ELECTRONIC MEDIA SECOND EDITION This page intentionally left blank ELECTRONIC MEDIA Then, Now, and Later SECOND EDITION Norman J. Medo, Ph.D. Professor, Northern Arizona University Barbara K. Kaye, Ph.D. Professor, University of Tennessee-Knoxville. Assistant Director, Online Masters in Communication, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, D.C. Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford • Paris San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK © 2011 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Medoff, Norman J. Electronic media : then, now, and later / Norman Medoff. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-240-81256-4 1. Broadcasting—History. 2. Mass media—History. 3. Digital media—History. 4. T elecommunication—History I. Title. HE8689.4.M44 2010 384—dc22 2010019109 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-0-240-81256-4 For information on all Focal Press publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com 10 11 12 13 14 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America v Contents Preface vii About the Web Site ix Acknowledgments xi Chapter 1 Tuning in to Electronic Media 1 Chapter 2 Radio 15 Norman J. Medo, Dale Hoskins, and Gregory D. Newton C hapter 3 Television 37 Chapter 4 Cable, Satellite, and Other Delivery Systems 57 Chapter 5 The Internet 73 Chapter 6 Programming 95 Chapter 7 Advertising 129 Chapter 8 Audience Measurement 155 Chapter 9 Business and Ownership 177 Norman J. Medo and Gregory Pitts Chapter 10 Operating, Producing, and Distribution 193 Chapter 11 The Feature Film and Videogame Industries 215 Ross Helford, Brant Guillory, and Norman J. Medo Chapter 12 Regulation, Legal Issues, and Ethics 229 Chapter 13 Media Eects 251 Chapter 14 Personal/Social Media: The Future 269 References 283 Index 297 This page intentionally left blank vii Preface Until about 15 years ago, teaching an introductory course on electronic media meant teaching the history, struc- ture, economics, content, and regulation of broadcasting. Broadcasting and broadcasters were at the epicenter of all that was electronic media. In fact, the concept of a world of electronic media that didn’t revolve around broadcast- ing and that wasn’t based on the traditional mass com- munication model seemed far away and abstract. Much has changed in the past 15 years, however. Today, students live in a nonlinear, digital world in which tradi- tional broadcasting plays a diminished role. For example, students no longer need to wait for over-the-air radio to hear new music or even their favorite tunes. The Internet provides multiple streams of music, much of which can be shared and downloaded for future playback on computers or mobile devices. College classroom build- ings and dorm rooms now provide broadband Internet, which facilitates social and professional networking, and education, music, and movie file sharing. Furthermore, entertainment and leisure activities have changed. Gone are the multicomponent stereo systems and small-screen television sets that have been popular since the 1960s. Instead, students are designing their own entertainment and information systems by selecting from among a variety of compact, portable MP3 devices; digital televisions; handheld devices; computers; and smartphones. Students have become more adept at han- dling, editing, and storing media content for their per- sonal use. Finally, they’re also becoming online content providers through social networks like Facebook and Twitter. So, given all these developments, does this mean that the traditional electronic media are not worth discuss- ing? Should teaching about electronic media begin with the birth of the World Wide Web? Is the pre-digital world irrelevant or obsolete? Obviously, we don’t think so. Electronic Media: Then, Now, and Later is rooted in the notion that studying the past not only facilitates under- standing the present, but also helps predict the future. Just as we can show how broadcast television spawned the cable industry, we can trace how the cable industry led to the satellite industry and how both have led to a digital world—one in which convergence has blurred the lines separating media functions and in which old-style broad- casters have expanded, consolidated, and adapted to the multiplatform system of contemporary electronic media. The study of electronic media should address more than just the delivery systems used to reach mass audiences. Personal electronic devices that deliver information and entertainment selected by individual consumers should be covered as well. Devices such as smartphones and the iPod Touch and the iPad—which are capable of surfing the Internet, recording and sending video images, playing music, and allowing interpersonal communication with voice or text—have changed the modern lifestyle to the point that they must be included in any discussion of the digital electronic media revolution. Digital video recorders such as TiVo have changed how audiences schedule their television viewing time, making the television network concept of scheduled viewing somewhat anachronistic. Online connections open the world to on the go, any- time entertainment. This book provides a link between the traditional world of broadcasting and the contemporary universe of digital electronic media, which offers increasingly greater con- trol over listening, viewing, and electronic interaction. As both emerging electronic media professionals and dis- criminating electronic media consumers, today’s students must know about these changes and understand how they will affect the future of the industry and the enor- mous cultural impact they continue to have upon society. ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT With the knowledge that what comes next is based on what came before, we would like to acknowledge Edward R. Murrow and his programs Hear It Now (1950–1951) and See It Now (1951–1958) for suggesting the structure of this text. Each chapter of the book is organized chron- ologically into these sections: l See It Then begins with the invention or inception of the topic (e.g., television) and traces its development up to the Telecommunications Act of 1996 and into the new millennium. l See It Now discusses activities and developments from 2000 to the present. l See It Later starts with the present and makes general predictions about what will happen in the digital world of tomorrow. Underlying this organization is the idea that change in electronic media rarely occurs without past events pro- viding the opportunity or demand for change. P R E F A C E viii among the numbers of viewers, listeners, and users; the popularity of programming; and the cost of advertising to reach desired consumers. Chapters 9 and 10 investigate ownership and operation of the various types of delivery systems. Chapter 11 looks at two industries that have strong ties to electronic media and its content: film and video games. Chapter 12 covers regulation of the electronic media industry along with the legal and ethical issues faced by its professionals. The last two chapters of the book consider electronic media from a consumer standpoint. Much has been writ- ten in academic journals and the popular press about the social and cultural effects of mass media. Chapter 13 condenses available research and presents several theo- retical perspectives, tying them to contemporary issues and concerns. Moving away from theory to application, Chapter 14 is a guide to consumer use of new electronic media devices. It discusses new technologies, how they are used or will be used, and how they are changing peo- ple’s lifestyles today and perhaps tomorrow. Chapter 1 summarizes the history of electronic media, introduces industry terms, and discusses current media trends. Chapters 2 through 5 give overviews of the vari- ous delivery systems: radio; television; cable, satellite, and microwave; and the Internet, respectively. In these chapters, topics include the history and characteristics of each and its place in the world of electronic media— now and in the future. Chapters 6 through 8 look behind the scenes of elec- tronic media. Chapter 6 considers how programming is developed for the various delivery systems. We watch television to see a program, we listen to the radio to hear music, and we use the Internet to connect us to infor- mation. Clearly, content is essential to the existence of electronic media. Chapter 7 is about advertising. The electronic media industry couldn’t survive if it provided its content for free, so it sells its viewers, listeners, and users to advertisers, who pay the content providers for the opportunity to advertise their goods and services to the media audience. Chapter 8 looks at audience mea- surement and sales, considering the complex relationship ix About the Web Site The companion web site for Electronic Media: Then, Now, and Later features additional information not found in the book. You will find chapter objectives and sum- maries, flashcards, trivia questions, animations show- ing how communication technologies work, useful web links, and more. The web site may be found here: http://booksite.focalpress.com/companion/medoff For your initial visit to the site, you will need to register your access using the following pass code: BROADCASTING You will also be prompted to create your own user name and password during the registration process; these will give you access to the web site for all subsequent visits, so please save this information in a safe place.