 694 composition of, 201 compounds dissolved in, 248–251 conductivity, 534 decomposition of, 165, 220, 264 dissociation in, 525 electrolysis of, 629–630 fluoridation of, 219 formation of, 240, 262, 590 formula mass, 184 freezing point depression, 500 gases in, 486–488 hard, 589 heat of fusion, 455–456 hydrogen bonding in, 462 ionization in, 525 Lewis structure, 362–363 miscibility, 460 molecular structure, 90 and oil, 375, 378–379 polarity of, 377–379 properties of, 97, 164, 447, 468–469 smell of, 677 in soda pop, 36, 37 Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 19 sodium chloride in, 463 with sodium hydroxide and aluminum, 530 solids in, 483–486 specific heat capacity, 110, 111 spherical drops of, 449 state of, 93, 94 surface tension of, 448, 449 systematic name, 174 vapor pressure, 423 Water pollution, 469 Watson, James, 464 Wavelength (l), 321, 324–325 Wave–particle duality, 328 Weak acids, 534–536 Weak bases, 537–538 Weak electrolytes, 535 Weinberg, Robert A., 731 White light, 321, 326 Wilson, Robert, 53 Winkler, Clemens, 138 Wöhler, Friedrich, 679 Wood frogs, 502 Work, 102 World War II, 661 X Xenon, 140, 467, 468 X-rays, 323, 324 Y Yield actual, 292 percent, 292–298 theoretical, 292–298 Yucca Mountain, Nevada, 663 Z Z See Atomic number Zinc in brass, 96 and copper(II) chloride, 264, 265 in dry-cell batteries, 627 and hydrochloric acid, 624 oxidation of, 632 and sulfuric acid, 529 in voltaic cells, 627, 628 Zinc sulfate, 529 22/09/14 11:10 PM Fundamental Physical Constants Important Conversion Factors Atomic mass unit Length: SI unit = meter (m) amu = 1.660539 * 10-27 kg g = 6.022142 * 1023 amu Avogadro’s number 23 NA = 6.022142 * 10 >mol Electron charge Gas constant Mass of electron e = 1.602176 * 10-19 C R = 8.314472 J>(mol # K) = 0.0820582 (L # atm)>(mol # K) me = 5.485799 * 10-4 amu = 9.109382 * 10-31 kg •  m = 39.37 in •  in = 2.54 cm (exactly) •  mile = 5280 ft = 1.609 km ° •  angstrom (A) = 10-10 m Volume: SI unit = cubic meter (m3) •  L = 1000 cm3 = 1.057 qt (U.S.) •  gal (U.S.) = qt = pt = 128 fluid ounces = 3.785 L Mass of neutron mn = 1.008665 amu = 1.674927 * 10-27 kg Mass of proton mp = 1.007276 amu = 1.672622 * 10-27 kg Mass: SI unit = kilogram (kg) Pi p = 3.1415926536 •  lb = 16 oz = 453.6 g Planck’s constant h = 6.626069 * 10-34 J # s •  metric ton = 1000 kg = 1.103 tons Speed of light in vacuum c = 2.99792458 * 108 m>s •  kg = 2.205 lb •  ton = 2000 lb •  g = 6.022 * 1023 atomic mass units (amu) Pressure: SI unit = pascal (Pa) Useful Geometric Formulas Perimeter of a rectangle = 2l + 2w Circumference of a circle = 2pr •  Pa = N>m2 •  bar = 105 Pa •  atm = 1.01325 * 105 Pa (exactly) = 1.01325 bar = 760 mmHg = 760 torr (exactly) Area of a triangle = (1>2)(base * height) Area of a circle = pr2 Surface area of a sphere = 4pr2 Volume of a sphere = (4>3)pr3 Volume of a cylinder or prism = area of base * height Energy: SI unit = joule (J) •  J = N # m •  cal = 4.184 J (exactly) •  L # atm = 101.33 J Temperature: SI unit = kelvin (K) •  K = °C + 273.15 •  °C = (5>9) (°F - 32°) •  °F = (9>5) (°C) + 32° Z05_TRO1337_05_SE_IDX.indd 20 22/09/14 11:10 PM Atomic Masses of the Elements Based on carbon-12 A number in parentheses is the atomic mass of the most stable isotope of a radioactive element Name Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copernicium Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Flerovium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Livermorium Lutetium Magnesium Z06_TRO1337_05_SE_BEP.indd Symbol Atomic Number Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cn Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm Fl F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lv Lu Mg 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 112 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 114 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 116 71 12 Atomic Weight (227) 26.98 (243) 121.75 39.95 74.92 (210) 137.33 (247) 9.01 208.98 (262) 10.81 79.90 112.41 40.08 (251) 12.01 140.12 132.91 35.45 52.00 58.93 (285) 63.55 (247) (281) (262) 162.50 (252) 167.26 151.97 (257) (289) 19.00 (223) 157.25 69.72 72.63 196.97 178.49 (265) 4.00 164.93 1.01 114.82 126.90 192.22 55.85 83.80 138.91 (260) 207.2 6.94 (293) 174.97 24.31 Name Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Symbol Atomic Number Mn Mt Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 25 109 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 Atomic Weight 54.94 (266) (258) 200.59 95.95 144.24 20.18 (237) 58.69 92.91 14.01 (259) 190.23 16.00 106.42 30.97 195.08 (244) (209) 39.10 140.91 (147) (231) (226) (222) 186.21 102.91 (280) 85.47 101.07 (261) 150.36 44.96 (263) 78.97 28.09 107.87 22.99 87.62 32.06 180.95 (99) 127.60 158.93 204.38 (232) 168.93 118.71 47.88 183.85 (238) 50.94 131.29 173.04 88.91 65.39 91.22 22/09/14 11:10 PM ... two formats The full version, Introductory Chemistry, contains 19 chapters, including organic chemistry and biochemistry The shorter version, Introductory Chemistry Essentials, contains 17 chapters... A01 _TRO1 337_05_SE_FM.indd 22/09/14 3:25 PM Introductory CHEMISTRy Essentials Fifth Edition Global Edition Nivaldo J Tro Westmont College Global Edition Contributions by Ho Yu Au-Yeung The University of... adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Introductory Chemistry Essentials, 5th edition, ISBN 978-0-321-91873-4, by Nivaldo J Tro, published by Pearson Education, Inc © 2015 All rights reserved