How to identify and use cohesive devices in effective english reading comprehension and vocabulary studying a case study of esp fourth year students at ftu m a 60 14 10

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HOCHIMINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE  HOW TO IDENTIFY AND USE COHESIVE DEVICES IN EFFECTIVE ENGLISH READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY STUDYING A CASE STUDY OF ESP FOURTH-YEAR STUDENTS AT FTU Submitted to the Department of English Linguistics & Literature in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL By TRAN HUONG PHONG Supervised by DANG THI HUONG, EdD Ho Chi Minh City, November 2011 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Dang Thi Huong, for her very careful reading of my manuscript, her invaluable comments and wholehearted support and advice, without which my study could not have been completed I am greatly indebted to all teachers of this TESOL course at HCMC University of Social Sciences and Humanities for their dedication and helpful instruction during the course My special thanks go to Ms Le Hong Linh, Vice Dean of the Faculty of ESP, Foreign Trade University, other teachers and students of this Faculty, without whose kind assistance and cooperation, the thesis could not have been possible I am also grateful to my friends and classmates in TESOL 08 for their help and encouragement Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my mother, my son and my sisters for their love, understanding and constant support to me at any time of hardship in my life i CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled: HOW TO IDENTIFY AND USE COHESIVE DEVICES IN EFFECTIVE ENGLISH READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY STUDYING: A CASE STUDY OF ESP FOURTH-YEAR STUDENTS AT FOREIGN TRADE UNIVERSITY in terms of the statement of Requirement for Theses in Master’s Programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee Tran Huong Phong HCMC, November 2011 ii RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS I hereby state that I, Tran Huong Phong, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOl, accept the requirement of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan or reproduction of theses Ho Chi Minh City, November 2011 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements i Certificate of originality ii Retention and use of the thesis iii Table of contents iv List of abbreviations .v List of tables vi List of figures .vii Abstract .viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study 1.1.1 The importance of EFL reading and vocabulary studying .1 1.1.2 Cohesion and coherence in relation to English reading comprehension and vocabulary learning 1.2 ESP programme at Foreign Trade University 1.2.1 Descriptions of ESP courses at FTU 1.2.2 ESP students’ problems in reading comprehension and vocabulary learning .8 1.3 The aims of the study .10 1.4 Significance of the study 11 1.5 The organization of the study 12 CHAPTER 2: 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 13 The concept of cohesion .13 iv 2.2 Cohesion, coherence and textuality 15 2.3 Different types of cohesive devices 18 2.3.1 Grammatical cohesion 20 2.3.2 Lexical cohesion 24 2.4 Cohesive devices and the organization of texts 27 2.4.1 Text and discourse 28 2.4.2 How text is composed? 29 2.4.3 Discourse structure signaling system in texts .31 2.5 Cohesion and the reading process 33 2.5.1 Reading as a communicative event 33 2.5.2 Problems in reading comprehension 34 2.5.3 Text analysis and interpretation in reading comprehension 35 2.5.4 The role of cohesion in analysing texts 36 2.5.5 Developing reading skills and strategies 39 2.5.6 L2 reading curriculum for reading development 41 2.6 Cohesion in the reading-vocabulary relationship 43 2.6.1 Vocabulary demand for effective reading comprehension 43 2.6.2 The place of lexical cohesion in vocabulary learning 44 2.7 Cloze tests .45 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 48 3.1 Research questions 48 3.2 Research design 48 3.2.1 Characteristics of the subjects 49 3.2.2 Instruments .53 3.3 Data collection procedure .59 v CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 61 4.1 Data analysis 61 4.1.1 Problems in English reading and vocabulary studying 61 4.1.2 Types of cohesive devices were frequently recognised by students 80 4.1.3 The helpful dimension of cohesive devices in the studying of reading comprehension and vocabulary .86 4.2 Findings 91 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 97 5.1 Conclusions 97 5.2 Recommendations 100 REFERENCES 108 APPENDICES 115 Appendix 1: Cloze test A, and test B and Answer keys Appendix 2: Reading exercise 1, exercise and Answer keys Appendix 3: Criteria for identifying and selecting deleted items in test A and test B Appendix 4: Classification of deleted items in test A and test B according to the criteria described in Appendix Appendix 5: Number of students correctly answering on different items Appendix 6: Questionnaires for students and teachers vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ESP English for Specific Purposes EFL English as a foreign language ELT English language teaching FL Foreign language L1 First language L2 Second language ESL English as a second language FTU Foreign Trade University USSH University of Social Sciences & Humanities TOEIC Test of English for international communication TESOL Teaching English to speakers of other languages NEM Non-English major vii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 3.1 Students’ personal information 50 Table 3.2 Characteristics of ESP teachers 52 Table 4.1 Students’ ideas about the language knowledge needed for improving reading comprehension 63 Table 4.2 Students’ opinions about skills employed in studying reading comprehension 64 Table 4.3 Students’ opinions about factors causing problems in studying English reading comprehension 65 Table 4.4 Students’ ideas about vocabulary studying 66 Table 4.5 Students’ focus on different vocabulary knowledge 67 Table 4.6 Vocabulary learning strategies used by students to explore new words 69 Table 4.7 Students’ ideas about methods to infer word meanings from the contexts 70 Table 4.8 Teachers’ ideas about the language knowledge needed for improving reading comprehension 71 Table 4.9 Teachers’ focus on the components of a reading curriculum for reading comprehension development 72 Table 4.10 Teachers’ opinions about skills employed in studying reading comprehension 74 Table 4.11 Cohesive devices employed to explore meaning relations 75 Table 4.12 Teachers’ ideas about factors causing problems in studying English reading comprehension 76 Table 4.13 Teachers’ focus on various vocabulary knowledge 78 viii Table 4.14 Teachers’ opinions about methods of inferring word meanings from the contexts 79 Table 4.15 Students’ performances on Exercise 84 Table 4.16 Comparison of different types of deletions in test A and test B 87 Table 4.17a Descriptive statistics of students’ scores on test A and test B Table 4.17b Frequencies of students’ scores on test A and test B 88 Table 4.17c Students’ scores on test A and test B 89 Table 4.18 Students’ scores on the reading exercises 91 ix 88 APPENDIX READING EXERCISE Insert the following words in the spaces in the text below although; as; consequently; due to; for example; further more; however; in other words; moreover; nevertheless; whereas; yet THE BANANA WARS The progressive reduction of tariff barriers has caused World Trade to increase by several hundred per cent since 1945, and there is no doubt that this has created both work and prosperity It has also improved products: (1) …… the planned economies of the Soviet Union and the Communist block countries created industries that produced nearly as much as Western companies, the products were much less sophisticated, reliable or marketable, (2) … they were excluded from competition Today, most economists argue that nations which try to shelter declining industries behind tariff barriers are simply resisting the inevitalbe, and that they could use those subsidies to create new jobs in more modern industries (3) ……, tariff barriers penalize consumers: the Japanese, (4) ………, pay ten times more for rice than they would if they could buy rice from South East Asia (5) …… , for many years, the banana industry had a special status The European Union allowed former British and French colonies in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific islands to export to Europe as many bananas as they wish, at slightly above world prices Banana production costs are higher in the Caribbean than on American-owned plantations in Latin America, (6) …… the small size of family-run farms, the difficult terrain, and the climate In 1999, (7) ……., the US-based company Chiquita Brands made a $500,000 donation to the democratic Party The very next day, the US government complained to the World Trade Organization about Europe’s banana trade, and put a 100% import tariff on various European goods Opponents of the American case pointed out that only 7% of the 2.5 billion tonnes of banana imported into Europe every year come from the Caribbean The EU’s banana policy only cost American companies about $200 million a year, (8) … trade between the US and the EU is worth about £200 billion Half the population of the Caribbean relies on the banana industry to supply their basic needs such as food, shelter and education Small states such as Dominica depend on banana exports to the EU for around 70 per cent of all export earnings and much of their employment No other countries in the world have the same degree of dependence on a single product (9) …… , if the Caribbean banana industry was taken away without farmers being given enough time to develop other ways of using the land, the countries’ economy would collapse (10) …… , the results of entirely free trade in banana could be disastrous Page 121 It could also be pointed out that American, Japanese and European farmers are currently subsidized by billions of dollars every year (11) ……, America itself erected massive tariff barriers in the 19th century (12) ……., the Americans wanted to end subsidies to Caribbean banana producers, even though the consequences might have included many of the farmers turning to drug production and trafficking, or trying immigrate illegally to the US The ‘banana wars’ ended in July 2001 when the American ended their special import taxes on selected European goods after the European Union agreed to import more Latin American bananas from the large US banana companies, while still also buying bananas from their former colonies./ Word count: 523 Source: Ian, MacKenzie (2002, 2nd edition.) English for Business Studies C.U.P Unit 27: International Trade A case study: The banana wars (p 159) ANSWER KEYS: (1) although (2) as (3) moreover (furthermore) (4) for example (5) however (nevertheless) (6) due to (7) nevertheless (however) (8) whereas (9) consequently (10) in other words (11) furthermore (moreover) (12) yet How to score the test: 12 items → 10 marks; item correctly chosen → 1/12 mark Page 122 READING EXERCISE THE BANANA WARS The progressive reduction of tariff barriers has caused World Trade to increase by several hundred per cent since 1945, and there is no doubt that this has created both work and prosperity It has also improved products: although the planned economies of the Soviet Union and the Communist block countries created industries that produced nearly as much as Western companies, the products were much less sophisticated, reliable or marketable, as they were excluded from competition Today, most economists argue that nations which try to shelter declining industries behind tariff barriers are simply resisting the inevitalbe, and that they could use those subsidies to create new jobs in more modern industries Moreover, tariff barriers penalize consumers: the Japanese, for example, pay ten times more for rice than they would if they could buy rice from South East Asia However, for many years, the banana industry has a special status The European Union allowed former British and French colonies in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific islands to export to Europe as many bananas as they wish, at slightly above world prices Banana production costs are higher in the Caribbean than on American-owned plantations in Latin America, due to the small size of family-run farms, the difficult terrain, and the climate In 1999, nevertheless, the US-based company Chiquita Brands made a $500,000 donation to the democratic Party The very next day, the US government complained to the World Trade Organization about Europe’s banana trade, and put a 100% import tariff on various European goods Opponents of the American case pointed out that only 7% of the 2.5 billion tonnes of banana imported into Europe every year come from the Caribbean The EU’s banana policy only cost American companies about $200 million a year, whereas trade between the US and the EU is worth about £200 billion Half the population of the Caribbean relies on the banana industry to supply their basic needs such as food, shelter and education Small states such as Dominica depend on banana exports to the EU for around 70 per cent of all export earnings and much of their employment No other countries in the world have the same degree of dependence on a single product Consequently, if the Caribbean banana industry was taken away without farmers being given enough time to develop other ways of using the land, the countries’ economy would collapse In other words, the results of entirely free trade in banana could be disastrous It could also be pointed out that American, Japanese and European farmers are currently subsidized by billions of dollars every year Furthermore, America itself erected massive tariff barriers in the 19th century Yet, the Americans wanted to end subsidies to Caribbean banana producers, even though the consequences might have included many of the farmers turning to drug production and trafficking, or trying immigrate illegally to the US The ‘banana wars’ ended in July 2001 when the American ended their special import taxes on selected European goods after the European Union agreed to import more Latin American Page 123 bananas from the large US banana companies, while still also buying bananas from their former colonies./ Within the context of this passage, a) Find at least one instance of synonymy: b) Find at least one instance of antonymy: c) From italicized and underlined words, find markers which introduce(s): - an example: - a rephrasing of what has been said before: - more facts or ideas: - cause and effect: - a reason: - a comparison or contrast between two facts: ANSWER KEYS a) Find at least one instance of synonymy: (10 groups of synonyms – marks) countries – nations – states; goods – products; plantations – farms; farmers – producers; rely(ies) – depend; work – job – employment industry – banana) production; tariff – taxes; moreover – furthermore; although - however – nevertheless - yet; b) Find at least one instance of antonymy: (1 mark) reduction (reduce) – increase; export – import c) From italicized and underlined words, find markers which introduce(s): (5 marks) - an example (exemplifying markers): for example - a rephrasing of what has been said before: in other words - more facts or ideas (additive markers): moreover; furthermore; as; - a reason (causal markers): due to; - cause and effect (causal markers): consequently; - a comparison or contrast between two facts (adversative markers): although; however; nevertheless; yet; whereas; Page 124 APPENDIX Criteria for identifying and selecting deleted words (According to the classification of cohesive devices suggested by Halliday and Hasan, 1976 and modified by Nuttall, 1982) GROUP I Reference and substitution (R) II Ellipsis (E) III Lexical cohesion (L) IV Discourse markers (D) DESCRIPTION CODING - Pronominals/nominals (he, it, our, its, them, their…) R1 - Demonstrative, definite article… (this, that, those, then, one, so/not…) R2 - Comparatives (smaller, same, such, additional, other…) R3 - Nominal ellipsis E1 - Verbal ellipsis E2 - Clausal ellipsis E3 - Repetition L1 - Synonym/near synonym (incl hyponym, antonym) L2 - Superordinate/general noun L3 - Collocation L4 - Signals of sequence of events, time sequence D1 - Signals of discourse organization: sequencing, reexpressing, specifying, referring, resuming, exemplifying, summarising, focusing (for example, in concluson, that is to say, first of all, next, thus, apart from this, to illustrate this…) - Signals of the writer’s point of view: additive (and, moreover, similarly, otherwise…); adversative (though, yet, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, anyhow…); causal (so, therefore, thus, as a result, because, in order to, unless, in this case…) D2 D3 Page 125 APPENDIX Analysis of cohesive devices in the text to make test B (According to the classification of cohesive devices suggested by Halliday and Hasan, 1976 and modified by Nuttall, 1982) St No Cohesive items 10 Type No of ties Coding first Disc organization D2 risk management Repetition L1 things General noun L3 then Disc organization D2 that Demonstrative R2 event Repetition L1 probability Synonym L2 given Causal D3 its; Sure-Grip pron./nominals R1 for example Disc organization D2 to face Repetition L1 flood damage-fire-earthquakes Collocation L4 but Adversative D3 possibilities Synonym L2 thus Causal D3 these two; Demonstrative R2 events General noun L3 floods Repetition L1 the company General noun L3 also, and Additive D3 concerned about; protecting; the cost; the cost ; facing; protection Repetition L1 because Causal D3 the cost; insurance; the risk Repetition L1 risk management; risks Repetition L1 Page 126 11 12 13 14 15 16 insurable>< uninsurable; pure risks >< speculative risks (S10, 12, 13) 13 to purchase disaster insurance – to buy insurance against (S14, 15) 14 scorched – “heat” (S15, 16) 15 a risk/the risk/risks – peril (S16) 16 farm-related businesses – farmers (S15, 16) 17 reluctant – unwilling (S17) 18 uncertainty – changes – fluctuations (S18) disasters, calamities/floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, Page 128 APPENDIX Number of students answering correctly different deleted items in test A and test B (in desceding order) Test A (fixed ratio) Test B (rational deletion) Item No Item type Item scoring Item No Item type Item scoring 16 11 12 22 23 18 14 10 20 13 17 21 25 19 15 24 G G G G G G L1 R1 G L2 L3 L1 L1 G L4 G L1 L4 G L2 G G G G G 53 53 53 52 51 50 50 49 49 47 46 46 45 43 40 38 37 36 35 33 32 29 25 23 23 11 12 23 16 13 10 19 25 15 20 14 17 18 21 24 22 D1 D2 L1 L1 L2 L2 L1 R1 R2 R1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 E2 L2 D3 D3 L3 L1 L2 L2 L4 L3 53 53 51 51 51 50 47 46 46 46 44 44 43 43 42 42 42 41 40 40 39 38 34 33 31 25 Scoring mean = 41.5 * G = grammatical item; 25 Scoring mean = 43.6 * Total number of students doing each test: 53 * Item scoring = the number of students who gave correct answers to each item * Scoring mean = the average number of students giving correct answers to each item Page 129 APPENDIX BẢN CÂU HỎI KHẢO SÁT SINH VIÊN Những câu hỏi nhằm thu thập liệu cho đề tài nghiên cứu khả nhận biết hình thức liên kết tiếng Anh sinh viên trường Đại học Ngoại thương để cải thiện khả đọc hiểu mở rộng vốn từ vựng Mong bạn vui lòng dành chút thời gian trả lời cách đánh dấu () vào câu trả lời chọn, cho biết ý kiến cách ghi vào khoảng trống chừa sẵn Xin chân thành cảm ơn I THƠNG TIN CÁ NHÂN Giới tính: Độ tuổi:  20-29  Nam  Nữ  30-39  40 Bạn học tiếng Anh bao lâu?  1-3 năm  4-7 năm  năm Chuyên ngành học: Trình độ tiếng Anh tại:  intermediate  upper-intermediate  advanced II CÂU HỎI KHẢO SÁT A Các yếu tố liên quan đến khả đọc hiểu tiếng Anh Bạn quan tâm nhiều đến kỹ số bốn kỹ ngôn ngữ sau? Xếp theo thứ tự ưu tiên từ – 4? - Nghe _ - Nói _ - Đọc _ - Viết _ Bạn quan tâm tới kiến thức sau để nâng cao khả đọc hiểu? 1) Ngữ pháp  2) Vốn từ  3) Kết cấu văn  4) Phương pháp liên kết ý  Page 130 5) Kiến thức chủ đề  6) Kiến thức khác  Bạn có học tính liên kết (cohesion) tính mạch lạc (coherence) văn bản?  Có  Khơng Bạn thường sử dụng kỹ đọc sau để đọc hiểu cách có hiệu quả? 1) Đọc trước  2) Đặt câu hỏi trả lời câu hỏi  3) Nhận biết ý  4) Nhận biết quan hệ liên kết ý câu  5) Nhận biết quan hệ liên kết ý câu  6) Kỹ suy đoán từ ngữ cảnh  7) Các kỹ đọc khác  Những yếu tố sau thường gây khó khăn cho bạn việc đọc hiểu tiếng Anh? 1) Ngữ pháp  2) Từ vựng  3) Chủ đề  4) Kết cấu văn  5) Liên kết ý câu  6) Liên kết ý câu  7) Yếu tố khác  B Yếu tố liên quan đến việc học từ vựng tiếng Anh Việc mở rộng vốn từ vựng quan trọng việc học tiếng Anh  Rất đồng ý  Đồng ý (1) (2) Cần thiết phải dạy từ vựng lớp cho sinh viên  Rất đồng ý  Đồng ý (1) (2)  Không đồng ý  Rất không đồng ý  Không rõ (3) (4) (5)  Không đồng ý  Rất không đồng ý  Không rõ (3) (4) (5) Ngoài việc học từ vựng lớp, bạn thấy cần tự học thêm từ vựng nhà  Rất đồng ý  Đồng ý (1) (2)  Không đồng ý  Rất không đồng ý  Không rõ (3) (4) (5) Page 131 Bạn thường nghĩ tới từ vựng từ đơn (single word) cụm từ (multiword units)  Rất đồng ý  Đồng ý (1) (2) 10  Không đồng ý  Rất không đồng ý  Không rõ (3) (4) (5) Bạn thường quan tâm việc học kiến thức từ vựng sau tới mức độ nào: Ít (1) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Cách viết (spelling)  Cách phát âm (pronunciation)  Quan hệ từ (word-family relations)  Từ loại (parts of speech)  Các nghĩa từ (meanings)  Quan hệ nghĩa (meaning associations)  Từ kết hợp (collocations: từ thường  với có nghĩa) Kiến thức khác  Nhiều Rất nhiều (2) (3)                 11 Bạn thường sử dụng cách thức sau để tìm hiểu nghĩa từ mới? 1) Phân tích từ loại (parts of speech)  2) Phân tích cấu trúc từ (word parts)  3) Sử dụng từ điển Anh – Anh  4) Sử dụng từ điển Anh – Việt  5) Sử dụng từ điển đồng nghĩa  6) Đoán nghĩa từ ngữ cảnh  7) Hỏi thầy  8) Cách khác  12 Khi cần thiết, bạn thường sử dụng phương pháp sau để đoán nghĩa từ mới? 1) Qua định nghĩa  2) Qua ví dụ  3) Từ đồng nghĩa  4) Từ trái nghĩa  5) Quan hệ từ  6) Từ kết hợp  7) Cách khác  THANK YOU Page 132 QUESTIONNAIRES FOR TEACHERS The aim of this questionnaire is to collect data to investigate students’ ability to identify and use cohesive devices in effective teaching and learning of reading comprehension and vocabulary at Foreign Trade University Your cooperation in answering the following questions is highly appreciated Thank you very much for your help I PERSONAL INFORMATION Gender:  Male  Female Age range:  20-29  30-39 Education background:  BA  MA  Ph.D How long have you been teaching English?  1-4 years  over 40  5-10 years  > 10 years II SURVEY QUESTIONS A Factors related to English reading comprehension In your opinion, how necessary are the following knowledge areas for your students to learn reading comprehension? Little necessary Necessary Very necessary (1) (2) (3) 1) Grammar knowledge    2) Vocabulary size    3) Text organization awareness    4) Textual cohesion    5) Topical knowledge    6) Other knowledge    How much attention you pay to the following components of a reading curriculum while teaching reading comprehension? Not much Much Very much (1) (2) (3) 1) Building a large recognition vocabulary    2) Practising comprehension skills    3) Building awareness of discourse structure (main ideas, text organization, cohesive markers)    4) Developing strategic reading    Page 133 5) 6) Have you made your learners aware of cohesion, coherence and their roles in text organization?  No Have you helped your students understand the meaning relationship within a sentence or across sentences in a text by using which of the following cohesive devices? 1) 2) 3) 4) 4) 6)   Pre-reading  Asking and answering questions  Understanding main ideas  Recognizing relations between the sentence  Recognizing relations across sentences  Inferencing from context clues  Other reading skills   Yes   Which of the following reading skills have you trained your students in the studying of reading comprehension? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Encouraging extensive reading  Other goals  Reference and substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Repetition Synonym/near synonym Collocation       What factors you consider as potential difficulties for your students to learn reading comprehension? 1) Grammar complexity  2) Vocabulary size  3) 4) 5) 6) Demanding topic (difficult and/or unfamiliar)  Text organization  Knowledge about textual features (cohesion, coherence)  Other factors  B Factors related to English vocabulary In your opinion, vocabulary development is crucial for English studying  Strongly agree  Agree (1) (2)  Disagree  Strongly disagree  Not sure (3) (4) (5) Page 134 It is necessary to teach vocabulary explicitly in the classroom  Strongly agree  Agree  Disagree  Strongly disagree  Not sure (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 10 You often treat vocabulary as a single word rather than multi-word units (lexical phrases, phrasal verbs, idioms…)  Strongly agree  Agree (1) (2)  Disagree  Strongly disagree  Not sure (3) (4) (5) 11 How much attention you pay to the following components of vocabulary knowledge while teaching vocabulary? Not much Much Very much (1) (2) (3) 1) Spelling    2) Pronunciation    3) Word-family relations    4) Parts of speech    5) Meanings    6) Meaning associations    7) Collocation    8) Technical terms    12 Which of the following methods you often guide your students in exploring the meaning of a new word? (Do not tick the box in case you never use them) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Often Sometime (1) (2) Recognizing definitions   Recognizing examples   Identifying synonyms   Identifying antonyms   Identifying reference words   Recognizing collocations   Others   Seldom (3)        THANK YOU! Page 135 ... and derivatives Class Mid-term test (60 minutes) Merger and acquisition Class Arbitration Central banking Class 10 Torts Exchange rates Final exam Final exam and financial From the teaching materials... conclusion of the study and suggests implications for the teaching and studying of reading comprehension, and enlarging vocabulary by way of making students aware of cohesive devices and its use in text... agreed that there are two main kinds of collocations: grammatical collocation and lexical collocation Grammatical collocations are words that “fit together” grammatically on the open-choice principle