Gross psychology 6th ed

gross richard PSYCHOLOGY The Science of Mind and Behaviour Sixth Edition Dedication To Laya Naomi and Shayla Dee, my beautiful youngest granddaughters; Freya Louise, their beautiful older cousin and sister respectively; Tanya and Jo, their respective beautiful mothers; and Jan, my beautiful wife, who’s had to wait so long for this huge project to finally reach a conclusion I love you all Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB Telephone: +(44) 01235 827720 Fax: +(44) 01235 400454 Lines are open from 9.00 to 5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service You can also order through our website www.hoddereducation.co.uk British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN: 9781444108316 First Published 2010 Impression number Year 10 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 Copyright © 2010 Richard Gross All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under license from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited Further details of such licenses (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS Cover photo © 2010 Richard Gross Illustrations by Kate Nardoni/Cactus Design Typeset by 11/12 pt Bembo, MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company, Chennai Printed in Dubai for Hodder Education, an Hachette UK Company, 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH Some figures in the printed version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook for copyright reasons CONTENTS Guided Tour Preface vi viii Part 1: The Nature and Scope of Psychology What Is this Thing Called Psychology? Theoretical Approaches to Psychology 14 Psychology as a Science 36 Part 2: The Biological Basis of Behaviour and Experience 10 11 12 The Nervous System 49 Sensory Processes 69 Parapsychology 82 States of Consciousness and Bodily Rhythms 95 Addictive Behaviour 112 Motivation 129 Emotion 144 Learning and Conditioning 158 Application: Health Psychology 173 Part 3: Cognitive Psychology 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Attention 197 Pattern Recognition 212 Perception: Processes and Theories 224 The Development of Perceptual Abilities 241 Memory and Forgetting 256 Language and Thought 275 Language Acquisition 287 Problem-Solving, Decision-Making and Artificial Intelligence 303 Application: Cognition and the Law 318 Part 4: Social Psychology 22 Social Perception 335 23 24 25 26 27 Attribution 354 Attitudes and Attitude Change 365 Prejudice and Discrimination 382 Conformity and Group Influence 400 Obedience 413 28 29 Interpersonal Relationships 427 Aggression and Antisocial Behaviour 449 30 31 Altruism and Prosocial Behaviour 465 Application: The Social Psychology of Sport 481 Part 5: Developmental Psychology 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Early Experience and Social Development 493 Development of the Self-Concept 514 Cognitive Development 527 Moral Development 546 Gender Development 562 Adolescence 577 Adulthood 591 Old Age 609 Application: Exceptional Development 624 CONTENTS Part 6: Individual Differences iv 41 42 43 44 45 46 Intelligence 640 Personality 662 Psychological Abnormality: Definitions and Classification 682 Psychopathology 699 Treatments and Therapies 723 Application: Criminological Psychology 745 47 Bias in Psychological Theory and Research 763 48 49 50 Ethical Issues in Psychology 775 Free Will and Determinism, and Reductionism 792 Nature and Nurture 808 Acknowledgments References Index CONTENTS Part 7: Issues and Debates 821 824 875 v GUIDED TOUR Helps you to analyse, evaluate and assess the validity of this scientific information – a crucial component of A Level and Undergraduate study Psychology is a research-driven field These updates let you see how scientific explanations change in light of new information, showing you ‘How Science Works’ Understanding the cultural context of scientific findings helps you to explain and evaluate a variety of methods and results from different psychological studies With some key questions in mind (if not always answers!) you will more easily understand the major studies and theories This feature explains the methods, results and implications of some of the more iconic or innovative work in psychology There’s a lot to take in for your exams and essays This feature will help you revise, build up your knowledge of the key points and see how they fit together Helps you evaluate a particular theory or piece of research by understanding its connections with others Research Update 4.1 Glial cells: the other half of the brain; and spindle cells: the cells that make us human CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY 21.1 Remembering as a cultural activity Ask Yourself Can you see any parallels between the frustration– aggression hypothesis and certain parts of Adorno et al.’s theory Mr Blackwell: hermaphrodite (Goldwyn, 1979) In an article called ‘The fight to be male’, Goldwyn cites the case of Mr Blackwell, only the 303rd true hermaphrodite in medical history Case study It can be hard to link theories to real life Case studies give you concrete examples of people’s stories, and how they confirm or challenge psychological research CRITICAL DISCUSSION: 32.1 Attachment styles and evolution Key Study 9.1 Swallow a balloon if you’re hungry’ (Cannon & Washburn, 1912) CHAPTER SUMMARY Longitudinal studies help us understand the relationship between age and crime, with delinquency peaking at 16–17 years This reflects a very high crime rate at this age LINKS WITH OTHER CHAPTERS/ TOPICS Chapter Maslow’s humanistic theory is probably best known for his hierarchy of needs, which is often discussed in relation to motivation Meet New for the sixth edition, some of the top psychology researchers in the world talk in a more personal way about why they asked the questions they did The methods they used, and the stories behind their research, will help you explain and evaluate the impact of their own and others’ work in this continually developing science Mark Griffiths the Researcher achieve different mood-modifying effects at different times For instance, a nicotine addict may use cigarettes first thing the morning to get the arousing ‘nicotine rush’ they need to get going for the day By the end of the day they may not be using nicotine for its stimulant qualities, but may in fact be using nicotine as a way of de-stressing and relaxing It appears that addicts can use their addiction to bring about mood changes and this is as true for gamblers as it is for drug addicts Addictions When most people think of the word ‘addiction’, they probably think of ‘chemical’ addictions like alcoholism or a heroin addiction However, there is now a growing movement that views a number of behaviours as potentially addictive, including behaviours that not involve the ingestion of a psychoactive substance like alcohol or nicotine These include behaviours as diverse as gambling, overeating, sex, exercise, videogame playing, love, Internet use and work (Griffiths, 2005) In fact, you can become addicted to almost anything Such diversity has led to new, all-encompassing definitions of what constitutes an addictive behaviour, such as: A repetitive habit pattern that increases the risk of disease and/or associated personal and social problems Addictive behaviours are often experienced subjectively as ‘loss of control’ – the behaviour contrives to occur despite volitional attempts to abstain or moderate use These habit patterns are typically characterised by immediate gratification (short-term reward), often coupled with delayed deleterious effects (long-term costs) Attempts to change an addictive behaviour (via treatment or self initiation) are typically marked with high relapse rates (Marlatt et al., 1988: 224) The key idea here that is common to previous ideas about chemical addictions is the idea of ‘loss of control’ The person with the addiction is not able to regulate their behaviour as they would like and their behaviour becomes extreme All kinds of addictive behaviour have elements in common and these are reminiscent of the clinical criteria for diagnosing substance dependence However, some individuals engage in behaviours that have addictive elements without it necessarily being a full-blown addiction If someone has no negative withdrawal effects after stopping their excessive cocaine use or gambling, are they really addicted? If the cocaine use or gambling does not conflict with anything else in that person’s life, can it be said to be an addiction? In very simple terms, the difference between an excessive enthusiasm and an addiction is that enthusiasms add to life whereas addictions take away from it For many years I have been using what I call the ‘components model’ of addictive behaviour It is my belief that all addictive behaviours comprise a number of core components These are outlined briefly below SALIENCE in Salience refers to how important the behaviour becomes to the individual Addictive behaviours become the most important activity for a person, so that even when they are not doing it they are thinking about it It should also be noted that some addictive behaviours such as smoking (nicotine) and drinking (alcohol) are activities that can be engaged in concurrently with other activities and therefore not tend to dominate an addict’s thoughts or lead to total preoccupation For instance, a smoker can carry around their cigarettes and still engage in other day-to-day activities However, if that person were in a situation in which they were unable to smoke for a long period (such as a 24-hour plane flight), smoking would be the single most important thing in their life and would totally dominate their thoughts and behaviour.This is what could be termed ‘reverse salience’, with the addictive activity becoming the most important thing in that person’s life when they are prevented from engaging in the behaviour TOLERANCE Tolerance refers to the increasing amount of activity that is required to achieve the same effect The classic example of tolerance is a heroin addict’s need to increase the size of their ‘fix’ to get the type of feeling (e.g an intense ‘rush’) they once got from much smaller doses In gambling, tolerance may involve the gambler gradually having to increase the size of the bet to experience a mood-modifying effect that was initially obtained by a much smaller bet It may also involve spending longer and longer periods gambling chemical to which the person has developed a tolerance However, these effects can also be experienced by gamblers, so the effects might be due to withdrawal from the behaviour as well as the substance CONFLICT People with addictive behaviours develop conflicts with the people around them, often causing great social misery They also develop conflicts within themselves Continual choosing of short-term pleasure and relief leads to disregard of adverse consequences and long-term damage, which in turn increases the apparent need for the addictive activity as a coping strategy RELAPSE This refers to the tendency for repeated reversions to earlier patterns of the particular activity to recur and for even the most extreme patterns typical of the height of the addiction to be quickly restored after many years of abstinence or control The classic example of relapse behaviour is in smokers who often give up for a period of time only to return to full-time smoking after a few cigarettes However, such relapses are common in all addictions, including behavioural addictions such as gambling IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH MOOD MODIFICATION WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS Mood modification is the experience people report when they carry out their addictive behaviour People with addictive behaviour patterns commonly report a ‘rush’, or a ‘buzz’ or a ‘high’ when they are taking their drugs or when they are gambling, for example What is interesting is that a person’s drug or activity of choice can have the capacity to Withdrawal symptoms are the unpleasant feelings and physical effects that occur when the addictive behaviour is suddenly discontinued or reduced This can include ‘the shakes’, moodiness and irritability These symptoms are commonly believed to be a response to the removal of a Research shows that singular approaches to explaining addictions have major shortcomings in providing a comprehensive explanation for addictive behaviour Furthermore, psychological explanations are insufficient to explain the full complexity of addiction and that a unified theory of addiction will be complex and biopsychosocial Whether ongoing behaviour is explained in terms of biological, behavioural or cognitive theories, it still remains unclear why one person engages more heavily in one behaviour than another In other words, while it seems likely that increased involvement with a particular behaviour is likely to contribute to loss of control over behaviour, development of irrational beliefs and greater psychological dependence, it is important to determine what makes some people more susceptible to `these factors than others It is here that research into biological and personality factors becomes important 116 117 DYNAMIC LEARNING RESOURCES We’ve highlighted the online Dynamic Learning resources available to support each chapter Student resources Tutor resources Revision schema: attitudes & attitude change Extension activities: subjects such as cognitive response model of attitude change Weblinks & further reading: subjects such as persuasive communication, propaganda & advertising Multiple-choice questions: attitudes & attitude change Exam commentary & sample essay: attitude– behaviour relationship PowerPoint presentation: subjects such as theories of persuasive communication Student resources are freely available for purchasers of this book, and include Revision Schemas, Further Reading and Web Links with short commentaries Please see page 903 for details of how to access these resources Tutor resources are separately available on a subscription basis and include comprehensive PowerPoint presentations, Multiple Choice Question tests for every chapter, Personal Tutor exam commentaries with audio linked to sample essays, and Stretch and Challenge material Please go to www.dynamic-learning.co.uk The Tutor package also contains a series of Video Clips showing research themed around key experiments and interviews with some of the Meet the Researcher contributors from the book PREFACE When I completed the first edition of this text (in 1986, with publication in 1987), I wouldn’t have believed that five more editions would follow over the next 23 years Nor could I have imagined that so many eminent psychologists – the researchers whose theories and research findings form the basis of this very book – would actually be contributing to this sixth edition I’m flattered that they wished to ‘participate’ and also delighted that they have revealed themselves as ‘real’ human beings, who happen to have taken a psychological path (rather than ‘mere’ names in a textbook or a student essay) What could be more appropriate in a textbook of psychology! What their contributions also show is that there’s always a ‘story’ behind a theory or chosen research area Research doesn’t appear out of nowhere: as with everything else in life, a huge number of interacting variables contribute to what we do, when and where we it, who we may it with, how it turns out, and so on Psychologists are no exception! So, every time you read about a particular study, psychological concept or construct, or full-blown theory, remember that behind it are one or more human beings, like yourself in many respects Something that you as, a student having to write essays, dissertations, seminar papers, and so on, and I, as a textbook author, have in common, is the challenge of deciding what is best to include and exclude within what are always finite resources – time, money, words, and so on We decided from the outset that this sixth edition should be lighter (both literally and in word count) than the previous edition, which meant something had to go Users of my book are (mainly) students new to psychology, who need to know something of its own ‘story’ in order to appreciate where it is now But the greater the coverage of past theory and research, the less room is left for more recent and current theory and research My solution was to reduce the detailed coverage of the older (but never redundant) material, which left relatively more room for updating, complemented by the ‘Meet the Researcher’ features Some of the older material appears alongside some very recent studies and discussion in the SC section of the Dynamic Learning (see the ‘Guided tour’, pages vi–vii) I believe that the outcome is a better balance between the old and the new, within a more manageable, but still broad, detailed and thorough treatment of the discipline of psychology Part of the appeal of previous editions was that they catered for the needs of students on a wide variety of courses, without being written specifically or exclusively for any one group I hope – and trust – that the same can be said of this sixth edition As before, please let me know what you think of my efforts (via the publisher) – it’s not just students who need feedback! viii CHAPTER WHAT IS THIS THING CALLED PSYCHOLOGY? Introduction and overview (p 1) A brief history (p 2) Classifying the work of psychologists (p 4) The process approach (p 4) Physiological (or bio-)psychology (Chapters 4–12) (p 4) Cognitive psychology (Chapters 13–21) (p 4) Comparative psychology (p 5) The person approach (p 6) Social psychology (Chapters 22–31) (p 6) Developmental psychology (Chapters 32–40) (p 6) Individual differences (Chapters 41–46) (p 6) Areas of applied psychology (p 6) Clinical psychology (p 7) Counselling psychology (p 8) Forensic psychology (p 8) Educational psychology (p 9) Occupational (work or organisational) psychology (p 9) Health psychology (p 10) Chartered psychologists (p 10) The language of psychology (p 11) Psychology and common sense (p 11) Formal vs informal psychology (p 12) Conclusions (p 12) Chapter summary (p 12) Dynamic Learning Resources (p 13) INTRODUCTION and OVERVIEW When a psychologist meets someone for the first time at, say, a party and replies truthfully to the standard opening line, ‘What you for a living?’, the reaction of the newly-made acquaintance is likely to fall into one of the following categories: ● ‘Oh, I’d better be careful what I say from now on’ (partly defensive, partly amused) ● ‘I bet you meet some right weirdos in your work’ (partly intrigued, partly sympathetic) ● ‘What exactly is psychology?’ (partly inquisitive, partly puzzled) obedience 420 Oedipal theory 550 sexual attraction 30–1, 441 stages theory 538 visual perception 252–4 cross-national studies, aggression 459 cross-race identification effect 324 cross-situational consistency/ inconsistency 351 crowded nest syndrome 602 crystallised intelligence 612, 613, 644 cue-arousal theory 453–5 cue-dependent forgetting 270–1 cue-dose training 182 cultural difference 770 see also collectivist cultures; cultural perspective; individualist cultures cultural ideal hypothesis 580, 581 cultural perspective abnormal behaviour 684 attitude change 379 attribution 355, 362 bereavement 620–1 in cognitive development 539, 541, 543 conservation and spatial relationships 535 and construction of knowledge 25 eating disorders 716, 719 gender roles 573–4 health and illness 175–6 identity issues 593–4 intelligence 645–6, 651 life events 597 love 431–2 minimal groups 392 moral development 556–7 relationships 429 science 45 self-concept 520 social loafing 488 and stress response 192 and visual perception 252–4 cultural psychology 25, 772 cultural relativism 573–4, 692–3 cultural syndromes 770 cultural tools, cognitive development 539 culture, definition 769–70 culture bias 768–9, 770–1 culture-bound syndromes 692–3, 719 cumulative deficit theory (IQ) 659, 816 cupboard love theories, attachment 494–6 curiosity drive 139 curriculum, effect of cognitive theory 538 curvilinear model of marriage 444 daily uplifts 188 Dani tribe, colour naming 280 dark adaptation 74 data reduction systems 70 day care, effect on attachment 503 death grief theory 619 see also bereavement; suicide debriefing 780–1 décalage 532 decay theory 268–9 deception in marriage 445 in research 778, 780, 781 decision-making 309–11 declarative memory 266 decrement model 609, 612 deep brain stimulation 730 deep structure 294 defence mechanisms 674, 675–6, 730 see also displacement; projection; repression dehumanisation, genocide 418 deinviduation 462–3 delinquent behaviour 582–3, 584–5, 747, 751 delta waves 104 delusions 712 demand characteristics 45, 162 dementia 54, 611, 613, 627–8 denial 676 dependence syndrome 118 depressants 119–20, 669 depression cognitive biases 739 cognitive triad of depression 707 DSM-IV-TR criteria 707 and emotions 710 from drugs 121 and insomnia 102 monoamine hypothesis (MAOH) 707–8 patient v doctor view 183 treatment 118, 708, 725–7, 732–3, 738–9 deprivation 501–4, 506–7 depth perception 227–8, 244, 245, 250–1, 253–4 desensitisation 459 despair, in old age 617 determinism 793, 796–7, 798–9 detoxification, alcohol 727–8 developmental psychology adolescence 578–89 adulthood 592–601 bereavement 446, 618–21 Bruner’s theory 542–3 gender development 563–74 information-processing approach 543–4 and language 282–3, 289–92 and moral development 547–59 old age 610–17 parenthood 601–6 Piaget’s theory 528–35, 550–2 Vygotsky’s theory 539–42 see also cognitive development; exceptional development INDEX consistency seekers 338 conspiratorial model of schizophrenia 715–16 constancy scaling 228 construct validity 694–5 constructivist theories, perception 233–6, 239 consummate love 431, 432 contact hypothesis 395–6 context-dependent forgetting 270, 271 context-stripping 40 continuity law, perception 226 continuous reinforcement (CRF) 165 contrapreparedness 168 control, need for 141 controlled experiments, in parapsychology 46–7, 89–90 controlled processing 208 conventional morality 553, 554 convergence (visual perception) 228 conversational goals, attribution 363 coordination 61 core sleep 107 correlational studies, media violence 456 correspondence bias (FAE) 360–1 correspondent inference theory 356 cortical cells, vision 77 corticosteroids 52, 66, 186, 189 cortisol 66, 186, 190–1, 581 cost-reward component, altruism 470 counselling 21 counselling psychology 8, 724, 788 counter-transference 731 covariation model 357–9 covert attention 203 Crack 121 creativity behaviourist approach 17 see also giftedness crime prevention 759 crime rate 746 criminal behaviour offenders 746–9 paedophilia 760 profiling 754–8 theories 750–4 treatment of offenders 8, 758–60 criminal justice system, application of psychology criminals see offenders criminological psychology crime factors 746–9 profiling 754–8 see also offenders criterion analysis 669 cross-cultural studies adolescence 584 advantages 771 altruism 467 attachment 501 conformity 405 moral development 552, 556–7 889 INDEX 890 developmental readiness hypothesis 581 developmental theory of the self 519 deviancy hypothesis (DH) 580 deviant behaviour abnormality as 683–5 and attribution 356 see also abnormality; behavioural disorders; mental disorder DHT-deficient males 565 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders see DSM-IV-TR diathesis-stress model eating disorders 720 schizophrenia 714 difference see cultural perspective; exceptional development; prejudice differential abilities scale 648 differential parental investment 569 differentiation hypothesis 755 diffusion of responsibility 418, 469, 473, 475 Direct Mental Interaction with Living Systems (DMILS) 92 direct perception 236–8, 239 directed facial action 149 directive therapies 724, 733–40 discounting principle 360 discrimination 384 gender and sexuality 386–7 institutionalised 384 see also prejudice discriminative stimulus 167 discursive psychology 371 diseases of adaptation 189–90 disfigurement 516 disinhibition, in aggression 458 dismissing attachment 508 disorganised schizophrenia 712 displacement theory 270 and aggression 451, 452 and authoritarian personality 388 defence mechanisms 676, 730 and dreams 675 dispositional factors 355 dispositions 356 distinctiveness, in causal attribution 358 distortions 230 distractibility 204–5 distraction–conflict theory (DCT) 487 distress abnormality as 685 in children 502 distributive justice 554 diurnal activity 74 divided attention 199, 206–10 divorce 443–4, 446, 600–1, 606 effect on attachment 502–3 effect on fathers 605, 606 dizygotic twins (DZs) 652, 817 DNA 811 doctors, relationship with patients 182–3 dogmatism 388 domestic responsibilities 604–6 donor conception 510–11 donor siblings 510–11 ‘door in the face’ tactic 414 dopamine 53, 114, 115, 121, 138 dopamine hypothesis 713–14 dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 579 double-binds 715 Down’s syndrome 632 dramaturgical theory of self 518 dream interpretation 675 dreaming 102, 103, 104–5, 108–10 dreams function 102 psychoanalysis 674–5 recall 105 drive reduction theory 137–8 drive theory 485, 487 drives 132–3, 137 drug addiction 113–18, 124–5 drugs classification 118–19, 120 effects 119–24 influences on use 125, 126 for psychological treatments 125–6, 725–8 dry-mouth theory 137 DSM-IV-TR eating disorders 716, 718 homosexuality 685 mental disorders 688, 689, 690–1, 695–6 substance abuse and dependence 114, 115, 118 dual earner marriages 604–6 dual-memory model (MSM) 262–4 dual process dependency model 407 dual process models, persuasion 372 dual task performance 206 dual-task technique 199 Duck’s model of relationship breakdown 445–6 duration (memory) 259, 260, 261 E-fit 327 early selection filter theory 199–201 eating effect of dieting and control 180–1 motivation 133–6 eating disorders 579, 689, 716–20 ecocultural niche 651 ecological (external) validity 46 ecological perception (bottom-up) theories 225, 236–8, 239 ecstasy 121–2 ECT 728–30 education children with learning difficulties 636–7 and cognitive development 538, 541–2, 543 gifted children 626 and intelligence testing 642 and morality 555 and use of IQ tests 650 educational psychology EEA 32, 33 EEG 54–5, 100 ego 547, 674, 675–6, 730 ego defence mechanisms 675–6 ego identity 583–4, 594 ego-integrity 617 egocentric illusion 531 egocentric speech 283–4 egocentrism 531, 533–4, 551 elderly see old age electric shock obedience experiment 415–18 electrical (self-) stimulation of the brain (ES-SB) 138 electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) 728–30 electroencephalogram (EEG) 54–5, 100 electromagnetic spectrum 70 emic–etic distinction 770–1 emotion/emotions attributional theory 360 basic/primary 145–6 components 146 definition 145, 146 and depression 710 and eyewitness testimony 323 and facial expression 145, 147–8, 155, 220 fear 29, 149, 373–4 and pain 183 personal construct theory 674 and prosocial behaviour 557 and risk of illness 191–2 social context 154–5, 156 theories 146–53 emotion-focused coping (EFC) 193–4 empathising-systemising (E-S) theory 567, 627, 635 empathy, and prosocial behaviour 557 empathy-altruism hypothesis 476 empathy-specific reward (ESR) 476 empiricism 37–40, 233, 809–11, 812 employment, psychologists 5, 8, 9, 10 empty nest distress 602 encoding in memory 22, 257, 259–60, 261, 263–4 in treatment adherence 182 encoding specificity 326 endocrine system 66–7 endorphins 53, 122 engineering model (stress) 185 enkephalins 53 entrapment 419 environment gene–environment correlations/ interactions 815–17 influence on IQ scores 655–7 interaction of genetic factors 814 exceptional development autism 630–5 giftedness 625–30 learning difficulties 636–8 exchange couples 443 excitation transfer 453 excitory synapses 52, 53 executive function, in autism 635 executive processes 544 exemplification 351 exhaustion (stress response) 189 existential psychiatry 715 exogenous cues 185 Experiment, The 423 experimental control 46–7, 91, 98–9 experimental neurosis 162 experimental realism 419 experimenter bias 45, 388 see also experimenter effects experimenter effects 85, 91–3 expert knowledge 308 explicit categorisation 182 expressive vocabulary 285 external validity 46 exteroception 71 extinction (conditioning) 162, 165 extrastriate cortex 77 extreme athletes 483 extreme male brain theory 635 extreme privation studies 505 extroversion 668, 669, 670, 678, 750 eye accommodation 73 function 73–6, 77, 78–80 structure 72, 73, 74, 75 see also visual entries eye movements 73, 215, 231 eyewitness testimony 319, 322–8 face blindness 71 face perception 215, 218–19 in babies 249–50 face recognition 215–16 disorders 217–18, 221 in eyewitness testimony 327–8 inverted faces 216–17 facial attractiveness 438, 439–40 facial disfigurement 516 facial expressions and emotions 145, 147–8, 155, 220-1 and personality 679–80 and visual perception 244 facilitative environments 816–17 factor analysis 642–4 personality 666 factor S 102–3 FAE (fundamental attribution error) 360–1, 665 false beliefs, theory of mind 534, 633–4 false feedback paradigm 148 false memory syndrome 319, 329, 330–1, 332–3 familiarity, in attraction 435 family interaction model 715 family resemblance studies 652 family structures assisted reproduction 510 social constructionist research 26–7 fathers and adolescents 588 child care 605 effect on puberty 581 gay men as 606 role in attachment 496, 497–8 fear and attitude change 373–4 evolutionary response 29 physiological response 149 feature detection theories 214–15 female circumcision 584 feminist psychology 764–6 fictions (illusions) 231 field experiments 456–7 fight-or-flight response (FOFR) 148, 188–9 figuration 339 figure–ground reversal 225–6 filter model (relationships) 430, 433–4 fixed interval reinforcement (FI) 165 fixed ratio reinforcement (FR) 165 flashbacks, drug use 123 flashbulb memories 265 flexible attributions 311 flooding 734 fluid and crystallised intelligence model 644 fluid intelligence 612, 644 focal attention 97–8 focal colours, perception 279 focal theory of adolescence 588–9 focused attention models 199–203 foetal alcohol syndrome 637 ‘foot in the door’ tactic 414 forebrain 50, 57–60 forensic psychology see also criminological psychology forgetting in health behaviours 182, 183 theories 268–73 form perception 225–6 formal operation stage 532, 533 formal v informal psychology 12 formication 121 fovea 73, 203 fraternal polyandry 429 fraud, ESP 85 free association 731 ‘free riding’ 488–9 free will description 793 and genetics 819 meanings 794 in psychological theories 796–800 free-response ESP 85, 88–93 freedom myth 797 INDEX shared and non-shared 814–15 see also nature/nurture issue episodic analgesia 184 episodic buffer 267 episodic memory 265–6, 322, 613 equal environment assumption 652–3 equal status contact 395–6 equilibration (schemas) 528, 529 escape learning 166 ethic of aloneness 789 ethical guidelines 776–7, 781, 782–3, 784 ethical issues codes of conduct 776–7, 778, 784 debriefing 780–1 deception 778, 780, 781 gene therapy 813 human research subject 776–80 informed consent 777–8, 780 non-human research subjects 784 protection from harm 779–80 socially sensitive research 780–4 for therapists 788–90 use of ECT 729 use of token economy 738, 790 ethnic background see cultural perspective ethnocentrism 46, 385, 394, 429, 768–9 ethnocentrism scale 385 ethological approach aggression 449, 450 attachment 496 Eurocentric bias 46, 769 evaluation apprehension model (EAM) 486, 489 evaluative priming 369 EvoFIT 328 evolutionary approach and attachment 497, 500–1 attention 205–6 attractiveness 438–41 collective unconscious 678 consciousness 801 and eating 135 emotion (Darwin) 146–7 evolutionary psychology 28–33 and free will 799 gender development 569–70 and language development 295 love as attachment 432–3 male aggression 450 morality 559 motherhood 603 organisation of society 389 and prejudice 394 purpose of stress 189 rape adaptation hypothesis 451 sleep 107–8 universal egoism, and altruism 476–7 working memory 268 evolutionary psychology basic principles 28–33 information processing analogy 23 891 INDEX frustration–aggression hypothesis 389, 452–3 functional age 610 functional amnesia 328 functional fixedness 305 functional MRI (fMRI) 56 functionalism, birth of 38 fundamental attribution error (FAE) 360–1, 665 fusiform gyrus 77, 78, 221 892 g factor (intelligence) 642, 643, 644, 646 GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) 53, 120 gambler’s fallacy 310, 311 ganglion cells 75 Ganzfeld procedure 85, 88, 89–90 Gaussian filter technique 327–8 gay men families 510, 606 see also homosexuality; same-sex relationships gender, definition 563 gender bias 46, 555, 764–8 gender constancy/consistency 573 gender development hermaphroditism 564–5 terminology 563–4 theories 565–74 gender differences adolescence 380 and crime 748–9 gays and lesbians 431 and helping behaviour 473 marital problems 444 political aspect 765–6 and self-disclosure 351, 436 sexual attractiveness 440–1 social loafing 488 suicide 707 gender dysphoria/dysmorphia 563 gender identity 563, 564, 566, 568–9, 572–3 gender identity disorders 563, 689 gender labelling 567–8, 572 gender roles 563, 567–8, 719 gender-schematic processing theory (GSPT) 573 gender splitting 597, 606 gender stability 572 gender stereotypes 565 gene-environment correlations 815 gene-environment interactions 815–16 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) 185, 188–9 general slowing hypothesis 613 generalised anxiety disorder 702 generation gap 585, 588 generativity 592, 593 genes 811 and language development 296 genetic basis, face perception 250 genetics 4, 811 influence on IQ scores 650–4, 657 in schizophrenia 714–15 see also nature/nurture issue geniculostriate path 76 genital stage, psychosexual development 548 genitalia, development 563 genius 54 see also giftedness; savants genocide, condition for 418 genotype 816 genuine ambiguity, and altruism 468 geometric illusions 230 geon theory 213–14 Gestalt psychology development and learning 170 and perception 225–7, 251 problem solving 305–6 gestalten 226 giftedness criteria 625 disadvantages 626 explanations 627–9, 638 specificity 626–7 studies 625 girls, effect of giftedness 626 glial cells 54 global giftedness 626 glucostatic theory 134 gnostic neurons 215, 221 goggles experiments (perception) 245–7 gonads, in sexual differentiation 565 ‘good wife’ syndrome 766 grammar 288–9 grandmother cells 215, 221 grief 618–20 group cohesion 489 group marriages 429 group membership and prejudice 392–4, 395–6 and stereotyping 346 group performance 488–91 group polarisation 410 groups categorisation 392, 393 conflict 391–2 ingroup differentiation 347, 392, 394, 395, 396 intergroups 346, 383, 389 minimal 392–3 outgroup homogeneity 347, 392, 394, 395, 396 performance in 488–91 social attraction 490 see also bystander intervention; conformity; obedience groupthink 411 growth spurt, adolescence 579 habituation 118, 247 hallucinations 712 hallucinogens 119, 123, 141, 669 hard determinism 796 hardiness 192 hassles scale 188 health belief model (HBM) 176–8 health care practitioners, relationship with patients 182–3 health psychology 10 history and definitions 174 models 174, 175, 176–9 hearing 71 hedonism 132 ‘Heinz’ dilemma 552–3, 555 helping behaviour see altruism hereditarian fallacy 657 heredity see nature/nurture issue heritability 657, 809, 818–19 hermaphroditism 564, 574 heroin 122 heteronomous morality 550, 551 heuristics models of persuasion 372–3 in problem solving 307, 309–10 in social cognition 338 hierarchical mode, intelligence 642 hierarchy of needs 20, 137 hindbrain 50, 61–2 holistic approach to health 175 Holocaust survivors 328–9, 505 holophrases 290 home advantage, in sport 487 homeostatic drive theory 132 homicide and brain abnormality 752–3 by women 749 homosexuality and attractiveness 441 and aversion therapy 735–6 classification 684–5 deviation from norm 683, 764 and intersex condition 566 and parenting 510, 606 relationships 430–1 research 386–7 Hopi tribe, use of language 277 hormones function 66–7 gender development 565–6 hostile aggression 450 hostile attributional bias (HAB) 453, 460 hostility and authoritarian personality 388 and chronic heart disease 191 in segregated groups 395 human nature 29 humanistic approach 20–2, 130 personality 663, 674 hunger drive 133 ‘hunger’ pangs theory 133 hypercomplex cortical cells (vision) 77 hyperphagia (overeating) 136 hypertension 189 hyperthymestic syndrome 272 ICD-10, mental disorder 685, 688, 689, 690, 691, 695, 700 id 547, 730 ideal self 517 ideas of reference 712 identical twins (MZs) 652–4, 715, 817 identification 676 identity in adulthood 592, 593–4, 596 gender 563, 564, 566, 568–9, 572–3 in mental illness 687 negative 563 social 422–3 see also self-concept identity crisis adolescence 583–4 mid-life 596 identity status model 586 ideo-motor response 484 idiographic approach personality 663, 664, 672–9 treatment 735, 736–42 idiographic-nomothetic debate 90, 663, 664 idiot savants 627 illness models 175–6, 686, 724 and stress 186–7, 189–91 see also health psychology; mental disorder illusion of control 311 illusions 229–33, 234, 237–8 in cross-cultural research 252 illusory correlations 311 imagination inflation 330 imitation, in language acquisition 293 immune system, and stress 190–1 implementation intentions 182 implicit personality theory (IPT) 344–9 implosion 735 imposed etics 771 impossible objects 231 impression management 349–51 see also self-enhancement impulse control, adolescents 579 inborn biases 810 incentive theories, eating 134 incidental learning 268 inclusive fitness 477 incongruence 674 independence, and conformity 411 independent variables 46 index offences 746 indigenous psychology 772 individual differences attachment 498–501 birth of interest 38 and information processing 24 intelligence 313, 613, 641–59, 771 personality theories 664–72, 674–9 see also personality main entry and prosocial behaviour 474–5 and puberty 578 and stress 185–6, 191–2, 193 see also abnormality; behavioural disorders; exceptional development; mental disorder individual traits 664 individualism 25 individualist cultures 411 and attitude change 379 and attitude research 371 attractiveness stereotype 438 and conformity 405, 411 depression 710 relationships 429, 432 individuation 678 induced movement 232 inductive method, hypothesis 42 infanticide 570, 749 infantile sexuality 18, 548 infants see babies infibulation 584 informal psychology 12 information-processing analogy 22–3, 24, 40, 99 and attitude change 376 and intelligence 644–5 and moral development 551 in problem solving 306–9 in social cognition 336 information-processing approach, cognitive development 543–4 informational social influence (ISI) 406, 407, 410 informed consent 777–8, 780 ingratiation 350, 414 ingroup differentiation hypothesis 347, 392, 394, 395, 396 inhibitory synapses 52, 53 inner working models 507, 509, 512 insecure-disorganised attachment 500 insight 306 insight learning 170 insight therapies 724 insomnia 101–2 instinct theory 451 instincts 132 institutionalisation and attachment 504, 505, 506, 507 and intelligence 655 institutionalised prejudice/discrimination 384 institutionalised racism 384 instrumental aggression 450 intelligence 313 changes in old age 613 definitions 641 environmental influences 655–7 fluid and crystallised theory 644 genetic influences 650–4, 656–7 as imposed etic 771 information-processing approach 644–5 multiple intelligences 645–6 psychometric theories 642–4 and race 641, 657–9 see also cognitive development intelligence testing 641, 646–50 and education 642 group tests 646, 648 validity and standardisation 649–50 intention-behaviour gap 179, 182 intentionality 356 interactionism 242, 810, 816–17 interference theory 271–2 intergenerational continuity 508–9 intergroup conflict 391–2 intergroups and prejudice 383, 389 and stereotyping 346 internal validity 46–7 internalisation 539 in conformity 406, 407 International Classification of Diseases see ICD-10 Internet, and relationships 431, 435 interneurons 51, 62 interoception 71 interpersonal conflict 383 interpersonal intelligence 646 interpersonal perception see social perception interpersonal psychodynamic therapy (IPT) 732 intersex individuals 564, 566, 568 intimacy and generativity theory 592–4 intimidation 351 intrapersonal intelligence 646 introjection 520–1 introspection 2, 37, 38 introversion 668, 669, 670, 678, 750 intuitive theories see implicit personality theory inverted faces, recognition 216–17 inverted U theory 485 investigative psychology (IP) 755–8 involuntary attentional capture (IAC) 204 IQ 648–50, 658–9, 771 see also intelligence isolation (defence mechanism) 676 James–Lange theory of emotion 147–9 jet-lag, effects 186 just world hypothesis/belief 361, 438, 474 INDEX hypnagogic period 104 hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis 189 hypothalamus 60, 64 hypothesis, definition and description 11, 42 hypothesis testing 30, 41, 42 hypothetico-deductive method 42 hypothyroidism 637 893 INDEX kin selection theory 477 kin-selective altruism hypothesis 441 kinaesthetic sense 71 Klinefelter’s syndrome 565 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development 552–5 Korsakoff ’s syndrome 56, 265 894 L-Dopa 713 labelling and memory 279 and mental illness 686–7 laboratory experiments artificiality 46 bias 42, 45, 46 in mainstream psychology 40–1 media violence 456–7 parapsychology 84–5, 88–93 social influences 44–5 see also bias; experimenter effects language and behaviourist approach 17, 292–3 brain hemispheres 64 and cognitive development 282–3, 289–92, 539, 540, 542 components 287–9 criteria 297 as cultural tool 539 definition 288 design features 298 loss 53 and perception of colour 278–80 role of social interaction 540 social brain hypothesis 31 and thought 275–84, 539 see also language development language acquisition behaviourist approach 292–3 biological approach 293–6, 810 components of grammar 287–9 language acquisition device (LAD) 288, 293–6, 810 language acquisition support system (LASS) 297 language development in animals 297–301 stages 289–92 theories 292–7 and thought 283–4 late adoption, effect on early trauma 505, 506 late-onset criminals 747–8 late selection filter model 202 latency period, psychosexual development 548 latent learning 138, 169–70 lateralisation of brain function 30–1, 62–4 law of contiguity 167 law of parsimony 16 law of prägnanz/precision 226 laws of perception 226–7 lay therapy 21 leading questions 324–5 learned helplessness 141, 168–9, 708 learning definition and concept 158–9 insight 170 observational 169 transfer of 170 see also classical conditioning; operant conditioning learning difficulties 636–8, 655 learning disability 636 learning sets 170 learning theory 15 and language 288, 292–3 left brain hemisphere 57, 62, 63, 64, 628, 629 left hemisphere hypothesis (LHH) 627–8 legitimate authority, in obedience 418 lesbian women families 510, 606 see also homosexuality; same-sex relationships levels of processing (LOP) model 268 LGBI people 441 see also gay men; homosexuality; lesbian women lie scales, personality questionnaires 668 life after death, beliefs 621 life change units (LCUs) 186, 187 life changes, and stress 186–8 life expectancy 610, 611 lifespan approach light 70 and human eye 70 illusions 232–3 limbic system 60, 61, 221 limited-capacity processing 198, 200, 206–7 linear model of marriage 444 linear perspective 228 linguistic intelligence 646 linguistic relativity hypothesis (LRh) 276–8 lipostatic theory 134 Little Albert study 162 Little Peter study 163 localisation of brain function 62–4 location constancy 229 locus coeruleus (LC) 102 locus of control 141 logical-mathematical intelligence 646 long-term memory (LTM) 260, 265–6 longitudinal studies 457–8 looking-glass self theory 518 loss see bereavement; separation love, types 431–3 ‘low-ball’ tactic 414 low-cost altruism 471–2 LSD 123 LTM 260, 265–6 lucid dreaming 108 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 56 mainstream psychology 15, 25, 40 maintenance rehearsal 268 major depressive disorder 706–10 male brain 635 male parental investment 569 mandatory marriage 429 mania 706 manic-depressive (bipolar) disorder 706, 726 manic disorder 706 manipulative drive 139 MAOIs 708, 725–6 marriage 429–30, 600 attribution in 445 and criminal activity 748 dual earner 604–6 same-sex relationships 386, 430–1 see also divorce masculinist bias 46, 764, 766 masochistic personality 766 matching hypothesis 442 matching to standard 489 materialism, and reductionism 805 maternal deprivation 502–4 maturation 809–10 see also stage theories MDMA (ecstasy) 121–2 mean length of utterance (MLU) 291 mechanism 37 media and eating disorders 720 and gender development 572 and prosocial behaviour 478–9 psychological effects 458 media violence and aggression 455–62 vicarious catharsis 478 mediator variables (stress) 191 medical justification, animal experiments 786–7 medical model, illness 174, 686, 724 medulla oblongata 61–2 melatonin 102, 186 memory changes in old age 613–14 and colour names 279–81 effect of drugs 120, 123 eyewitness testimony 319, 322–8 importance of forgetting 273 long-term 260, 265–6 multi-store model (MSM) 262–4 processes 257 reconstructive 320–2 repression/false memory 17, 319, 328–33, 675, 676, 730 retrieval 260–2 schema theory 319, 321–2 semantic 265, 319, 322, 613 sensory 258 short-term 258–9, 266–7 minimal groups 392–3 minority influence 408–10 mirror-image phenomenon 395 mirror neurons 342–3 misapplied size constancy theory 234–5 misattribution effect 153, 325 misinformation effect 330 modelling gender roles 571 see also observational learning models, definition 11 moderator variables (stress) 191 modern racism 393–4 molecular genetic research (MGR) 813 monoamine neurotransmitters 107 monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) 708, 725–6 monocular cues 227 monogamy 429 monotropy 497 monozygotic twins 652–4, 715, 817 mood affective disorders 689, 706–10 mood modification, in addiction 116 mood-stabilising drugs 726 moral accountability, and free will 795 moral development cognitive-developmental theories 550–7 psychoanalytic theory 547–50 social learning theory 557–9 morphemes 288 morphine 122 motherese 291 motherhood mystique/mandate 602–3 mothering, and environment 570 mothers and adolescents 588 infanticide 33 role in attachment 497 surrogate 510 motion after-effects 232 motion parallax 228 motivated-forgetting theory 328–9 motivated tacticians 338 motivation and addiction 579 in aggression 450 in altruistic behaviour 470–1, 476 attributional theory 360 definition 130 early studies 132 in groups 488–9, 491 in observational learning 558 and self-efficacy 559 theories 130–2, 137–8, 139–42 motor neurons 51, 62 movement illusions 232 in perception 237 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 56 MSM (multi-store model) 262–4 Müller-Lyer illusion 234–5 multi-channel attention theories 207–9 multi-store model (MSM) 262–4 multi-trait theories 671–2 multiple intelligences 645–6 multiple selves 517–18 multitasking 198, 209 musical intelligence 646 naïve scientists 338, 355 names effect on impressions 344 manipulation in propaganda 375 in self-concept 524 nativism 37, 809–11, 812 language development 288 perceptual theory 233, 243 see also Gestalt psychology natural experiments 457 natural selection and rate of change 33 and society 482 naturalistic intelligence 645, 646 nature/nurture issue 4, 242 attachment 512 auditory perception 254 autism 632–3 behaviour genetics 817 change in viewpoint 818 gene–environment correlations 815–17 heritability 657, 818–19 and learning difficulties 637 meaning of ‘nature’ 811–13 meaning of ‘nurture’ 813–14 nativism and empiricism 809–10 non-shared environments 814–15 and schizophrenia 714–16 shared environments 814, 815 visual perception 250, 254 needs affiliation 428 and attachment 494–6 hierarchy of 20, 137 negative feedback loop, immune system 191 negative identity 584 negative memory bias 348 negative reinforcement 163, 164, 166, 797 negative schemas 738–9 negative state relief (NSR) model 473 negative stereotypes, ageing 613, 614 negative triad (of depression) 739 neo-dissociation theory of hypnosis 100 neonates see babies neonaticide 749 nerves 51 nervous system autonomic nervous system 64–5 central nervous system 52–64 structure and function 50–2 neural efficiency account 629 neural tube abnormalities 638 neuralgia 184 INDEX and stereotyping 348 working memory 207, 266–8, 613 memory blending 325 memory loss in ECT 730 see also forgetting memory-span procedure 261 memory storage 258–60 men benefits of marriage 601 criminal activity 749–50 and helping behaviour 473 importance of attractiveness 440–1 morality 555 suicide 707 mental disorder in adolescence 582 anxiety disorders 700–6 autism see autism main entry behavioural therapies 162, 724, 733–8 behaviourist approach 704, 733 biological therapies 725–30 classification 688–96 cognitive-behavioural therapies 194, 724, 738–40 definition 690 depression see depression main entry diagnosis 687–8 eating disorders 579, 689, 716–20 and insomnia 102 loss of control 795 mood (affective) disorders 689, 706–10 and personality theory 670 psychodynamic therapies 730–3, 789, 790 schizophrenia see schizophrenia main entry types 689 mental health 684 mental impairment 636 mental modules 29 mental processes see also cognitive processes; cognitive psychology mental retardation 636, 689 mental set 305–6 mental states 315 mere exposure effect 435 meta-analysis (MA) 88–9, 90, 91, 741 metacognition 544 methodological behaviourism 15 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (ecstasy) 121–2 mid-life crisis 595–6 midbrain 50, 60–1, 115 migration, and health 176 Milwaukee Project 656 mind-blindness 634, 635 mind–body problem 801, 804–5 mind–brain relationship 801, 804–5 895 INDEX 896 neurogenetic determinism 800–1, 811–13 neuromodulators 52, 53 neuronal resource account 629 neurons 51–2, 53, 86 activity in giftedness 629 biological clock 101 and brain adaptability 99 in drug use 115 response to food 134–5 neuropeptides 52 neuropsychology 7, 24 neuroscience 16, 342–3 neuroses 18, 689, 691, 730 neuroticism 668, 669, 670, 675, 750, 812 neurotransmitters 51, 52 in depression 708 and eating disorders 720 effect of alcohol 120 in sleep 102, 107 NMDA receptors 714 nocturnal activity 74 nomothetic approach 46 personality 663, 664–72 treatment 735 non-adversary problems 304 non-compensatory models, decision-making 309 non-directive therapies 724–5, 730–3 non-homeostatic needs and drives 130, 139–42, 144–5 non-humans altruistic behaviour 477 effect of conditioning 167, 168 eye position 227 language acquisition 297–300 self-recognition 522–3 use in research 6, 39, 242, 785–8 non-identical twins (DZs) 652, 817 non-industrialized societies initiation rites 578, 584 schizophrenia 692 see also collectivist cultures non-normative influences, adulthood 592 non-normative shifts, puberty 578 non-pictorial cues, depth perception 227–8 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep 103, 104, 105, 107, 108 non-shared environments 814–15 see also twins studies non-specific factors, therapy 742 non-verbal behaviour, and impression management 350 noradrenaline 53, 138, 188, 189, 190 normative influences, adulthood 406, 407, 410, 592 normative shifts, adolescence 578 normative social influence (NSI) 406, 407, 410 norms, deviation and abnormality 683 NREM sleep 103, 104, 105, 107, 108 nucleus accumbens (NA) 115 nurture see environment; nature/nurture issue obedience compliance 413 conditions for 418–19 difference from conformity 415 resistance 422–3, 425 studies 415–18, 419–21, 424, 779 obesity and control 180–1 and eating 136 patient v doctor view 183 object permanence 529, 533 objectification 339 objectivity, in psychology 43–5 oblique factor analysis 666 observation, nature of 42 observational learning 169, 458, 558–9, 573 obsessions 701, 702 obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) 701, 704–5 Occam’s razor 16 occupational psychology 9–10 Oedipus complex 549–50 offender profiling 754–8 offenders factors affecting 746–9 profiling 754–8 treatment 758–60 old age bereavement 446, 618–21 changes in intelligence 612–14 interpretations 610 retirement 618 social changes 614–17 stereotyping 611–12, 614 online relationships 431, 435 open skills 486 operant conditioning 15, 16 applications 16 with autistic children 736–7 challenges 138 cognitive approach 168–9 compared with classical conditioning 167 and motivation 132 reinforcement 132, 138, 164–7 Skinner’s analysis of behaviour (ABC) 164 Thorndike’s law of effect 163–4 see also behaviour modification; learning theory Operation Headstart 655–7 opiates 119, 122 opioids 53 opponent process theory 79 optic flow patterns 236, 237 optimum level theories 140–1 optional sleep 107 oral stage, psychosexual development 548 ordinary personology 337, 355, 362 see also common-sense psychology; social perception organic mental disorders 689 organisational psychology 9–10 orienting response 221 orthoganol factor analysis 666 out-of-body experiences (OBE) 123 outcome research 740–1, 760 outgroup homogeneity effect 347, 392, 394, 395, 396 output equity hypothesis 489 overcontrolled personalities, and aggression 452 overdeterminism 797 overeating 135, 136 overjustification effect 379 own-race bias 324 P-grammar 802, 803 paedophilia 760 pain 183–4 paired-associates recall 262, 271 Palaeolithic Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness/ adaptation (EEA) 32, 33 panic disorder 700 paradigm shift 43 paradigms 42–3 paradoxical figures 231 paradoxical sleep 103 parallel distributed processing (PDP) 315 parallel processing 198, 215 paranoid schizophrenia 712 parapsychology definitions 83–4 history 83 research problems 88–93 study methods 84–8 parasympathetic nervous system 50, 64, 65, 73 pareidolia 92 parenthood 601–3, 604–6 parenting attachment styles 508, 509, 512 and autism 632 effect on antisocial personality 752 effect of early deprivation 506–7 effect on prosocial behaviour 557 and gender roles 567, 570–1 generativity 592 relationship with adolescents 585, 588 relative and absolute differences 814–15 same-sex relationships 510, 511, 606 part–whole relationship law, perception 227 passionate love 431 humanistic theories 663, 674 nomothetic v idiographic approaches 664–5 and performance 486 personal construct theory 662 phenomenological approach 672–4 psychodynamic theories 663, 674–9 psychometric approach 666–72 response to stress 185–6, 191–2, 193 and talent 629 theories on prejudice 384–5, 388–9 trait theories 664–5, 670–2 type theories 667 personality dimensions 667–70 personality disorders 689, 690, 751–4 personality questionnaires 668–9 personality traits 516 personification 339 perspective-taking 534 persuasive communication 366, 371–4 pertinence model 202 PET scans 55–6 phallic stage, psychosexual development 548 phantom limb phenomenon 58, 59, 184 pharmacology, application of behaviourism 16 phase theory of grief 619 phenomenal field 20 phenomenological approach 20, 337–8 personality 672–4 phenotype 816 phenylketonuria (PKU) 637, 816 pheromones 581 phi phenomenon 232 philosophical dualism 37 phobias 162–3, 168, 685, 700–1, 733 phonemes 288 phonological loop 267, 268 phonology 288 photopic vision 74 phrase-structure rules 294 physical appearance, impressions 345 physical attractiveness 438–41 physiological dependence 113, 118, 121, 122 physiological model, (stress) 185 physiological psychology see biopsychology physiological response, to emotion 146, 148, 149 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development moral development 550–2, 554 schemas 528 stages 528–32 pictorial cues (visual field) 228 pineal gland 102 pituitary gland 60, 66 place learning 170 placebo effect 53, 742 play and autism 631 and motivation 139, 140 pleasure principle 132, 547 pluralistic ignorance 468 PNS (peripheral nervous system) 50, 51, 64–6 political and economic conservation (PEC) scale 385 polyamory 429 polygamy 429 pons 61 Ponzo illusion 234 popular culture, research project 26–7 positioning theory 803 positive incentive theory 137 positive regard, and self 521 positive reinforcement 164 positivism 37, 39, 40, 763 positivity bias 356, 357 positron emission tomography (PET) 55–6 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 328–9, 705–6 postconventional morality 553, 554 Potentiality for fascism (F) scale 385, 388 poverty, and intelligence 657 practise, element of giftedness 630 pre-natal influences 655 pre-operational stage, cognitive development 530–2 precognition 84, 85 preconventional morality 553, 554 predictive validity, mental disorder 694 preferential looking technique 247 pregnancy, development of learning difficulties 655 prejudice definitions 383–4 effect on altruism 471 environmental influence 389–92 in eyewitness testimony 324 group influences 392–4, 395–6 institutionalised 384 personality theories 384–5, 388–9 reduction 394–7 and social representations 340 and stereotypes 345–6, 397–8 preoccupied/entangled attachment 508 preparedness and phobias 701, 733 and survival 168 prescience 43 pretend play, and autism 631 primacy effect 262, 341, 344 primary mental abilities model 642–3 primary reinforcers 164 principle of coherence 341 prior expectations, and attribution 357 prison regimes 425, 759, 795 prison simulation experiment 421, 422, 423, 424–5, 463 privation 504–7 INDEX patient adherence 182–3 patient–practitioner relationship 182–3 pattern recognition in chess 307–8 face recognition 215–21 in memory 262 overview 212–13 theories 213–15 peer tutoring 541, 542 perceived behavioural control (PBC) 179 perception 70 adaptation/readjustment 245–7 animal experiments 244–5 automatic 98 cataract patients 242–4 colour 79, 278–80 constancy 228–32 cross-cultural studies 252–4 depth perception 227–8 Gestalt psychology 225–7 in health models 177 illusions 229–33, 234, 237–8, 252 laws 226–7 of people 336–7, 340–8 and problem solving 304 relationship with social perception 335–6 research methods 242–3 of self see self-concept and stress 185 visual perception theories 225, 233–9 perceptual constancies 228–9, 233, 251 perceptual reconstruction (learning) 170 perceptual restructuring 306 perceptual salience, in attribution 361 perceptual set 235 performance effect of audience 485–7 v learning 159 peripheral nervous system (PNS) 50, 51, 64–6 peripheral traits 341–2 peripheralism 276 person approach see also developmental psychology; individual differences; social psychology person-centred therapy 21 and freedom 798–9 personality theory 674 personal construct theory 672–4 personal growth model 610 personal therapy, schizophrenia 740 personal unconscious 678 personality and adrenaline 483 authoritarian 388 classification of theories 663 criminality 750–1 definitions 664, 665, 671 disorders 689, 690, 751–4 897 INDEX 898 problem-focused coping (PFC) 193–4 problem solving approaches 305–9 artificial intelligence 311–16 and consciousness 99 decision-making 309–11 types of problems 304 procedural memory 266 process approach 4–6 see also biopsychology; cognitive psychology; comparative psychology process research 741–3 productive thinking 306 profiling equations 755 projection 388, 676, 730 propaganda 374–5 proprioception 71 prosocial behaviour definitions 466 development 557 prosocial moral reasoning theory 555–7 prosocial personality 474–5 prosopagnosia 217, 220, 221 protection from harm, in research 779–80, 781–2, 783 proto-conversation 297 proximate mechanisms 29 proximity, in attraction 434–5 proximity law, in perception 226 Prozac 726–7 pseudohermaphrodites 564 psi-permissive/inhibitory/conducive experimenters 92 psyche 677 psychedelic model of schizophrenia 716 psychiatry, view of abnormality 686 psychic apparatus 547 psychic determinism 796–7 psychoactive drugs 113 see also drug addiction; substance abuse psychoactive substance use disorder 689 psychoanalysis 730–2 psychoanalytic theory 3, 17–20 aggression 451–2 attachment 494–5 development 593 dreaming 109 and morals 547–50 personality 674–7 transmission into popular culture 28 treatments 730–2 see also psychodynamic approach; psychotherapy psychodynamic approach 17–20, 109 motivation 130 personality 663, 674–9 therapies 730–3, 789, 790 psychogenic amnesia 328 psychokinesis (PK) 84 psycholinguistics 288 psychological altruism 477 psychological dependence, drugs 118, 121, 122 psychological reactance 141, 425 psychologists employment 5, 8, 9, 10 qualifications 5, 8, roles and responsibilities 7, psychology contribution of Freudian theory 19–20 definitions 2, 4, 38, 39 goals 39 history 2–4, 37–41 relationship with science 3, 37–42 subject matter 41 terminology 11 see also applied psychology psychometric approach, personality 666–72 psychometric testing 641 psychometric theories of intelligence 642–4 psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) 190, 805 psychopathy 751–4 psychophysics 72 psychophysiological disorders, and stress 189, 191 psychosexual development 548–50, 593 psychosis 689, 690 and cannabis use 123–4 categories 689 criteria for diagnosis 691 lack of insight 685 psychosocial acceleration theory 581 psychosocial theory development 593 old age 617 psychotherapy 8, 724–5 see also psychodynamic approach, therapies psychoticism 668, 669, 670, 751 psychotropic drugs 669, 708, 725–8 puberty 578–81 public self 518 publication bias 90–1 punishment and behaviour 166 crime 758, 759 see also negative reinforcement pupil (eye) 73 pure memory 261 purging 717 Q-sort measurement 21 qualifications in applied psychology 5, 8, chartered status 10–11 race and altruism 472 and intelligence 641, 657–9 and learning difficulties assessment 636 racial difference, ethics of research 782 racial prejudice 340, 383, 384, 389 racism 393 and altruism 472 and attitudes 369 as prejudice 340, 383, 384, 389 radical behaviourism 15, 130, 797–8, 810 radioactive labelling 55 random event generator (REG) 90 randomness bias 311 rapid eye movements see REM sleep rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT) 23 rationalisation 676 rationalism 37 re-engagement theory 615 reaction formation 19 readiness for learning 538 realistic group conflict theory (RGCT) 391–2 reality principle 547 reasoned action theory (TRA) 178–9, 370 REBT 23 recall 261–2 recapitulation theory 582–3 recency effect 262, 341, 344 receptive vocabulary 290 reciprocal altruism theory 477 reciprocal inhibition 734 reciprocity, norm of 351, 414, 443 recognition 261, 319 recognition-by-components model 213–14 reconstructive memory 266, 320–2 recovered memories 319, 329, 330–1, 332–3 recreational drugs 113, 119–24 recurrent spontaneous PK (RSPK) 84 recursion 295 reductionism 25, 37, 175, 800–1 referent social influence 408 ‘refrigerator parenting’ hypothesis 632 registration (memory) 257 regression 676 rehearsal, in memory 263 reinforcement 164–7, 169 and language 293 and motivation 132, 138 in observational learning 558 see also operant conditioning reinforcement schedules 165–6 relapse, drug addiction 117 relationships with adolescents 585, 588 attachment theory 432–3 attraction 434–5, 436–7, 438–42 breakdown 443–6 definitions 429 and early attachment 507–8 rods and cones 74–5 role conformity 356–7 role confusion 583 romantic love 431–2, 441, 443, 507 rotating hollow mask illusion 234 routinisation, genocide 418 RSPK 84 ‘rule of fifteen’ 323 rules, comprehension in children 550–1 S-R learning 170 S-R psychology 167 see also classical conditioning salience 116 salivation 134–5, 159–61 saltatory conduction 52 same-sex relationships 430–1, 441 parenting 511, 606 see also homosexuality sanity/insanity experiment 693 satiety 135 savants 625, 627 scaffolding 540–1 scanning, development 248 scapegoats 340, 389 schema theory, memory 319, 321–2 schemas in attribution 359 causal 359 cognitive development 528, 529, 530, 810 in memory 319, 321–2 negative 738–9 in perception 238 reorganisation in dreaming 109 of self 517–18 schizophrenia 54, 689 and cultural issues 692 designation 710 diagnosis 711–12 and gene therapy 813 medical attitude 687 and self-concept 521 theories 713–16 theory of mind problems 342 treatment 714, 739–40 types 712–13 science features 41 feminist view 764–5 gender bias 764–5 and mind–brain relationship 801 relationship with psychology 3, 37–41 views 42 see also empiricism scientific data, and fact 42 scientific method 41, 42 scientism 40 scientist-practitioner model of helping 788 scotopic vision 74 screen memories 332 scripts, in memory 319 ’seasons’ theory of adulthood 595–7 secondary gain 733 secondary reinforcement 164–5, 737–8 secondary sex characteristics 579 secure attachment 499, 508, 747 secure/autonomous attachment 508 selective attention 198–203 selective reinforcement (language) 293 selective remembering 348 self 515, 674 see also self-concept self-as-subject/self-as-object theory 518 self-awareness 96 see also self-concept; selfconsciousness self-categorisation approach 407–8 self-concept components 515–18 development 519–25 theories 378–9, 518–19, 798 self-consciousness 515 self-control, and language 285 self-definition 524 self-directed aggression 451 self-disclosure 351, 436 self-efficacy 179, 742 self-enhancement 515 see also impression management self-esteem 516–17 in adolescence 585 and cultural perspective 362 and reaction of others 521 self-fulfilling prophecy 348, 524 self-handicapping 350 self-image 516, 525 self-monitoring 350–1 self-perception theory (SPT) 378–9 self-promotion 351 self-recognition 522–4 self-schemata 517–18 self-serving bias (SSB) 362 selfish gene theory 477, 481 semantic coding 260 semantic memory (SM) 265 and eyewitness testimony 322 in old age 613 schema theory 319 semantics 288 sensation 70, 225 sensation-seeking scale 483 sense organs 71 sense receptors 71 sensorimotor stage, cognitive development 529 sensory deprivation experiments 140–1 sensory experiences, from drugs 121, 122, 123 sensory memory 258 sensory neurons 51, 62 sensory overload 141 sensory systems 71–2 sensory thresholds 71–2 INDEX relationships – Continued maintenance 442–3 need for 428 patient–practitioner 182–3 rules 445 same-sex 430–1, 441, 606 shared knowledge and understanding 436 and social motivation 142 stage theories 433–4 types 429–31 vertical/horizontal 602 see also marriage relative deprivation theory 390–1 reliability, mental disorder diagnosis 693–4 religions, and death 621 relived emotion method 149 REM rebound 106, 107 REM sleep 103–5, 106–7, 108, 109, 329 repeated reproduction 321 repertory grid test 673 replication problem 85, 90 representative heuristic 310, 311 repression defence mechanism 17, 676, 730 and false memory 319, 328–33 and neurotic symptoms 675 reproductive thinking 306 research cost-benefit analysis 785 ethical issues 776–88 sexism in 767–8 types see also non-humans resistance (stress) 189 restoration theory 106–7 reticular activating system (RAS) 60, 97, 102 retina 74–5 retinal disparity 227 retirement 616, 618 retrieval, memory 260–2 retrieval-failure theory 270 retrograde amnesia 265 reverse learning 109 reverse salience 116 reversible figures see ambiguous figures reward centres 115, 138 reward theory 434–5, 438–41 rewards altruistic behaviour 470 see also positive reinforcement right brain hemisphere 57, 62, 63, 64, 204 and antisocial personality disorder 752 and giftedness 627–8, 629 risk-taking behaviour 125, 178, 310, 374, 483, 579, 583, 584 risky shift 410 rites of passage, adolescence 583, 584 Robber’s Cave experiment 391, 396 899 INDEX 900 separation in adulthood 595 children 502–4 through bereavement 619 separation anxiety 502, 619 serial position effect 262 serial processing 198, 215 serial recall 261 serial reproduction 320 serotonin 53, 121, 714 serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) 708, 726 Seroxat 727 set-point theories 137 sex, definition 563 sex drive, effect of alcohol 120 sex roles 563, 564 sex-typing 564, 570–1 sexism 46, 555, 764–8 sexual attraction 29, 30–1, 441, 520 sexual differentiation 565 sexual disorders 563, 689, 760 sexual identity 563 sexual orientation intersexuality 566 see also homosexuality sexual selection 438–9, 569 shadowing 198–9 shape constancy 229, 243 shape recognition 229 shaping 166 shaping techniques 736–7 shared environments 814–15 see also twins studies shift work, effects 185–6 short-term memory (STM) 258–60 in attention 200 decay 269 working memory 207, 266–8, 613 siblings and autism 631 donor 510–11 sight 71 sign learning 170 signal detection theory 72 significant others 520 similarity-attraction principle 435 similarity law levels of processing model 268 long-term 260, 265–6 multi-store model 262–4 perception 226 simple cortical cells (vision) 77 simple schizophrenia 713 single channel theories, attention 199–203 single parent families 606 single-photon/positron emission computerised tomography (SPECT) 56 situational crime prevention 759 situational factors 355, 362, 370 aggression 453 obedience 421, 425 personality 665–6 situationism 665 size constancy 228, 243, 251 size-weight illusion 231 skeletal reactions, in emotion 146, 147–8 Skinner box 16 sleep circadian rhythm 100–2 and dreaming 102, 103, 104–5, 108–10 and memory 269 physiology 102–3 theories 106–8 ultradian rhythm 103–4 sleep debt 102 sleep deprivation 105, 106 sleep disorders 689 sleep paralysis 87, 109 sleeping sickness 713 slogans, in propaganda 375 slow-wave sleep 104, 106 smell 71 social anxiety 141–2 social brain hypothesis 31 social categorisation 410–11 social change 422 social cognition 23 forming impressions 339–40, 341 implicit personality theories 343–5 impression management 349–51 perception of people 336–7 and social representations 28, 338–40 stereotypes 338, 345–9 see also attitudes social cognitive theory 169 and behaviour 558–9 models of health 176, 178–9 see also social learning theory (SLT) social cohesion 441 social comparison theory 428 social constructionism 24–8 view of aggression 463 view of depression 710 view of emotions 146 view of intelligence 659 view of language 276 view of memory 321 view of personality 663 view of science 44 view of self 519 social desirability in attitude research 368 and attribution 356–7 social disengagement theory (SDT) 614–15 social dominance orientation 388–9 social dominance theory 388–9 social exchange theory (SET) 442–3, 615–16 social facilitation 141, 484–8 social identity theory (SIT) 422–3 social impact theory 488 social influence on behaviour 371–6, 401, 408 in eyewitness testimony 324 see also conformity; obedience social inhibition 488–9 social interaction and cognitive development 539–41 of gifted children 626 and language 296 in moral development 551 social learning theory (SLT) 169 and aggression 455–62 differences from operant conditioning 558 gender development 570–1 see also social cognitive theory social loafing 141, 488–9 social motivation 141–2 social neuroscience 342–3, 394 social norms 389–90, 401 social penetration theory, in selfdisclosure 351 social perception influencing others 349–51 of people 336–7, 340–8 and social cognition 337–40 social phenomenology 337 social phobia 701 social presentation 141 social psychology aggression 389, 449–62, 483–5 altruism 362, 442, 465–73, 476–8 attitudes 365–79, 383, 435 attribution 153, 355–62, 445 benefits of research 783 conformity 142, 350, 356–7, 390, 400–15, 428 definition 400 ethics of research 776–84 obedience 413–25 prejudice and discrimination 340, 345–6, 382–98 relationships see relationships social facilitation 484–8 social perception 336–51 socially sensitive research 780–4 sport 482–8 Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) 186–8 social reality hypothesis 406 social representation theory 28, 338–40 social roles 516, 519, 521–2 social validation 414 socialisation of obedience 419 sociological view 585 see also moral development socialised speech 284 socially generated drive 487 socially sensitive research 781–4, 813 stimulus-analysis system model 201–2 stimulus-value-role (SVR) theory 434 storm and stress theory (adolescence) 582–3 Strange Situation 498–500 stress 690 and acculturation 176 causes 185–8 coping mechanisms 192–4 definitions 185 effects 188–91 evolutionary response 29 and illness 186–7, 189–91 models 185 moderators 191–2 and puberty in girls 581 in sport 483 and stereotyping 612 stress hormones (corticosteroids) 52, 66, 186, 189 stress management 194 schizophrenia 739–40 striate cortex see visual cortex stroboscopic effect 232 strokes 52, 57, 58, 62, 121, 204 structuralism 2, 38 structure of intelligence model 643, 644 subjective age 610 subjective contours 231 sublimation 451, 676 subliminal advertising 375–6 substance abuse 113–18 addiction-as-disease model 124–5 in adolescence 579 psychoactive disorder 689 sucker effect 489 suicide 707, 727 suicide terrorism 753–4 sunk cost bias 311 superconducting quantum imaging/ interference device (SQUID) 55 superego 548, 549, 730 supervisory attentional system (SAS) 208–9 supplication 351 suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) 101 surface structure 294 surface traits 666, 667, 671 surrogacy (mothers) 510 suspension bridge experiment 152 symbolic interactionism 518 symbolic racism 393–4 sympathetic nervous system 50, 64, 65, 73 response to stress 188–9 synaesthesia 77–8, 123 synapses 51–2, 62 synchrony of action 497 syncretic thought 530 syntax 288–9 synthesis models of attention 207 systematic desensitisation 19, 163, 734–5, 790 systematic processing models 372 T-type personality 483 tabula rasa 809 talent 629 task cohesion 490 taste 71, 135 taste aversion 167–8 team cohesion 490 telegraphic speech 291 telepathy 84 television, effect on altruism 478 template-matching hypothesis 213 terrorists prison 425, 795 suicide 753–4 testicular feminising syndrome 564 testosterone levels, in pregnancy 566 texture gradient 228, 236 thalamus 59 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 141 theories definition 11 testing 19 theory construction 41 theory of infantile sexuality 18 theory of mind 342, 524, 534, 579 and autism 633–4 and schizophrenia 716 theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 179, 182, 371 theory of reasoned action (TRA) 178–9, 370 therapeutic relationship 724 therapies behavioural 162, 724, 733–8 biological 725–30 cognitive-behavioural 194, 705, 724, 738–40 effectiveness 740–3 placebo effect 742 psychodynamic 730–3, 789, 790 therapists, ethical issues 788–90 theta waves 104 thirst 136–7 thought, and language 275–84, 539 thought-action fusion (TAF) 705 threat simulation theory 109–10 three components model, attitude 367, 369 thresholder children 598–9 time to contact, in perception 237 tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon 270 token economy 737–8, 790 tolerance, in addiction 116 tonic alertness 97 top-down perceptual theory 225, 233–6, 239 touch 71 trait theory (Allport) 664 INDEX sociobiology view of altruism 477 view of free will 799–800 socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) 616–17 sociograms 368–9 sociometry 368 soft determinism 796, 798–9 somatic illness 175 somatic nervous system 50 source misattribution 325 source traits 666, 667, 671 spatial intelligence 646 speciesism 787–8 specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) 708, 726 specificity assumption 175 spina bifida 638 spinal cord 62 spinal reflex arc 62 spiral curriculum 543 split brain studies 53, 62–4, 100 split-span procedure 199 spontaneous recovery 162 spontaneous visual preference technique 247 sport psychology history and scope 482–4 social facilitation 484–8 types 482–3 SRIs/SSRIs 708, 726 stage theories cognitive development 528–32 grief 619 psychosexual development 548–50, 593 psychosocial theory 593 relationships 533–4 see also maturation Standard Social Science Model (SSSM) 29 Stanford prison experiment 421, 422, 424–5, 463 Stanford-Binet tests 646–7, 648 state-dependent forgetting 270, 271 status offences 746 step-parents 33, 606 stereopsis 228 stereotaxic surgery 53–4 stereotypes 338, 345–9 elderly 611 evolutionary basis 394 gender 565 influence of names 524 mental illness 788 and prejudice 345–6, 397–8 in propaganda 375 stimulants 118–19, 120–2, 669 stimulation, effect on performance 487 stimulation seeking 139 stimulus (conditioning) 160, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168 stimulus (stress) 188–9 901 trait theory (Cattell) 670–1 trances, in non-western culture 175 tranquillisers (antipsychotics) 669, 726, 728 transactional model (stress) 185, 191 transactionalism 237 transductive reasoning 530 transfer of learning 170 transference 731 transformational grammar 294 transsexuals 563 treatment addiction 125–6 adherence 182–3 criminal offenders 759–60 depression 118, 708, 725–7, 732–3, 738–9 mental disorder see therapies schizophrenia 714, 739–40 triadic reciprocal causation 810 trial and error, problem solving 305 triarchic theory 645 tricyclics 708, 726 true conformity 406 trust, in self-disclosure 351 Turing machines 312 Turing test 313–14 ‘Turnbull ruling’ 322–3 Turner’s syndrome 565 twins studies autism 631, 632–3 and behaviour genetics 817 IQ 652–4 schizophrenia 715 two-factor theory (conditioning) 166 two factor theory of emotion 149, 150–3 two-factor theory of intelligence 642 two-process theory 166, 733 Type A Behaviour 191 Type C Behaviour 191–2 type theory, personality 667–70 INDEX ultimate questions 29 ultradian rhythm 103–4 unconditional stimulus (UCS) 160, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168 unconsciousness 96 uniforms, effect on aggression 463 unipolar depressive disorder 706–10 902 universal egoism 466, 473 universal traits 672 universal Turing machine 312 unrealistic optimism 178 unresolved/disorganised attachment 508 unresponsive bystanders 467 uplifts scale 188 utility-probability models 309 validity, mental disorder diagnosis 694–5 variable interval (VI) reinforcement schedule 165 variable ratio (VR) reinforcement schedule 165 Vasopressin 52, 66 ventral tegmental area (VTA) 115 vestibular sense 71 victims, violent crime 758 vigilance, and attribution 357 violence see aggression; homicide violent video games, and aggression 460–1 visceral (physiological) reactions 146, 148, 149 vision 71 visual see eye visual acuity 72, 75 visual attention 203–6 visual cliff apparatus 250–1 visual coding 260 visual cortex 77, 214–15 OBEs 86 and visual perception 245 visual pathways 75–6 visual perception adaptation/readjustment 245–7 animal experiments 244–5 cataract patients 242–4 cross-cultural studies 252–4 theories 233–9 visual search procedure 203–4 visual system 76 visuospatial scratch pad 267 VMH syndrome 136 voluntary attentional vigilance (VAV) 204 voluntary conditions, altruism 475 voluntary relationships 429 Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development 539–42 WAIS tests 647 waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) 440 ‘War of the Ghosts’ 320 war injuries, and pain 184 weak central coherence theory 635 weapons effect 454 weapons-focus effect 323–4 Weber-Fechner law 72 Wechsler tests 647, 648 Wernicke’s area 53 widowers 619, 620 widowhood 620 WISC tests 647 withdrawal symptoms 117, 122, 727 within-family variation 814–15 within-group differences 657, 658–9 women abuse and homicide 749 adulthood 596–7 aggression 451 alpha bias 766–7, 768 attraction to men 441 benefits of marriage 601 coping mechanisms 193–4 as criminals 748–9 eating disorders 719 feminist psychology 764–5 filicide 749 and helping behaviour 473 identity 593 intersex conditions 566 morality 555 motherhood 602–4 widowhood 620 and work 603–4 work psychology 9–10 working alliance 731 working memory 207, 266–8, 613 worry 702–3 see also anxiety Young–Helmholtz trichromatic theory 78–9 zeitgebers 185 Zener cards 84–5 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 540, 541 Dynamic Learning: Engage, Motivate, Succeed If you want to use ICT to make your psychology lessons more absorbing and interactive with minimum hassle, look no further than Dynamic Learning: the ultimate teaching and learning resource Combining award-winning quality content with easy-to-use tools, it supports teachers and encourages students to develop, progress and achieve Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour Dynamic Learning is easy to use, so you can just concentrate on your teaching Ready-made digital lessons launch directly from a menu and you can create your own simple, customised and professional lessons with our Lesson Builder Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour Dynamic Learning features: Videos 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