Research design and methods a process approach 9th edition

Ninth Edition Ninth Edition highlights of the ninth eDition: •  expanded material enriches the text, including enhancements to the sections on peer review, values in research, external validity, deception in research, content analysis, and judging stable diferences in performance across phases •  The “Questions to Ponder” feature disperses thought-provoking questions in various places in each chapter, helping students master material as they read What people aRe saying aBout ReseaRch design and Methods: “Great text! Good information, presented well.” –Nicole Dorey, University of Florida “It is a well-balanced, well-written book There is enough depth to make it challenging, without being overwhelming.” –Victoria Kazmerski, Penn State Erie BoRDens | aBBott Visit www.mhhe.com/bordens9e for a wealth of student and instructor resources! ReseaRch Design and MethoDs A Process Approach Kenneth s BoRDens | BRuce B aBBott MD DALIM 1240192 06/06/13 CYAN MAG YELO BLACK “ This is the textbook you need to use to show psychology students how to research.” –John S Rosenkoetter, Missouri State University A Process Approach •  new research examples make use of contemporary subjects relevant to today’s students, including texting while walking, and the ethics involved in doing research using social media ReseaRch Design and MethoDs Research design and Methods: a Process approach takes students through the research process, from developing a research idea, to designing and conducting a study, through analyzing and reporting data Information on the research process is presented in a lively and engaging way, highlighting the numerous decisions, both big and small, that must be made when designing and conducting successful research Final PDF to printer Research Design and Methods A Process Approach NINTH EDITION Kenneth S Bordens Bruce B Abbott Indiana University—Purdue University Fort Wayne bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd i 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A PROCESS APPROACH, NINTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Copyright © 2014 by McGrawHill Education All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Previous editions © 2011, 2008, and 2005 No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States This book is printed on acid-free paper DOC/DOC ISBN 978-0-07-8035456 MHID 0-07-8035457 Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L Strand Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Michael Ryan Vice President, Content Production & Technology Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Executive Director of Development: Lisa Pinto Managing Director: Bill Glass Senior Brand Manager: Nancy Welcher Marketing Specialist: Alexandra Schultz Managing Development Editor: Penina Braffman Editorial Coordinator: Adina Lonn Director, Content Production: Terri Schiesl Project Manager: Judi David Buyer: Laura Fuller Cover Image: Royalty-Free/CORBIS Compositor: Laserwords Private Limited Typeface: 10/12 Goudy Old Style std Printer: R R Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bordens, Kenneth S Research design and methods: a process approach / Kenneth S Bordens, Bruce B Abbott.—Ninth edition pages cm ISBN 978-0-07-803545-6 (alk paper) Psychology—Research Psychology—Research—Methodology I Abbott, Bruce B II Title BF76.5.B67 2014 150.72—dc23 2013018531 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites www.mhhe.com bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd ii 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer We dedicate this book to our parents, who provided us with the opportunity and inspiration to excel personally and professionally Lila Bordens and Walter Bordens Irene Abbott and Raymond Abbott bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd iii 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd iv 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer CONTENTS Preface xvii Chapter 1: Explaining Behavior What Is Science, and What Do Scientists Do? Science as a Way of Thinking How Do Scientists Do Science? Basic and Applied Research Framing a Problem in Scientific Terms Learning About Research: Why Should You Care? Exploring the Causes of Behavior Explaining Behavior Science, Protoscience, Nonscience, and Pseudoscience Scientific Explanations 11 Commonsense Explanations Versus Scientific Explanations 14 Belief-Based Explanations Versus Scientific Explanations 16 When Scientific Explanations Fail 18 Failures Due to Faulty Inference 18 Pseudoexplanations 19 Methods of Inquiry 21 The Method of Authority 21 The Rational Method 22 The Scientific Method 23 The Scientific Method at Work: Using a Cell Phone While Walking 25 The Steps of the Research Process 26 Summary 29 Key Terms 31 Chapter 2: Developing and Evaluating Theories of Behavior 32 What Is a Theory? 32 Theory Versus Hypothesis 33 Theory Versus Law 34 v bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd v 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer vi Contents Theory Versus Model 35 Mechanistic Explanations Versus Functional Explanations Classifying Theories 38 Is the Theory Quantitative or Qualitative? 38 At What Level of Description Does the Theory Operate? What Is the Theory’s Domain? 43 Roles of Theory in Science 43 Understanding 43 Prediction 44 Organizing and Interpreting Research Results Generating Research 44 37 39 44 Characteristics of a Good Theory 46 Ability to Account for Data 46 Explanatory Relevance 46 Testability 46 Prediction of Novel Events 47 Parsimony 47 Strategies for Testing Theories 48 Following a Confirmational Strategy 48 Following a Disconfirmational Strategy 48 Using Confirmational and Disconfirmational Strategies Together Using Strong Inference 49 49 Theory-Driven Versus Data-Driven Research 50 Summary 54 Key Terms 55 Chapter 3: Getting Ideas for Research 56 Sources of Research Ideas Experience 57 Theory 60 Applied Issues 61 57 Developing Good Research Questions Asking Answerable Questions 63 Asking Important Questions 64 63 Developing Research Ideas: Reviewing the Literature 65 Reasons for Reviewing the Scientific Literature 66 Sources of Research Information 66 Performing Library Research 73 The Basic Strategy 74 Using PsycINFO 74 Using PsycARTICLES 77 General Internet Resources 77 bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd vi 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer Contents vii Computer Searching for Books and Other Library Materials 77 Reading a Research Report 78 Obtaining a Copy 78 Reading the Literature Critically 79 Factors Affecting the Quality of a Source of Research Information 84 Publication Practices 84 Statistical Significance 84 Consistency With Previous Knowledge 87 Significance of the Contribution 88 Editorial Policy 88 Peer Review 89 Values Reflected in Research 92 Developing Hypotheses 95 Summary 96 Key Terms 98 Chapter 4: Choosing a Research Design 99 Functions of a Research Design 99 Causal Versus Correlational Relationships 100 Correlational Research 101 An Example of Correlational Research: Cell Phone Use and Accidents 102 Behavior Causation and the Correlational Approach 102 Why Use Correlational Research? 103 Experimental Research 105 Characteristics of Experimental Research 106 An Example of Experimental Research: Cell Phone Use While Driving Strengths and Limitations of the Experimental Approach 109 Experiments Versus Demonstrations 110 108 Internal and External Validity 111 Internal Validity 111 External Validity 115 Internal Versus External Validity 117 Research Settings 117 The Laboratory Setting 118 The Field Setting 119 A Look Ahead 120 Summary 120 Key Terms 122 Chapter 5: Making Systematic Observations 123 Deciding What to Observe 123 Choosing Specific Variables for Your Study bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd vii 124 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer viii Contents Research Tradition 124 Theory 124 Availability of New Techniques 125 Availability of Equipment 125 Choosing Your Measures 126 Reliability of a Measure 126 Accuracy of a Measure 128 Validity of a Measure 129 Acceptance as an Established Measure 130 Scale of Measurement 131 Variables and Scales of Measurement 133 Choosing a Scale of Measurement 134 Adequacy of a Dependent Measure 137 Tailoring Your Measures to Your Research Participants 139 Types of Dependent Variables and How to Use Them 141 Choosing When to Observe 144 The Reactive Nature of Psychological Measurement 145 Reactivity in Research with Human Participants 145 Demand Characteristics 146 Other Influences 147 The Role of the Experimenter 148 Reactivity in Research with Animal Subjects 152 Automating Your Experiments 153 Detecting and Correcting Problems 154 Conducting a Pilot Study 154 Adding Manipulation Checks 155 Summary 155 Key Terms 157 Chapter 6: Choosing and Using Research Subjects 158 General Considerations 158 Populations and Samples 159 Sampling and Generalization 160 Nonrandom Sampling 161 Is Random Sampling Always Necessary? 164 Acquiring Human Participants for Research 164 The Research Setting 164 The Needs of Your Research 166 Institutional Policies and Ethical Guidelines 166 Voluntary Participation and Validity 167 Factors That Affect the Decision to Volunteer 167 Volunteerism and Internal Validity 170 Volunteerism and External Validity 171 Remedies for Volunteerism 172 bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd viii 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer Contents ix Research Using Deception 173 Research Deception in Context 174 Types of Research Deception 175 Problems Involved in Using Deception 175 Solutions to the Problem of Deception 177 Considerations When Using Animals as Subjects in Research 182 Contributions of Research Using Animal Subjects 182 Choosing Which Animal to Use 183 Why Use Animals? 183 How to Acquire Animals for Research 184 Generality of Animal Research Data 184 The Animal Rights Movement 186 Animal Research Issues 187 Alternatives to Animals in Research: In Vitro Methods and Computer Simulation 190 Summary 191 Key Terms 192 Chapter 7: Understanding Ethical Issues in the Research Process 193 Ethical Research Practice With Human Participants 193 John Watson and Little Albert 193 Is It Fear or Is It Anger? 195 Putting Ethical Considerations in Context 195 The Evolution of Ethical Principles for Research With Human Participants 196 The Nuremberg Code 196 The Declaration of Helsinki 197 The Belmont Report 197 APA Ethical Guidelines 198 Government Regulations 198 Internet Research and Ethical Research Practice 201 Ethical Guidelines, Your Research, and the Institutional Review Board 205 Ethical Considerations When Using Animal Subjects 207 The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 208 Cost–Benefit Assessment: Should the Research Be Done? 209 Treating Science Ethically: The Importance of Research Integrity and the Problem of Research Fraud 210 What Constitutes Fraud in Research? 212 The Prevalence of Research Fraud 212 Explanations for Research Fraud 213 Dealing With Research Fraud 214 Summary 216 Key Terms bor35457_fm_i-xxii.indd ix 218 24/05/13 12:02 PM Final PDF to printer NAME INDEX Abbott, B B., 137, 188, 358, 370, 371, 384, 456 Abrahams, D B., 179 Adair, J G., 146, 147 Agresti, A., 484 Aguinis, H., 176 Ajzen, I., 485 Allport, G W., 69, 255 Anastasi, A., 346 Anderson, C A., 103, 115 Anderson, J L R., 125 Anderson, N., 39 Anglesea, M M., 361, 362 Anolli, L., 162 Applebaum, M I., 348, 349 Aragon, A S., 181 Arellano-Galdamas, F J., 175 Aristotle, 47, 186 Armstrong, K J., 376 Aronson, E., 131, 179, 180 Asher, H B., 460, 466, 488, 490 Ax, A F., 195, 196 Badia, P., 187, 188, 221, 357, 358, 359, 360, 370, 371 Bakeman, R., 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228 Baker, C., 139 Baker, M., 116 Balcetis, E., 296, 297 Banaji, M R., 61 Bandilla, W., 267 Bankert, E., 197 Banks, C., 177 Barnett, N J., 162 Baumans, V., 186 Baumeister, R F., 60, 61 Baumrind, D., 175, 177 Beck, H P., 194 Bell, R., 212, 213, 214 Bennett, S., 470 Berenson, C., 267 Berg, B L., 234, 235, 236, 237, 239 Berman, J J., 267 Berman, M G., 318 Bernstein, D M., 340 Berscheid, E., 124, 179 Best, J., 269 Bethell, C., 163 Bjornstad, G J., 219 Blatchley, B., 176 Block, G., 190 Bolstein, R., 267 Bolt, M., 188 Boney-McCoy, S., 162 Bordens, K S., 59, 135, 136, 147, 392, 396, 398 Bornmann, L., 90 Borsuk, R M., 90, 91 Borszcz, G S., 144, 153 Bosnjak, M., 267 Bouffard, L A., 336 Bourret, J., 34 Bowden, M., 268 Bowers, D., 470 Boynton, P., 167 Braithwaite, R B., 23 Brandt, C W., 361 Bray, J H., 463, 490 Brewer, M B., 284 Brick, J M., 279 Bridge, P., 267 Broad, W., 211, 212, 213, 214 Broca, P., 240, 241 Brody, J L., 181 Brown, S R., 142 Bruck, M., 201 Bruckman, A., 202 Bruening, S., 215 Buehler, R., 180 Bünzli, A., 245, 246 Bulté, I., 361, 383 Burt, C., 215, 216 Bush, G W., 245 Bush, P J., 239 Bushman, B J., 115 Butler, B E., 216 Byington, K W., 26, 58 Cabooter, E., 262 Caelleigh, A S., 93 Calif, M E., 247 Callahan, C A., 167 Callaway, E., 210 Cameron, L., 327, 328 Campbell, D T., 111, 113, 115, 178, 335, 336, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343, 348 Carlsmith, J M., 180 Carnahan, T., 167, 171 Carr, J E., 361 Carroll, R T., 10 Castellan, N J., 446, 447, 449, 450 Ceci, S J., 91, 201 Cepeda, C., 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 23, 102 Chang, D F., 443, 444, 445 Charvat, W., 526, 531 Chassan, J B., 383 Cheam, A., 180 Chomsky, N., 39 Christopher, A N., 189 Church, A H., 267 Cialdini, R B., 8, 23, 24 Ciarlo, J A., 267 Clark, H B., 374, 375 Clark, L., 262 Clematide, S., 245, 246 Clevenger, T., 234 Coe, R., 453 Cogoni, D., 14, 15 Cohen, J., 451, 453 Cohen, J M., 197 Cohen, R J., 129, 130, 274 I-1 bor35457_nidx_I1-I5.indd I-1 01/06/13 2:48 AM Final PDF to printer I-2 Name Index Cohen-Kettenis, P T., 240 Cohn, D., 247 Coker, R., 11, 12 Conrad, E., 95, 223 Cooper, H M., 252 Cooper, J A., 197 Cooperman, E., 168 Cornelison, J B., 214 Correll, J., 143 Couper, M P., 267 Craighill, P., 269 Crane, D., 93 Crano, W D., 284 Crawford, M., 93 Cressy, D., 190 Crête, J., 268 Crews, F., 526, 528, 531 Crick, F., 213 Critchfield, T S., 34 Culbertson, S., 357, 358, 359, 360, 370 Dalal, R., 162, 163 Daniel, H-D., 90 Darwin, C., 354 Davidson, B., 233 Davidson, P R., 13 Davis, A J., 243 Davis, M H., 171 De Beuckelear, A., 268 DeSantis, A D., 237, 238 Descartes, R., 22, 186 DeWall, N C., 60, 61 Dewsbury, D A., 41 Dill, K E., 103 Dillman, D A., 260, 261, 264, 265, 266, 267, 271, 279 Dimock, M., 269 DiNitto, D M., 268 Drews, F A., 1, 108, 109 Dunning, D., 296, 297 Ebbinghaus, H E., 53, 353, 354 Edwards, A L., 263, 306, 321 Eggerston, L., 211 Ellis, C., 234 Epley, N., 179 Fancher, R E., 18, 45, 129, 354 Fanselow, M S., 163 Fatima, S S., 246 Fechner G., 353 Feild, H S., 162 Feldman, M S., 136 Ferguson, A., 94 bor35457_nidx_I1-I5.indd I-2 Ferreira-Valente, M A., 140 Festinger, L., 42, 43 Fidell, L S., 455, 460, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 473, 474, 476, 477, 478, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484, 490 Fienberg, H., 279 Finlay, B., 484 Fiorillo, J., 163 Fireman, B., 178 Fischer, H., 125 Fischoff, B., 188 Fishbein, M., 485 Fisher, R., 355 Fisher, W W., 361 Fiske, S T., 90, 206 Fleiss, J L., 230 Fleming, C., 268 Flourens, P., 45 Fogg, L., 90 Folkman, J R., 161 Forscher, B K., 52 Fredrikson, M., 125 Freedman, J L., 178 French-Lazovik, G., 262 Frey, T., 245, 246 Friedlund, A J., 194 Friedman, P., 214 Fry, D P., 234 Furmark, T., 125 Furnham, A., 189 Gaertner, S., 245 Gagnon, J H., 270 Gaither, G A., 169 Galen, C., 186 Gall, F., 45, 52 Galperin, M B., 219 Galton F., 354 Gamache, P., 374, 375 Gamson, W A., 178 Garcia, J., 87 Garner, J., 336 Garson, G D., 489 Geggie, D., 212, 214 Gerbing, D W., 485 Gibbon, J., 42, 43 Gibbs, A., 25 Gibson, C L., 262 Gilbert, D T., 315, 316, 317 Glass, G V., 251 Gluck, J P., 181 Godlee, F., 211 Gold, P E., 294, 295 Goldiamond, I., 141 Goldie, W P., 194 Goldstein, I., Goldstein, J H., 147 Gonnella, J S., 93, 167 Goodall, J., 233 Goodstadt, B E., 147 Gordon, B N., 201 Gottman, J M., 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228 Graber, E C., 245 Granucci, E A., 374, 375 Gravetter, F J., 388, 416, 418, 419, 425, 430, 432, 436, 437, 441, 447, 451, 452 Green, D M., 380, 382 Green, R., 124 Greenberg, B S., 243, 245 Greenberg, J., 60 Greene, E., 147 Greenwald, A G., 143 Greenwood, K M., 361 Gretz, H F., III, Grice, G R., 310 Grod, O N., 91 Guzinski, G M., Hager, J L., 87 Hagger, M., 165 Hall, D., 526, 527, 528, 531 Hall, R V., 364, 376 Halpern, S D., 267 Hamby, S., 162 Haney, C., 177 Hanson, J E., 93 Harari, H., 5, 447, 449 Harari, O., 447, 449 Harlow, H., 187 Harrison, R C., Harsh, J., 358 Hartley, L R., 332, 333, 334 Hartman, D P., 376 Hehman, E., 245, 246 Helmstetter, F J., 163 Hembree, S E., 239 Hempel, C G., 46 Hendryx, M., 163 Henle, C A., 176 Herrmann, D., 200, 201 Herrnstein, R., 34 Hershberger, S L., 489 Hertwig, R., 173 Hess, D W., 434, 435 Hickman, L., 336 Hicks, A L., 10 Hickson, L., 233 01/06/13 2:48 AM Final PDF to printer Name Index Higbee, K L., 161 Hippler, H-J., 262 Hite, S., 276, 277 Hoch, H., 361, 362 Hoffman, L H., 245 Hojat, M., 93, 167 Holmes, D S., 176, 180, 181 Holsti, O R., 243, 244 Hooke, R., 276 Horowitz, I A., 59, 136, 171, 172, 178, 243, 392, 396, 398 Howard, S., Huang, H-M., 162 Hubbard, M., 179 Huck, S W., 111, 323 Hudson, J M., 202 Huefner, J C., 242 Huff, C., 179 Hughes, B M., Hull, C., 51 Hunter, J E., 248, 466, 485, 490 Hurdle, J F., 241 Iannuzzo, R., 173 Innacchione, V G., 279 Irons, J P., 194 Jackson, D., 364 Jackson, T., 179 James, J M., 267 Janis, I., 177 Jensen, M P., 140 Jones, R A., 202 Jonides, J., 318 Jost, J T., 61 Joynson, R B., 216 Judd, C M., 143 Kaczmirek, L., 267 Kaiser, M K., 482 Kalichman, M., 214 Kalton, G., 258, 264, 284, 285 Kanuk, L., 267 Kaplan, S., 167, 318 Kardes, F., 161, 162 Kassam, K S., 315, 316, 317, 318 Katz, J., 178, 198 Kazdin, A E., 361, 382, 383 Keeter, S., 269 Keller, H B., 204 Kelley, M E., 361 Kelly, G., Kelman, H C., 175 Kennedy, C., 269 Kennedy, J F., 234 bor35457_nidx_I1-I5.indd I-3 Keppel, G., 307, 308, 330, 438, 439, 440, 441, 443, 445, 446, 452, 454, 455, 482 Kessel, R., 377, 378 Keusch, F., 268 Key, W B., 110 Kimmel, A J., 174, 175 Kipper-Schuler, K C., 241 Kirisci, L., 167 Kish, L., 280, 281, 282, 283, 285 Kjerulff, K H., Klein, J G., 174 Knäuper, B., 262, 263 Knickman, J., 163 Koelling, R A., 87 Kolata, G., 271 Kolic, M., 263 Krantz, J H., 162, 163 Kreukels, B P C., 240 Kreutzer, J., 434 Krippendorff, K., 243 Kruse, C R., 190 Kuczynski, G., Kuhn, T S., 49 Kunda, Z., 37 Labruna, V., 167 LaFrance, M., 70 Laguilles, J S., 267 Lam, T C M., 263 Landon, A., 276 Landy, E., 131 Laney, C., 340 Langenberg, P W., Lansky, D., 163 Latané, B., 44 Laumann, E O., 270 Laupper, D., 245, 246 Lavrakas, P J., 269, 279 Lawson, A E., 25 Leaton, R N., 144, 153 Lee, R E., Lee, S., 204 Leggett, G., 526, 531 Leiva, D., 362 Lepper, M R., 179 Levine, M S., 460, 478 Lewis, J E., 190 Libby, L., 315 Lievens, F., 268 Lilienfeld, S O., 10, 11 Lindsay, J J., 115 Lindsey, D., 90 Link, M W., 163 Lisi, I S., 171 I-3 Loftus, E F., 147, 201, 340 Lohr, J M., 10 Lomas, J E., 361 Longino, H E., 92, 93 Lönnqvist, J-E., 168 Lord, F M., 134, 135 Lorenz, K., 40, 41, 42 Lucke, R., 377, 378 Lund, D., 364 Lynn, E., Lynn, S J., 11 Macaulay, D., 18 Maguire, M., 190 Mahoney, M J., 90 Mandel, F S., 167 Mann, L., 177 Manne, S., 246 Manolov, R., 362, 383 Mans, G., 169 Marcoulides, G A., 489 Marcovitch, H., 211 Marcus, B., 168 Marsh, H W., 91 Martin, A L., 178 Martin, R., 89 Martins, B K., 34 Marwitz, J., 434 Matfield, M., 186, 187 Matyas, T A., 361 Maul, T., 223 Maxwell, S E., 463, 490 Mayo, C., 70 McAlexander, J H., 234 McCabe, G P., 404 McCall, R B., 348, 349 McCartt, A T., 102 McCloskey, M., 69 McEvoy, S P., 102 McFarland, C., 180 McFarland, S., 167, 171, 265 McGhee, D E., 143 McGraw, K O., 230 McHenry, M M., 361 McNemar, Q., 161 Mead, C D., 526, 531 Meier, B P., 169 Mengele, J., 196 Merritte, D., 194 Messer, B L., 267, 271 Meystre, S M., 241, 245, 246 Michael, R T., 270 Milgram, S., 176, 177 Millard, R J., 161 Miller, J., 14, 15 01/06/13 2:48 AM Final PDF to printer I-4 Name Index Miltenberger, R G., 149, 150 Mitchell, G., 116 Mitchell, S K., 226 Mokdad, A., 163 Montaquila, J M., 279 Montee, B B., 149, 150 Mook, D G., 115, 164 Mooney, R., 247 Moore, D S., 404 Morris, E K., 340 Moser, C A., 258, 264, 284, 285 Mosteller, F., 134 Musch, J., 165 Mutz, R., 90 Myers, D G., 93, 94, 188 Peters, D P., 91 Peterson, L R., 313, 314 Peterson, M J., 313, 314 Petrulis, J., 216 Pfungst, O., 149 Piaget, J., 43, 44, 58, 70, 231 Pittenger, D J., 173, 203, 204, 205 Platt, J R., 49, 50 Plous, S., 182, 189 Postman, L., 69 Poteat, G M., 182 Powers, W T., 378, 379 Prelec, D., 34 Probst, T., 343 Pyszczynski, T., 60 Neisser, U., 125, 135 Nerb, J., 36, 37 Neubarth, W., 267 Niedz´ wien´ska, A., 180 Note: the diacritical goes over the z and the n, not after as shown Nirenberg, T D., 167 Noel-Neumannm , E., 262 Nosek, M R., 61 Nowlis, V., 124 Quas, J A., O’Brien, K R., 176 O’Brien, R G., 482 Obama, B., 245, 255 Obitz, F W., 167 Ockham, W., 47 Oczak, M., 180 Oei, A., 332, 333, 334 Onghena, P., 361, 383 Orbell, S., 165 Oreskes, N., 94 Orne, M T., 147 Ornstein, P A., 201 Ortmann, A., 173 Pagano, R R., 388, 418, 430, 440 Pais-Ribeiro, J L., 140 Palya, W L., 377, 378, 379 Park, B., 143 Parker, K C H., 13 Parramore, M M., 489 Pasupathi, M., Patry, M., 321 Pavlov, I., 87, 118, 182, 354 Pazouki, E., 246 Pearson, K., 354 Pelcovitz, D., 167 Penrod, S D., 321 Peplau, L A., 95 bor35457_nidx_I1-I5.indd I-4 Rahmati, M., 246 Rayner, R., 194, 195, 196 Redelmeier, D A., 102 Reed, D D., 34 Reeve, C., 10 Regenberg, A., 116 Regenerus, M., 94 Reich, J W., 167 Reis, E., 268 Renfrey, G., 13 Rescorla, R A., 35 Resnick, J H., 178 Reynolds, G S., 365 Reynolds, M D., 167 Rhodes, J C., Richardson, D., 179 Ringle, J L., 242 Riva, G., 162 Roalfe, A., 267 Robbennolt, J K., 321 Roberts, J V., 251, 252 Roberts, L M., 267 Rodriguez, B., 173 Rodriguez, M., 369, 370 Rogers, P J., 302, 303, 305 Rogers, T B., 272, 273, 274 Roosevelt, F., 276 Roscoe, J T., 447, 449, 473 Rosenthal, R., 86, 150, 152, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252 Rosnow, M., 532 Rosnow, R L., 147, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 532 Ross, L., 179 Rothschild, B H., 178 Roy, A K., 222 Runyon, R P., 221 Rutland, A., 327, 328 Rytina, S., 178 Saini, J., Saks, M., 88 Sandler, H M., 111, 323 Sasanoff, R., 119 Saunders, D R., 168, 267 Savava, G K., 241 Schaie, K W., 349 Schillewaert, N., 262 Schmidt, F L., 248 Schouten, J W., 234 Schreer, G E., 119, 120 Schütz, A., 168 Schuler, H., 175, 181, 196, 198 Schwartz, J L K., 143 Schwartz, T., 178 Schwarz, N., 262 Schwebel, D C., 26, 58 Scott, B L., 219 Seligman, M E P., 20, 87, 187 Sellbom, M., 169 Sells, S P., 234 Sexton, A M., 219 Shaffer, D., 346 Shanks, N., 187 Shapiro, F., 12 Sheridan, C E., 142, 143 Sherman, L W., 238 Shin, Y H., 338, 339 Shohat, M., 165 Shrout, P E., 230 Shulman, A D., 175 Shuttles, C D., 279 Sidman, M., 365, 372, 373, 384 Sieber, J E., 173 Siegel, S., 446, 447, 449, 450 Sigelman, L., 265 Signal, D T., 190 Sills, E S., Silverman, I., 175 Simpson, S S., 336 Singer, P., 187, 188, 189 Skinner, A L., 376 Skinner, B F., 45, 53, 182, 355 Skinner, C H., 376 Skorton, D., 190 Slovic, P., 188 Smit, H J., 302, 303, 305 Smith, C N., 174 Smith, J., 211 Smith, S., 119 Smith, S S., 179 01/06/13 2:48 AM Final PDF to printer Name Index Smith, T E., 234 Snowdon, C T., 182 Sohl, G E., 10 Solanas, A., 362, 383 Solomon, S., 60 Spada, H., 36, 37 Spates, C R., 13 Spence, K., 51 Spencer, S L., 171 Sprague, R., 215 Stanley, J C., 111, 113, 115, 335, 336, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343, 348 Stanovich, K E., 164 Stapel, D., 210, 211, 212, 213, 214 Stavrinos, B., 58, 59 Stavrinos, D., 26, 28 Steeh, C., 279 Steen, R G., 212 Steinberg, J A., 214, 215 Stephenson, L B., 268 Stephenson, W., 142 Stevens, S S., 131, 133, 134 Stevenson, M R., 102, 275 Steward, K K., 361 Stich, C., 263 Stolle, D P., 321 Strang, H., 238 Strayer, D L., 1, 108, 109 Stream, C., 169 Streiner, D L., 489 Strunk, W., 526, 531 Sue, S., 443, 444, 445 Sugarman, D B., 162 Suls, J E., 89, 147 Swami, V., 189 Swencionis, J K., 315, 316, 317 Swerdlik, M E., 129, 130, 274 Swets, J A., 380, 382 Tabachnick, B G., 455, 460, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 473, 474, 476, 477, 478, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484, 490 Tanford, S L., 162 Tanner, W P., Jr., 380, 381, 382 Tarter, R E., 167 bor35457_nidx_I1-I5.indd I-5 Tate, C., 263 Tatsuoka, M M., 468 Taylor, B A., 361, 362 Taylor, N., 190 Taylor, S E., 37 Taylor, W C., 167 Teruzzi, T., 162 Therrien, K., 369, 370 Thomas, K., 119, 120 Thorndike, E L., 182, 354 Thorndike, R M., 471 Tibshirani, R J., 102 Tinbergen, N., 57, 103, 104, 105 Titus, S L., 214 Tolman, E., 51 Treadway, M., 69 Trujillo, N., 234 Tsang, J.-A., 292, 293, 294 Tucker, W H., 216 Tukey, J W., 134, 403 Ullman, D., 179 Underwood, M K., 219, 220, 221, 222, 223 Unger, R K., 93, 95 Vandell, D L., 239 Veenstra, R., 240 Velleman, P E., 134 Vicente, P., 268 Vinacke, W E., 196 Vogel, D., 475 Volmer, T A., 34 Von Osten, W., 149, 150 Wade, N., 211, 212, 213, 214 Wadman, M., 187 Wadsworth, B J., 70 Wagner, A R., 35 Wakefield, A J., 211 Wallien, M S C., 240 Wallnau, L B., 388, 416, 418, 419, 425, 430, 432, 436, 437, 441, 447, 451, 452 Walster, E., 124, 179 Walster, G W., 124 Walter, D., 377, 378 I-5 Warner, J L., 267, 271 Watson, J B., 193, 194, 195, 196 Watson, J D., 213 Weber, E., 353 Weijters, B., 262 Weiner, M., 167 Weinfurt, K P., 239 Weisenthal, D L., 175 Wester, S., 475 Westerlund, D., 374, 375 Weyant, J M., 267 White, E B., 526, 531 White, R , V., 447, 449 Wik, G., 125 Wilder, D A., 369, 370 Wilkinson, L., 134 Williams, C D., 184, 185 Williams, D., 279 Williams, E A., 267 Wilson, S., 267 Wilson, T D., 315, 316, 317 Wine, B., 369, 370 Winer, B J., 321, 440, 455 Winkel, G H., 118 Winters, K E., 94 Wittenbrink, B., 143 Wittrock, D., 149, 150 Wolchik, S A., 171 Wolfensohn, S., 190 Wong, D., 139 Wong, S P., 230 Wood, C., 188 Worall, L., 233 Wozniak, R H., 149 Wright, D E., 214 Wueest, B., 245, 246, 247 Wuensch, K L., 182 Wundt, W., 40, 354 Yaremko, R M., 5, 23 Yerkes, R., 18, 19 Yoder, C., 200, 201 Yugo, M., 263 Zeidner, M., 62 Zimbardo, P., 177 01/06/13 2:48 AM Final PDF to printer SUBJECT INDEX AB baseline design, 368 ABA baseline design, 356, 366, 368-369 ABAB baseline design, 356 Abstract, in APA style, 499-500 Academic Search Premier, 73 Accuracy of a measure, 128 Active Deception, 175 Alpha level, 430, 438, 451 American Psychological Association (APA), 29, 71 ethical guidelines (animals), 207-209 ethical guidelines (humans), 166, 198, 199-200, 201, 204-205 research deception views of, 177 writing style, 494-954 Analogical theories, 40-42 Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), 466 Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 436-446 Anchors, 261 Animal Liberation Front (ALF), 190 Animal rights movement, 186-187 Animal subjects acquiring, 184 alternatives to using, 190-191 considerations for, 182-190 cost-benefit assessment, 209 ethical guidelines, 207-209 nonrandom sampling and, 163 research integrity and, 210-216 APA Ethical Guidelines See American Psychological Association Apparatus subsection, APA style, 505 Applied research, 4, 61-62 Apprehensive attitude, 147 A priori comparisons, 438-489 Archival research, 241-242 Arithmetic average, 405 Asymptote curves, 398-399 Author name, APA style, 498-499 Author note, APA style, 409 Authority, method of, 21 Automation, 153-154 Bar graphs, 396-397 Baseline designs, baseline phase, 356 behavioral baseline, 356 characteristics of, 357 choosing a stability criterion, 359-360 dealing with uncontrolled variability, 363-365 determining generality of findings, 365 intersubject replication, 357 intervention phase, 356 intrasubject replication, 356 judging differences in stable performance across phases, 361-363 stability criterion, 356, 360-361 transitional behavior and stability criterion, 360 Baseline designs, types of AB, 368-369 ABA, 368-369, ABAB, 356 multifactor, 372 multiple-baseline, 373-376 single-factor, 368-372 Baseline phase, 356 Basic research, Behavior, 5-8 Behavior baseline, 356 Behavioral categories, 220-221 Behavioral measures, 141 Behavioral sequences, 222 Belief-based explanations, 16-17 Belmont Report, 197 Beneficence, principle of, Beta weights, 419, 474 Between-group variability, 436 Between-subjects designs and error variance, 289-292 defined, 289 matched-groups, 297-299 randomized-multigroup, 296-297 single-factor randomized, 292-297 Bias confirmation, experimenter, 148-152 nonresponse, 266 observational research and, 230-231 sample, 276 subject selection, 114 volunteer, 167 Biased language, avoiding, 524-525 Bimodal distributions, 405 Bivariate linear regression, 417-419 Blind observer, 230 Blind techniques, 151 Boxplots, 411-412 Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 72 Canonical correlation, 461, 477-478 Carryover effects, 303-310, 327, 341, 348, 351 Case history, 240-241 Casual observations, 57, 58 Causal inference, 462 I-6 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-6 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer Subject Index Causal relationships, 100-101, 486-488 Causes of behavior, exploring, 7-8 Ceiling effects, 138 Centroid, 476 Changing Criterion Design, 376 Chi-square, 477-478 Children, as research subjects, 200-201 Circular explanations, 19-20 Classical conditioning, 35-36 Clever Hans phenomenon, 149-150 Closed-end items, 259-260 Cluster sampling, 282-283 Code sheet, example, 390 Coding schemes, 220 Coefficient alpha, 274 Coefficient of determination, 419 Coefficient of nondetermination, 420 Cognitive dissonance, 42 Cohen’s Kappa, 226-228 Cohort-sequential design, 349 Combined designs, 326-230 Commonsense explanations, 14-16 Communication, personal, 72 Comparisons, 438-439 Composite scale, 136 Computer modeling, 35-37 Concurrent validity, 130, 275 Confirmation bias, Confirmational strategy, 48 Confirmatory factor analysis, 470 Confounding, 112, 322-323 Confusion matrix, 227 Construct validity, 130, 275 Content analysis, 243-247 Content footnote, APA style, 516-517 Content validity, 129, 274 Contingency tables, chi-square for, 447 Contrast effects, 310 Control group, 106 Conventions, 71-72 Cooperative attitude, 147 Copy editor, 534 Copyright permission footnote, APA style, 516-517 Correlation matrix, 420 Correlational relationships, 100-102 Correlational research advantages, 103-105 defined, 100 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-7 directionality problem, 103 experimental designs combined with, 462 multivariate correlational designs, 461 third-variable problem, 102-103 Cost-benefit assessment, 209 Counterbalancing, 305-308 Covariates, 331 Criterion variables, 103, 245, 461 Criterion-related validity, 130, 275 Critical region, 431-432 Critical value of a statistic, 430 Cross-generational effects, 346 Cross-sectional designs, 344-346 Cues, role attitude, 146-147 Curvilinear relationship, 415 Data collection, 231 computer entry, 393-395 data driven versus theory driven research, 51-53 examining, 394-395 file, 394 from multiple observers, 230 generality of animal research, 184-186 graphing , 395-401 organizing, 393-395 qualitative, 231 quantitative, 231 summary sheets, 389-393 transformation, 454-457 Data summary sheets, 389-393 Data transformation, 454-456 Debriefing, 179-181,204-205 Deception problems involved in using, 175-177 solutions to, 177-181 types of in research, 175 Declaration of Helsinki, 197 Deductive reasoning, 28 Degrees of freedom (df), 425 Dehoaxing, 204-205 Demand characteristics, 146-148 Demographics, 258 Demonstrations, experiments versus, 110-111 Dependent measures or variables adequacy, 137 defined, 106 multiple, 321, 462 range effects, 138 I-7 sensitivity, 137 tailoring, 139-140 types of, 141-144 Descriptive statistics defined, 388 five-number summary, 411 measures of association, 413-421 measures of center, 405-408 measures of spread, 409-410 Descriptive theories, 40 Designs See Research designs Developmental designs, 344-349 Differential carryover effects, 307-308 Digital object identifier (DOI), 514-515 Direct replications, 365 Directionality problem, 103 Disconfirmational strategy, 49 Discrete trials designs, 379-382 Discriminant analysis, 476-477 Discrimination learning, 140 Discussion section, APA style, 511 Dissertation Abstracts International, 72 DOI system number, 515 Domain of a theory, 43 Double-blind technique, 151 Drifting baselines, 366 Dummy coding, 389, 393 Duration method, 221 Dynamic designs, 377-379 EBSCO, 73-78, 97 EBSCOhost, 97 Ecological validity, 135-136 Economic sample, 284 Editorial policy, 88 Editorial review process, 532-534 Effect size, 451-452 Empirical question, 63 Endogenous variables, 487 Equivalent time series designs, 336 Error bars, 396 Error of measure, 466-467 Error variance defined, 289 in single-subject designs, 383 sources of, 289-290 ways of handling, 291-292 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA 2002), 198, 199-200, 201, 204-205 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer I-8 Subject Index Ethical research practice, animal subjects, 207-209 evolution of, 196-197 human participants, 193-206 institutional policies and, 166 internet and, 267-269 both below can be combined, 536 reporting or publishing results, 536 science and, 210,216 survey research and, 256-257 Ethnography, 234-238 Ethograms, 220 Event sampling, 223 Exogenous variables, 487 Expectancy effects, 150 Experimental designs between-subjects, 292-300 confounding in, 322-323 error variance in, 289-290 factorial, 314-321 multivariate, 321 other group-based, 321 single-subject (small n), 353-385 types of, 288-289 within-subjects, 300-302 Experimental error, 436-437 Experimenal group, 106 Experimental mortality, 114 Experimental research defined, 106 characteristics of, 106-107 strengths and limitations of, 109 versus demonstrations, 110-111 Experimenter bias, 148-152 Explanatory relevance, 46 Exploded pie graph, 400 Exploratory data analysis (EDA), 388-389 Exploratory data collection (EDC), 99 Exploratory factor analysis, 470 External validity, 111-117, 161,171-172, 357 Extraneous variables, 107-108 main effects, 317 simple main effects, 318 treatment order and, 309 within-subjects, 318-319 Familywise errors, 439 Faulty inference, 18-19 Field experiment, 119 Field research, 165 Field settings, 119-120, 165-166, 234-238 Field survey, 256-257 File drawer phenomenon, 86, 249 Finite population correction (fpc), 284-285 Five-number summary, 411 Floor effects, 138 Fractional factorial design, 321 Fraud in research, 210-216 Frequency distribution, 401-404 Frequency method, 221 Functional explanation, 37-38 Functional relationships, 397 Fundamental theories, 42 F ratio, 441 Face validity, 129 Face-to-face interviews, 270-271 Facilitated communication, 149-150 Factor analysis, 468-470 Factor loading, 468 Factorial designs, higher-order, 320-321 interactions, 317-318 Habituation, 232-234 Habituation technique, 139 Heteroscedasticity, 465 Heuristic value, 44 Hierarchical regression, 473 Higher-order factorial designs, 320-321 Histograms, 402-403 History effect, 348 Homoscedasticity, 465 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-8 Gatekeepers and ethnography, 236 Generalization, 161 Generation effect, 346 Government regulations and ethics, 198, 199-200 Graphs APA style for, 518-519 bar, 398-399 boxplots, 411-412 elements of, 395-396 histograms, 402-403 importance of, 400-401 line, 397-398 pie, 400 scatter plots, 399 Graphics on questionnaires, 265 Group-administered surveys, 269-270 Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 208-209 Human participants acquiring, 164-166 APA guidelines, 166, 198, 199200, 201, 204-205 children as, 200-201 considerations when choosing, 28, 158-164 deception, 173-177 field research, 165-166 government regulations, 198, 200-201 informed consent, 194 internet research and, 201-205 laboratory research 165 reactivity in, 145-152 research integrity and, 210-211 tailoring measures to, 139-140 voluntary participation and, 167-169 Hypotheses defined, 24, 54 developing, 26-28, 95 rival, 111-112 testing, 99 theory versus, 33-34 Hypothetico-deductive method, 51 Impact factor, 71 Implicit Association Test, 143 Implicit measures, 143 In vitro alternative to animal research, 190-191 Independent variable defined, 106 manipulate, 288-289 quasi, 332-335 treatment order as, 309-310 Indirect measures, 223 Individual sampling, 223 Inferential statistics alpha level, 430, 438 alternatives to, 455-457 data transformations and, 454-455 defined, 430 degrees of freedom, 425 effect size, 451-452 logic behind, 426-432 nonparametric, 450 one-tailed versus two-tailed tests, 430-432, 451 parametric, 432-437 parametric versus nonparametric, 425-426 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer Subject Index power, 450-552 sample size, 451 sampling distribution, 424-425 sampling error, 425 scale of measurement and, 134-135 significance, 429-430 single-subject designs and, 383-385 statistical errors, 428-429 statistical versus practical significance, 452-453 Information extract, 245-246 Information yielded by a measure, 134 Informed consent, 194, 202-203 Informed-consent form, 205-206 Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), 71 Institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC), 208-209 Institutional policies and ethics, 166 Institutional review board (IRB), 205-206 Instrumentation and internal validity, 114 Interaction, 317-318, 442-443 Internal validity, 111-114, 170-171, 356 Internet research anonymity, 203 confidentially, 203 deception in, 204-205 ethical issues, 201-205 ideas from, 72-73 informed-consent issues, 201 nonrandom sampling and, 161-163 privacy, 203-204 surveys, 267-268 Interquartile range, 410 Interrater reliability, Cohen’s Kappa, 226-228 defined, 226 intraclass correlation, 229-230 Pearson product-moment correlation, 228-229 percent agreement, 226 Interrupted time series designs, 335-336 Intersubject replication, 357 Interval scale, 133 Intervals method, 222 Intervention phase, 356 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-9 Intraclass correlation (ICC), 229-230 Intrasubject replication, 356, 365 Introduction, APA style, 500-504 Irreversible changes, 308 Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital and ethics, 198 Journals editorial policy, 88 refereed versus nonrefereed, 70-71 review process, 85 submissions to, 534-534 Journals in psychology, 71 Journal Citation Report, 71 JSTOR, 75, 78 Justice, principle of, 197 Laboratory setting, 117-119, 165 Latent variables, 489 Latin square ANOVA, 441 Latin square designs, 306 Law, 34 Lazy writing, 532 Least-publishable-unit rule, 212 Least-squares regression line, 306 Library research, 73-76 Likert scale, 142, 263 Limiting sentences, 528 Line graphs, 397-399 Linear regression, bivariate, 417-419 least-squares regression line, 418 prediction errors, 419 regression weight, 418, 419 residuals, 419 Linear transformations, 454 Linearity assumption, 463 Literature review, meta-analysis versus traditional, 247-248, 252 Literature, reviewing reasons for doing, 66 sources for 66 Little Albert, 193-195 Loglinear analysis, 483-484 Longitudinal designs,346-349 Mahalanobis distance, 464 Mail surveys, 266-267 Main effects, 317, 442-443 Manipulation check, 155 Mann-Whitney U test, 449-450 Manuscript See Research reports, preparing Margin of error, 126-127 I-9 Matched-groups designs, 297-300 Matched-multigroup design, 300 Matched-pairs design, 299-300 Materials subsection, APA style, 505 Maturation and internal validity, 113-114 Mean, 406-407 Measurement choosing scale of, 134-136 error, 466-467 Q-sort technique, 142-143 scales of, 131-133 Measures accuracy,128-129 adequacy, 137-138 behavioral, 141 choosing, 134-135 dependent, 106 ecological validity, 135-136 established, 130-131 implicit, 143 physiological, 141-142 range effects, 138 reactive nature of, 145-152 reliability, 126-128 resistant, 404 scale of measurement of, 131-133 self-report, 142 tailoring to participants, 139-140 validity, 129-131 variables and, 133-134 Measures of association, 413-421 Measures of center, 405-409 Measures of spread, 409-411 Mechanistic explanations, 37-38 Median, 406 Meetings, 71-72 Meta-analysis, 247-252 Method of authority, 21-22 Method section, APA style, 504–507 Methods of inquiry, 21-25 Mix Mode survey, 271 Mixed designs, 326-328, 445 Mode, 405-406 Model, 35-37 Monotonic curves, 399 Multicollinearity, 466 Multifactor single-subject designs, 372 Multiple-author citations, APA style, Multiple control group design, 296 Multiple R, 473-474 Multiple regression, 472-476 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer I-10 Subject Index Multiple-baseline designs, 372-376 Multiple control group design, 296 Multiple-observation effects, 348 Multiple R-square, 473-474 Multiple regression Multistage sampling, 283 Multivariate analyses, canonical correlation, 477-488 discriminant analysis, 476-477 factor analysis, 468-470 multiple regression, 461-476 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), 462, 478-482, 490 multiway frequency analysis, 483-484 path analysis, 485-488 structural equation modeling (SEM), 489 Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), 463, 478-481, 490 Multivariate correlational techniques, 421, 461-463 Multivariate outlier, 464 Multivariate designs, 460-467 Multivariate strategy, 460 Multiway frequency analysis, 483 National Research Act, 197 National Research Council (1996), 209 Naturalistic observation, 232-233 Negative attitude, 147 Negatively accelerated curves, 398 Nested designs, 328-230 Nominal scales, 132 Nonequivalent control group design, 338-339 Nonexperimental research archival, 241-242 bias in, 230-231 case history, 240-241 content analysis, 243-247 ethnography, 234-238 observational, 219-231 meta-analysis, 247-252 naturalistic observation, 232-233 research designs, 232-247 sociometry, 239 Nonmonotonic curve, 399 Nonparametric design, 296 Nonparametric statistics, 425 Nonparticipant observation, 234-235 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-10 Nonrandom sampling, 161-162 animal subject, 163 internet research, 162-163 Nonrefereed journals, 71-72 Nonresponse bias, 266 Nonscience, 9-10 Normal distribution, 404 Normality assumption, 404, 432 measures of center, 408 measures of spread, 405 Pearson r, 413 Nuremberg Code, 196-197 Oblique rotation, 469 Observational research behavior sequences, 222 behavioral categories, 220-221 biased sources, 230-231 complexity, coping with, 222-225 data collection, 231 establishing reliability, 225-230 multiple observers, 230 quantifying behavior, 221-222 single events, 222 Observations ethnography, 234-238 naturalistic, 232-234 in scientific method, 23-24 systematic, 58-59 unsystematic, 57-58 Observed value of a statistic, 430 Observer bias, 230-231 Occam’s Razor, 47 Office of Research Integrity (ORI), 211 One-tailed test, 430-432 Open-ended items, 259 Operational definition, 64 Oral presentations, 534-535 Ordinal scale, 132-133 Ordinate (x-axis), 132-133 Orthogonal comparisons, 438 Orthogonal rotation, 469 Outliers, 404, 464 p-value, 438 Paper sessions (presentations), 71, 534-536 Parallel-forms reliability, 127-128 Parametric design, 296, 314, 369 Parametric statistics analysis of variance (ANOVA), 436-438 assumptions underlying, 432 defined, 425 example, 434-435 nonparametric versus, 426-426 t test, 433-343 with two samples, 432-433 z test for proportions, 435 Parsimonious explanations, 14 Parsimony and theories, 47 Part correlation (semipartial correlation), 470, 471-472 Partial correlation, 470-471 Partial counterbalancing, 306 Partially open-ended items, 260 Participant observation, 234 Participants See Human participants Participants subsection, APA style, 504 Passive deception in research, 175 Path analysis, 485-488 Path coefficients, 488 Path diagram, 485 Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson r), 228-229, 413-415 Peer review, 89-92 Percent agreement, 226 Per-comparison error, 439 Personal communications, 72 Phi coefficient (w), 416 Photographs in manuscript, APA style, 518 Physical Compounds, 40 Physical Elements, 40 Physiological measures, 141-142 Pie graphs, 400-401 Pilot study, 28, 154 Plagiarism, 532 Planned comparisons, 438-439 Point-biserial correlation, 416 Population, 159 Positively accelerated curves, 398 Post hoc comparisons (unplanned comparisons), 439 Post hoc tests, 440 Poster sessions, 71-72, 535-536 Power of a statistical test, 450-452 Practical significance, 452 Prediction, 44 Predictive validity, 130, 275 Predictor variables, 103, 258, 461 Preference technique, 139 Pretest-posttest designs, 339-342 Primary sources, 69 Principal components analysis, 469-470 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer Subject Index Principal factor analysis, 469-470 Prior consent to be deceived, 178 Probability pyramiding, 439 Procedure subsection, APA style, 505 Professional meetings, 71-72 Proportionate sampling, 281 Protoscience, 10 Pseudoexplanations, 19-21 Pseudoscience, 10-11 PsycARTICLES, 74, 77, 78 Psychological Abstracts, 71-72 Psychological Science Journal, 71 PsycINFO, 75-78 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.), 495 Publication practices, 84 Q-sort methodology, 142-143 Qualitative approach, 231 Qualitative data, 231 Qualitative theory, 39 Qualitative variables bar graphs and, 396-397 measures of association and, 416 multivariate analysis and, 421 Qualitative versus quantitative theories, 38-39 Quantitative approach, 231 Quantitative data, 231 Quantitative theory, 38-39 Quasi-experimental designs, 332-338 Quasi-independent variables, 332-335 Questionnaires, 258-265, 272-275 Random assignment, 107-108 Random digit dialing, 279 Random sampling, 161, 276-279 Randomized-multigroup design, 296-297 Randomized two-group design, 292-296 Range, 410 Range effects, 138 R-Square, 473-474 Rating scales, 142, 231, 260-264 Ratio scale, 133 Rational method, 22-23 Rationalism, 22-23 Raw score regression weight, 419 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-11 Reactivity of measurement, 145-152 Reasoning, deductive, 28 Recording complexity and, 223-224 ethnographic data, 236-237 single events versus behavior sequences, 222 video recording, 223 Recursive models, 288 Refereed journals, 71-72 Reference section, APA style, 512-516 Reflecting strategy, 464 Regression line, 463 Regression weights, 419, 474 Reliability, 126 Repeated-measures designs See Within-subjects designs Replication, direct, 365 intersubject, 357, 365 intrasubject, 356 systematic, 365 versus inferential statistics, 455-457 Representative sample, 276 Research computer simulations, 190 defined, design, 28 fraud in, 210-216 in vitro methods, 190-191 learning about, 6-7 steps in, 26-29 theory-driven versus data driven, 51-53 what is and, 2-6 Research deception, 173-177 in context, 174 problems involved in using, 175 types of, 175 Research designs choosing, 99 correlational, 101-105 experimental, 105-111 experiments versus demonstrations, 110 external validity, 115-117 field setting, 119-120, 165-166 functions of, 99 internal validity, 111-114 laboratory setting,117-119 Research ideas, sources of, 57-72 Research issues, animal, 187-190 Research process, 26-29 I-11 Research question development, 63-65 Research, reporting ethics of, 536 poster sessions, 71-72, 535-536 presentations, oral, 534-535 presentations, paper, 71, 534-536 publishing, 533-534 Research reports, reading, 78-81 Research reports, writing in APA style abstract, 499-500 APA style, 494-495 author name, 498-499 author note, 499 avoiding biased language, 524-525 citing quoted material, 520, 521 citing references, 520-523 commonly misused words, 531 discussion section, 511 elements of APA style, 520-532 expression and organization, 525-532 figures, 518-519 footnotes, 516-517 formatting, 496 heading structure, 496-497 introduction, 500-504 method section, 504-507 page header, 496-497 parts and order of, 497-519 plagiarism, 523, 532, 537 reference section, 512-516 results section, 507-510 tables, 517-518 title page, 498-499 Research settings, 117-120 Resistant measures, 404 Respect for person, 197 Response bias, 197 Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) program, 214 Restricted items, 259-260 Results section, APA style, 507-510 Reversal strategy, 357 Rho, Spearman’s (r), 416 Rival hypotheses, 111-114 Role attitude cues, 146-147 Role playing, 178-179 Rotation of factors, 468-469 Roy-Bargman stepdown analysis, 481 Running head, APA style, 496 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer I-12 Subject Index Sample, biased, 266-267 defined, 159 economic, 284 nonrandom, 161-164 random, 161, 276-279 representative, 276 size of, 284-285, 424-426, 451-467 versus population, 161 Sampling cluster, 282-283 distribution, 424-425 error, 284, 425 nonrandom, 161-163 proportionate, 281 random, 161, 276-277 simple random, 277-278 stratified, 280 systematic, 281-282 techniques, 276-279 Sampling distribution of the mean, 424-425 Scales of measurement, 131-137 Scatter plots, 399-400 Science as a way of thinking, defined, pseudoscience versus, 9-12 theory’s role in, 43-46 Scientific explanations, defined, 11 failures of, 18-21 characteristics of, 13-14 versus commonsense explanations, 14-16 versus pseudoexplanations, 19-21 Scientific method, 6, 23-26 Scientist, Scope, 43 Second-order meta-analysis, 248 Secondary source, 68-69 Self-report measures, 142 Semipartial correlation (part correlation), 470, 471-472 Serials Index, library, 83-84 Significance, level of, 453-454 Significance of contribution, 88 Simple main effects, 318 Simple random sampling, 277-279 Simple regression analysis, 473 Simulations, 118-119 Single-blind technique, 151 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-12 Single-factor designs, baseline, 368-372 randomized-groups, 292-296 within-subjects, 312 Single-subject designs baseline, 356-376 defined, 289 discrete trials, 379-382 dynamic, 377-379 inferential statistics and, 383-385 Skewed distribution, 404 Small-n approach, See Singlesubject designs Society for Psychological Science, journals of, 72 Sociogram, 239 Sociometry, 239-240 Solomon four-group design, 342-343 Sources of variance, 436 Spearman rank-order correlation (Spearman’s rho), 416 Split-half reliability, 128 Split-plot designs See Mixed designs Squared semipartial correlation, 474 Stability criterion in baseline designs, 356-361 Stacked format, 391-392 Standard deviation, 410 Standard error of estimate, 419 Standard error of the mean, 425 Standardized regression weights, 419, 474 Statistical analysis, 291-292 Statistical errors, 424, 428-429 Statistical regression and internal validity, 114 Statistical significance, 84-86,429-430 Statistical symbols, 509-510 Statistical tests See Inferential statistics Statistics See Descriptive statistics; Inferential statistics Stemplot, 403 Stepwise regression, 473 Stratified sampling, 280 Strong inference, 50 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), 489 Subject mortality, 346-347 Subject pool, 161 Subjects, See Animal subjects; Human participants Subjects subsection, APA style, 504 Subpopulations, 159 Summary sheets, 389, 390, 391 Support sentences, 528 Suppressor variables, 474 Survey research, acquiring a sample for, 275-285 administering questionnaire, 266-271 assembling questionnaire, 272-274 assessing questionnaire reliability, 272-274 assessing questionnaire validity, 274-275 attitude measurement and, 255-256 ethical concerns, 257 observational research versus, 256-257 questionnaire design, 258-266 writing questionnaire items, 258-264 Survey types, face-to-face interviews, 270-271 group-administered, 269-270 internet, 267-269 mail, 266 telephone, 269 Systematic observations automating experiments, 153 choosing a scale of measurement, 34-36 choosing measures, 126-131 choosing variables, 124-126 choosing when to observe, 144 manipulation check,155 pilot study, 154 reactive nature of psychological measurement, 145-155 tailoring measures to participants, 139-140 Systematic replication, 365 Systematic sampling, 281 t test, 433-434 Tables in manuscript, APA style, 489-499 Tautology, 19 Technical report, 75 Telephone surveys, 269 Test-retest reliability, 127 Testability of a theory, 46-47 Testable explanations, 21 Themed sentences, 528 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer Subject Index Theory, scientific characteristics of a good, 46-47 classifying, 38-43 defined, 33 explanatory relevance, 46 heuristic value of, 44 roles of, 43-46 strategies for testing 48-50 testing of, 48 theory-driven versus data-driven research, 51-53 versus hypothesis, 33-34 versus law, 34 versus model, 35 Theory, types of analogical, 40-41 descriptive, 40-42 fundamental, 42 qualitative, 39 quantitative, 38-39 Third-variable problem, 102-103 Three-way interaction, 320 Time sampling, 223 Time series designs, 335-336 Title page, APA style, 498-499 Transitional behavior, 360 Transitional sentences, 528 Treatments, 106 Two-tailed test, 431-432 Two-way interaction, 320 Type I error, 429 Type II error, 429 U.S Department of Agriculture, 208 U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 198, 200 U.S Office of Research Integrity (ORI), 211 U.S Public Health Service, 207-208 Unit length and writing, APA style, 527 bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-13 Univariate outlier, 464 Univariate strategy, 460 Unobtrusive observations, 232 Uncontrollable variability, 363-365 Unplanned comparisons (post hoc comparisons), 439 Unrecoverable baselines, 369 Unstacked format, 391 Unstructured interview, 270 Unweighted means analysis, 439, 441 Validity concurrent, 130, 223 construct, 130, 275 content, 129, 274-275 criterion-related, 130, 275 ecological, 135-136 external, 111-117, 161, 171-172, 357 face, 129 internal, 111-115, 170-171, 356 of a measure, 129-130 of a questionnaire, 274-275 predictive, 130, 223 volunteerism and, 167-177 Values, influences on research, 92-95 Variables See also Dependent variables; Independent variables choosing for a study, 124-126 confounding, 112-113, 322-323 correlational research and, 100-105 criterion, 102, 258, 275, 461 defined, 23-24 demographic, 258 endogenous, 487 exogenous, 487 experimental research, 105-111 extraneous, 107-108 I-13 identifying, 248-249 identifying for meta-analysis, 248-249 internal validity and, 111-113 latent, 489 operationally defining, 64 predictor, 103, 258, 461 quasi-independent, 332-335 range effects, 138 scales of measurement and, 133-134 Variance, 410 Variation, partitioning, 436-437 Volunteer bias, 167 Volunteerism and external validity, 171-172 and internal validity, 170-171 factors affecting decision to volunteer, 167-169 remedies for volunteerism, 172-173 Web of Knowledge, 71 Weighted means analysis, 441 Wilcoxon signed ranks test, 450 Within-group variability, 436-437 Within-subjects designs, advantages and disadvantages of, 302-304 carryover effects in, 304-305 defined, 289 MANOVA with, 481-482 matched-groups designs versus, 312 types of, 312-314 when to use, 311 Writing APA style, 495-494 Wright’s rules and path analysis, 488 z test for two proportions, 435 01/06/13 2:59 AM Final PDF to printer bor35457_sidx_I6-I16.indd I-14 01/06/13 2:59 AM Ninth Edition Ninth Edition highlights of the ninth eDition: •  expanded material enriches the text, including enhancements to the sections on peer review, values in research, external validity, deception in research, content analysis, and judging stable diferences in performance across phases •  The “Questions to Ponder” feature disperses thought-provoking questions in various places in each chapter, helping students master material as they read What people aRe saying aBout ReseaRch design and Methods: “Great text! Good information, presented well.” –Nicole Dorey, University of Florida “It is a well-balanced, well-written book There is enough depth to make it challenging, without being overwhelming.” –Victoria Kazmerski, Penn State Erie BoRDens | aBBott Visit www.mhhe.com/bordens9e for a wealth of student and instructor resources! ReseaRch Design and MethoDs A Process Approach Kenneth s BoRDens | BRuce B aBBott MD DALIM 1240192 06/06/13 CYAN MAG YELO BLACK “ This is the textbook you need to use to show psychology students how to research.” –John S Rosenkoetter, Missouri State University A Process Approach •  new research examples make use of contemporary subjects relevant to today’s students, including texting while walking, and the ethics involved in doing research using social media ReseaRch Design and MethoDs Research design and Methods: a Process approach takes students through the research process, from developing a research idea, to designing and conducting a study, through analyzing and reporting data Information on the research process is presented in a lively and engaging way, highlighting the numerous decisions, both big and small, that must be made when designing and conducting successful research ... Correlational Research 101 An Example of Correlational Research: Cell Phone Use and Accidents 102 Behavior Causation and the Correlational Approach 102 Why Use Correlational Research? 103 Experimental Research. .. industrial psychology (among others) Overlap Between Basic and Applied Research The distinction between applied and basic research is not always clear Some research areas have both basic and applied... literature searches, research participants, data analysis, plagiarism, and evaluating web sources Instructors will have access to an instructor’s manual, test bank, and PowerPoint presentations, all