A study of major sources of borrowings in english vocabulary = nghiên cứu những nguồn vay mượn chính trong từ vựng tiếng anh

HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGE FACULTY HOÀNG THỊ MINH HẢO A STUDY OF MAJOR SOURCES OF BORROWINGS IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY (NGHIÊN CỨU NHỮNG NGUỒN VAY MƯỢN CHÍNH TRONG TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH) Field: English Linguistics HA NOI, 2019 HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGE FACULTY HOÀNG THỊ MINH HẢO A STUDY OF MAJOR SOURCES OF BORROWINGS IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY (NGHIÊN CỨU NHỮNG NGUỒN VAY MƯỢN CHÍNH TRONG TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH) Field: English Linguistics SUPERVISOR: ĐỖ TIẾN ĐỨC, MA HA NOI, 2019 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would love to show my huge and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Do Tien Duc for his patience, guidance and support throughout the time I carried out my thesis, without whom this project would not have been completed I would also like to thank all both Vietnamese and foreign teachers of English at Hanoi Pedagogical University No.2 for their guidance and advice during the time I did the study I am also grateful to my family and friends who always stand by me in any situation to help me go over many troubles and difficulties through the course i ABSTRACT The study focuses on how some languages have affected English by specifically pointing out the major sources of borrowing of English vocabulary f rom each language In detail, it fully deals with how words in English has been borrowed from some other languages and paves the ways for readers to be able to recognize loan words or borrowings in newspapers The study is done with the process of collecting a lot of data, synthesizing and analysing the materials in specific method to bring about reliable findings which are the four major sources of borrowings in English vocabulary from Celtic, German, Latin and French, along with the identification of loan words from these languages used in English newspapers The research hopefully meets the needs of discovering English language by readers and makes contributions to the development of language study in general and learning English in particular ii DECLARATION I hereby certify that the thesis entitled: A study of major sources of borrowings in English vocabulary Is my own study in the fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Art at Hanoi Pedagogical University No.2 The study is the result of hard – working time by the enthusiastic guide of my supervisor and other people Student Supervisor Hoang Thi Minh Hao Do Tien Duc iii LIST OF TABLES AND DIAGRAMS Diagram 1: Germanic languages (Barber, C., 1993, p.34) Diagram 2: North Germanic languages (Barber, C., 1993, p.35) Diagram 3: West Germanic (Barber, c., 1993, p.35) Diagram 4: East Germanic (Barber, C., 1993, p.36) Table Abbreviations of borrowings) Table 2: Borrowings used in the extract) iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Reasons for the study .1 Aims of the study Research questions .1 Scope of the study .2 Methods of the study Organi zation of the study PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW .3 1.1 Native words and borrowed words 1.1.1 Native words 1.1.2 Borrowed words 1.2 Motivation of borrowings .4 1.2.1 Non-linguistic causes 1.2.2 Linguistic causes 1.3 Assimilation of borrowings 1.3.1 Definition .6 1.3.2 Types of assimilated words 1.4 Classification of borrowings in English vocabulary .7 1.4.1 In terms of the history of English borrowings 1.4.2 In terms of the manner of borrowings 1.5 Summary 10 PART II: DEVELOPMENT 11 CHAPTER 2: MAJOR SOURCES OF BORROWING IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY 11 2.1 Celtic borrowings 11 2.1.1 The Celtic language and its influence on the English vocabulary 11 2.1.2 Celtic borrowings- clues in place names 12 2.2 Germanic borrowings 13 v 2.2.1 A brief overview on the history of the German languages 13 2.2.2 Germanic borrowings 16 2.3 Latin borrowings 21 2.3.1 Historical contexts that lead to the borrowing of Latin word 21 2.3.2 Classification of Latin borrowings in English vocabulary 23 2.4 French borrowings 25 2.4.1 The Norman Conquest's influences on the English language 25 2.4.2 French borrowings 26 2.5 Summary 29 CHAPTER 3: EXAMPLES OF BOROWINGS USED IN ENGLISH NEWSPAPERS 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Signs of borrowed words in copy 30 3.2.1 Italics 30 3.2.2 Accent and other marks 30 3.2.3 Plurals 31 3.3 Abbreviations 31 3.4 Signs of borrowed words 32 3.5 Sample article: the extract of “Radicals in Retreat” – by Conant 33 3.6 Summary 36 PART 3: CONCLUSION 37 Review of the study 37 Suggestion for further studies 37 REFERENCES APPENDIX vi PART I INTRODUCTION Reasons for the study It is true that both English native speakers and non-native speakers can easily realize a lot of same words or same-looking words when they compare English and another languages like French or Latin This is because of the fact that English has a close relationship with other languages In other words, English vocabulary contains a variety of borrowings from various source languages However, it is very difficult for those studying English to recognize which words are borrowed ones, and which source languages these borrowings originally belong to The researcher herself also finds borrowings a hard subject However, it is also the matter she is interested in most because it is difficult but interesting and useful for the study Last but not least, during her study at Hanoi Pedagogical University No.2, the subject has not been seriously touched upon yet All of the reasons above have encouraged her to choose the subject on borrowings as her thesis for graduation All the studies of English vocabulary so far have not clearly identified the major sources of borrowings in English vocabulary This encourages me to carry out a study about this as a way to discover from which other languages, a big part of English vocabulary originates Aims of the study In this study, the researcher would like to give an overview of the following issues:  The generalizations about English borrowings  The major sources of borrowing that have the most influence on English vocabulary Research questions The study aims to deal with the following research questions: How was English vocabulary borrowed from other languages in the history of the English language? What are some major sources of borrowings in English vocabulary? Scope of the study There are many languages that have contributed words to English vocabulary It is, however, due to the lack of time as well as experience, in this graduation paper I only focus on the major sources of borrowings that have the most influence on English vocabulary, namely Celtic, Germanic, Latin, and French Methods of the study As this study is a theoretical-based one, the researcher collected materials and information as data related to sources of borrowings in English vocabulary, as well as synthesized and analysed them to have an overview of the research topic Then all the detailed information is theoretically studied to get the results of how English vocabulary has been borrowed from other languages and major sources of these borrowings Organization of the study The thesis consists of three parts: the introduction, the development and the conclusion Part 1: The introduction gives the reasons for the study, history, research questions, aims, scope and methods of the study It also shows the organization of the study Part 2: The development consists three chapters Chapter deals with the general knowledge about English borrowings Chapter works on the major sources of borrowings in English vocabulary Chapter mentions some (suggested) ways of identifying borrowings in English newspapers Part 3: The conclusion presents a review of the study as well as suggestions for the further studies Irrefutably, the largest influence that the Normans had on the English language was on its vocabulary From the time William took over England, English was flooded with French terms In fact, English vocabulary had many changes after French entered Firstly, revolutions of the ways people called new objects and terms Secondly, a lot of Old English words such as wipe, ea and eape are replaced by loanwords from French like very, river, peace and easy The effect of French in English vocabulary was also on the vocabulary by enriching it though the adoption of French affixes They approached the language by the term of borrowings and could become common in English only after completely assimilated affixes 2.4.2 French borrowings 2.4.2.1 Early French borrowings As we can see, the Norman Conquest in 1066 left its significant marks on more or less aspects of English life, especially the language As a result, a flood of French words entered the English vocabulary However, we have to treat the datings of these borrowings with some cautions No borrowings unquestionably of French origin appeared in English earlier than 1066 (Algeo, 2010) Thus, early French borrowings can be dated from 1066 until 1250 when the nobility turned to the use of English but continued using French words It could affirm that French became the language of the authoritative degree in England society by the influence of the Norman Conquest Thereforw, a lot of words related to government and administration are originated French They include chancellor council, country, crown, government, nation, parliament, people, jury, noble, and royal (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009) The word government itself, along with ME admynistre, later was replaced by the Latin - derived administer with its derivative administration (Algeo, Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock, 2010, p 254) The law courts were long conducted in French, and we have borrowed such words as accuse, attorney court, crime, judge, justice, prison, punish, sentence, and verdict (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009) Many of the military terms that were borrowed are now obsolete, but we still have armour, battle, castle, 26 lieutenant (literally ‘place holding), tower, war, and sergeant (originally 'a serving man or attendant) In addition, words reflecting French dominance in the arts and fashion include apparel, costume, dress, fashion, beauty, chant, colour, music, paint, poem, and romance (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009) There are other indications of the aristocratic stamp of early French borrowings Things connected with ordinary people tend to retain their English names, whereas upper - class objects often have French names Thus, we have English home and house, but French manor and palace, English child, daughter, and son, but French butler and servant, English calf, ox, sheep, and swine, but French veal, beef, mutton, and pork (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009) French words have come into English from two dialects of French - the Norman spoken in England (Anglo Norman) and the Central French (that of Paris, later standard French) (Algeo, Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock, 2010, p 255) We can frequently tell the form of a word whether it is Norman of Central French provenience For instance, Latin c before a developed into ch [c] in Central French but remained in the Norman dialect; hence chapter from Old French chapitre ultimately goes back to Lat capitulum (little head) (Algeo, Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock, 2010, p 255) Compare also the doublets chattel and cattle, from Central French and Norman respectively, both going back to Lat capitle (possession, stock); that is why capial in this sense is a Latin borrowing (Algeo, 2010) Overall, however, only the early French borrowings were taken from Norman; later when the great bulk of the borings were made, it was Central French, and it was from this dialect that words were taken Nevertheless, the borrowings from Norman are very thoroughly assimilated into English, and it includes more ordinary everyday words than the later borrowings from Central French, presumably because in many cases they were introduced by the Norman rank and file who came over at the Conquest Thus, the early borrowings also include such words as garden, hour, market, people, and wage (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009) 27 In one word, early French borrowings mainly took root from the time of the Norman Conquest They entered various fields of everyday life, but later gave way to other French dialect, namely Central French 2.4.2.2 Later French borrowings Borrowings from French have gone on ever since the ME period, though never on so large a scale (Algeo & Butcher, 2013) It is interesting to note that the same French word may be borrowed at various periods in the history of English, like gentle, genteel, and jaunty, all from French gentil - the last of two of seventeenth introduction It is similar with chief, first occurring in English in the fourteenth century, and chef, in the nineteenth century In words of French origin spelled with ch, the pronunciation is usually indicative of the time of adoption: thus chamber, champion, chance, change, chant, charge, chase, check, and choice were borrowed in ME times, whereas chamois, chauffeur, chevron, chic, chiffon, douche, and machine have been taken in Mod.E times Many French words entering English in ME times have come to have initial stress in accordance with English patterns (Algeo, Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock, 2010, p 257) Examples of these words include carriage, courage, language, savage, viage (later modernized as voyage), and village In this case, Chaucer and his contemporaries could have used two ways in their poetry - for instance, either cour,ge or cäurage, as also with other French borrowings - for instance, colour, figure, honour, pitee, valour, and vertu (Algeo, Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock, 2010, p 257) This variable stress is still evidenced by such doublets as divers and diverse (showing influence of Lat diversus) The position of the stress is frequently evidence of the period of borrowing: compare, for instance, older carriage with newer garage, valour with velour, or vestige with prestige Borrowings from French since the late seventeenth century are, as we should expect, less absolutely adapted widely than most of former borrowings that they have been recorded However, some like cigarette, picnic, police, and soup seem commonplace enough (Algeo, Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock, 2010, p 257) These later borrowings also include aide-de-camp, amateur, ballet, baton, 28 beau, boulevard, brochure, champagne, chute, cliché, plateau, saloon, vis -à-vis (Algeo, 2010), and so on and so forth Clearly, Central French dialects have contributed an immense number of words to English They seem to be rather familiar-looking words, though still keep their original spelling forms Obviously, together with early French borrowings, later French borrowings have made French the major source of loanwords in English vocabulary 2.5 Summary In this chapter, the researcher has discussed in detail the four-major sources of borrowings in English vocabulary: Celtic, Germanic, Latin, and French It can be said that all these languages have had great influences on the English language today Also, it is clear that in the development of English so far, like any other languages, it has undergone a lot of impacts and changes from various factors, which has made up its history and paved the way for the formation of the Modern English currently used all over the world 29 CHAPTER EXAMPLES OF BOROWINGS USED IN ENGLISH NEWSPAPERS 3.1 Introduction Reading newspapers is of a great help for students to improve their English especially their vocabulary It is because of the fact that articles usually deal with aspects of all human beings' considerings such as technology, art, economy, politics, culture, language, and so on However, I myself find that the press language sometimes makes it hard to understand, probably because of the borrowings used in the individual articles Some of them look very unfamiliar or like certain foreign languages; the others seem to keep their original forms of spelling and pronunciation making me rather difficult to memorize them According to some students in this Academy, who have kept studying English through newspapers, they are really interested in borrowings in English but sometimes they still have to cope with problems concerning the borrowings used in newspapers That is why this chapter is conducted in the hope of helping students get over the difficulties in reading newspapers, in which borrowed words are used However, it is obviously difficult to come to a conclusion on the use of borrowings in newspapers only by analyzing a small number of materials, therefore, my aim in this part is to illustrate what have been researched in the previous chapters That means what will be identified are those belonging to the four - motioned sources of borrowings researched in chapter 3.2 Signs of borrowed words in copy 3.2.1 Italics Italics is the common front-style that the writer usually use in writing, especially in newspapers There are a lot of situations that the writer need to italicize the words The most popular types of words mentioned is borrowed words or loanwords (words borrowed from the foreign languages) It helps to show the reader which word is native or foreign However, not all of the loanwords should be in itali cs form because this does not serve any specific and necessary aim 3.2.2 Accent and other marks 30 Words recently taken in from French are usually written with accent mar if they were so written in French Newspapers not use accent marks except in some departments like the editorial, art, music, and fashion pages After they have been used for a time in English, the ascent marks are usually dropped unless they are necessary to indicate pronunciation For example, matinee, melee, and role not need marks, but café, fiancé Similarly, cañon is now usually spelled canyon, but piñon still keeps its original spelling form In German all nouns are capitalized and recent or infrequent borrowings from German are capitalized in English, usually if they are still printed in italics – for example, Anschluss, Realpolitic, Weltanschauung but hinterland, kindergarten, blitzkrieg 3.2.3 Plurals English is jokingly referred to as the thief of languages because it borrows so many words from other languages But because other languages have their own grammar rules, which are often wildly different from English grammar rules, the conjugation and use of these foreign words aren't always clear When it comes to foreign plurals they usually follow the rules of their origin language For example, the Latin plural of aquarium is aquaria, the Greek plural of criterion is criteria, and so forth The more thing to note about is that "the Latin and Greek -a plural has shown a tendency to be reinterpreted as a non-count form, or as a singular with its own s plural This tendency has progressed furthest in agenda and has met with varying degrees of acceptance in candelabra, criteria, data, media, and phenomena." (Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner, Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar Oxford University Press, 1994) 3.3 Abbreviations Many abbreviations used in English newspapers are from Latin, sometimes French They are usually used in formal writings Consider the list of abbreviations below Abbreviation Source Full word 31 Meaning AD Latin Anno Domini Afterthe Christain era Am Latin Ante meridiem In the morning Cf Latin Confer Compare e.g Latin Exempli gratia For example etc Latin Et cetera And so on i.e Latin Id est That is to say v.s Latin Versus Against Viz Latin Videlicet Namely NB Latin Nota bene Please note RSVP French Répondez sỵl vous dt Please reply Table 2: Abbreviations of borrowings 3.4 Examples of borrowed words As has been mentioned, many borrowings are familiar - looking words This raises a question that these words are really English native words or if they are borrowed from certain foreign languages For those who are also interested in borrowed words, it is not easy for them to know the origin of these words However, the identification of borrowings can be conducted through some clues in their structural features when reading English newspapers As has been shown, a good many words with [sk] are of Scan origin, for early Old English [sk], written sc, came to be pronounced [š] Such words as scathe, scorch, score, scrape, scrub, skill, skin, skirt, and sky thus show by their initial consonant sequence that they entered the language after this change had ceased to be operative All have been taken from Scandinavian In addition, words of Latin and French origin can also be recognized by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings For examples, Latin noun can be realize by some suffixes -ion (opinion), -tion (conversation); Latin verbs usually end with –ate (create), -ute (contribute), -ct (connect), -d(e)(include) or start with dis- (disagree); Latin adjectives are easily 32 recognized by these suffixes –able (reliable), - ate (accurate), - ant (instant), -ent (absent), -or (senior), - al (Cordial), -ar (Lunar) By these suffixes and prefixes, the readers can know which word is originated from French: -ance (hindrance), -ence (patience), -ment (environment), -age (advantage), -ess (lioness), -ous (anxious), en(endanger)… Besides, however, we not have to bother much about Celtic borrowings because they remain in an extremely little quantity in English vocabulary Therefore, in newspapers we can hardly find a Celtic borrowing except for some place names such as London, Thames, Cornwall, Lincoln, and some others On the whole, it is not easy to recognize a great bulk of English borrowings in English vocabulary in general, and in English newspapers in particular, because they account for as much as approximately 70 % of the total Also, many of them are so similar with the native words that we can hardly distinguish among them Therefore, it might be a good advice for students to consult dictionaries for uncertain borrowings when they read newspapers 3.5 Sample article: the extract of “Radicals in Retreat” – by Conant Newspapers, nowadays, are the most common publication means and will be more powerful in the future In general, newspapers reflect up-to-date issues; accordingly, this article's extract is chosen with a view to discovering how borrowed words have been used in English newspapers so far Radicals in Retreat is an article by Eve Conant for Newsweek, September 15, 2002 (see the Appendix) All the borrowings used in the extract are listed in the following table: Borrowings Period Origin language Origin word Instruct Latin Latin Instruere Avow French French Avouer Jihad Arab Arab Jihad Member Latin Member Membrum 33 Movement Latin Latin Movementum Group Italian Italian Gruppo Province Latin Latin Provincia Pone tableLatin Latin Ponere Plane Latin Latin Planum 10 Attack French French Attacquer 11 Convoy French French Convoyer 12 Resist French French Resister 13 Force French French Force 14 Aide (aide-de-camp) French French Aide-de-camp 15 Order French French Ordre 16 Funeral Latin Latin Funeraille 17 Blanket French French Blancquet 18 Virtual Latin Latin Virtus 19 Recognize French French Reconnaistre 20 Particular Latin Latin Particularis 21 Mention Latin Latin Mentio 22 Suppose French French Supposer 23 Pious Latin Latin Pius 24 Symbol ME Greek Symbolon 25 Establish ME French Estanlir 26 Military Latin Latin Militaris 34 27 Insurgent Latin Latin Insurgere 28 Guerrilla Spanish Spanish guerrilla 29 Terrorist French French Terroriste 30 Camp Mod.E Italian Campo 31 Dictator ME Latin Dictator 32 Regime Mod.E French Regime 33 Incursion ME Latin Incursion 34 Bomb Mod.E Greek Bom bos 35 Disperse ME Latin Dipergere 36 Organize ME Latin Organize 37 Region ME Latin Region 38 Structure ME Latin Structura Table 3: Borrowings used in the extract In the extract above, there is a considerable number of borrowings, most of which are ME borrowings, 22 out of 38 New military notions have resulted in military, group, camp, aid terrorist, guerrilla, and jihad What is more, words are borrowed from various sources, not only French and Latin but also Spanish (guerrilla), Arab (jihad), Italian (group), and Greek (symbol) Among these borrowings, Latin accounts for 19, French 13, which illustrates the heavy influence of the two contributors of words on present- day English Last but not least, in terms of linguistic feature, there are also non-semantically assimilated words such as jihad and aide (aide-de-camp) Obviously, through the small extract above, it can be said that borrowings play a critical role in English vocabulary in general, and in English newspapers in particular 35 3.6 Summary So far, some ways of identifying borrowings in English newspapers have been suggested This is helpful for students to improve their vocabulary through reading English newspapers 36 PART CONCLUSION Review of the study Many purists have opposed to borrowed words, and their slogan is: "Avoid Latin datives: use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables "(Xugekelb C.C., 1969, P41) Obviously, borrowings are an indispensable part of English vocabulary because they denote objects and phenomena, which are obviously various day after day while English native words only are not able to In studying English, Vietnamese students may have to cope with difficulties in distinguishing borrowed words and native words, or in identifying the sources and origins of the borrowings Meanwhile, borrowing in English vocabulary is rarely mentioned in a textbook So, I generalize the borrowings in English vocabulary here in this graduation paper I also mention the four major sources of borrowings, namely Celtic, Germanic, Latin, and French which have the most influence on English vocabulary What is more, the (suggested) identification of borrowings in English newspapers is also included Anyway, the researcher hope that this paper will become a useful reference for students at Hanoi Pedagogical University No.2 Although the study has accomplished the aims set at the beginning, it avoids some limitations due to the shortage of time, experience and knowledge as well So the researcher would be very grateful to receive any remarks and comments on study Suggestion for further studies The etymology of English words in general, the borrowings in English vocabulary in particular, is a difficult but interesting matter of English However, the matter has not been much touched upon yet Therefore, this paper is designated as a reference for major English students at Hanoi Pedagogical University No.2 to carry out further studies on the etymology of English words Due to the limitation of time as well as experience, the researcher cannot cover all the aspects of such a matter So, any contribution for further study on the matter would be highly appreciated 37 REFERENCES Algeo, J (2010) Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock In J Algeo, The Origins and Development of the English Language (pp 247-261) Boston: Michael Rosenberg Algeo, J., & Butcher, C A (2013) Germanic Loanwords In C A John Algeo, The Origins and Development of the English Language (p 289) Antrushina, G (1985) English Lexicology Vyshaja Skola, Russia Barber, C., Beal, J C., & Shaw, P (2009) The English Language Cambridge University Press Bolinger, D (1984) Aspects of Language Harcount Brace Jovanovich Bryson (1995) The Holt Guide to English Cambridge University Press C Daiber (1993) The English Language A Historical Introduction Cambridge University Press Crowther, J (1995) Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Oxford University Press Crystal, D (1994) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language Cambridge University Press Culpeper, J (1997) Borrowing Words In J Culpeper, History of English (pp 3439) Devon Culpeper, J (1997) History of English Routledge Culpeper, J (1997) New Words from Old In J Culpeper, History of English (pp 40-45) Devon Encyclopædia Britannica, inc (2017, 10 6) Retrieved from Encyclopædia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/topic/German-language Eve, C., C (2002, September 15) Retrieved from Newsweek: https://www.newsweek.com/radicals-retreat-144543 Heinle, T (1993) The Origins and Development of The English Language University of Geargia Jirtle, J (2003) Rice Unconventional Wisdom Retrieved from Words in English Website: https://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/structure/borrowed.html Lovis, C (2001) Computing in the Humanities and Social Sciences Retrieved from The Influence of Celtic on English: http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/6361Lovis.htm McCarthy, M (1995) English Vocabulary in Use Cambridge University Press McMahon, A (1995) Understanding Language Change Cambridge University Press O'driscoll, J (1995) Britain - The Country and Its People Oxford University Press Porter, C (1995) Word Word Word - An English Vocabulary Builder and Anthology Cambridge University Press Ractopryeva, T (1969) History of English Language Moicow S.Quirk (1979) A Grammar of Contemporary English Oxford University Press Singleton, D (2000) Language and Lexicons: An Introduction Amold London Spolsky, B (1998) Sociolinguistics Oxford University Press Thomas, B (1997) Advanced Vocabulary and Idioms HCM City Press Truong Hoang Tat (1993) Basic English Vocabulary Hanoi National University Press Vugekelb, C C (1969) Reading in Modern English Lexicology Vyshaja Skols Russia Студопедия (2015, 4) Retrieved from Etymological Doublets: https://studopedia.info/6-89149.html (n.d.) 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Retrieved from Studfiles: https://studfiles.net/preview/51862 24/page:3/ APPENDIX Radicals in Retreat By Eve Conant Sharaly Akbotoev received summons in Kabul last November An Uzbek religious instructor and avowed jihadist, Akbotoev was a member of the Islamic movement of Uzbekistan, a hard-line group with ties to Al Quaeda and Osama bin Laden "Come to Logar province" in Northern Afghanistan, his superiors told him by pone "Something has happened” Us fighter planes had attacked a convoy of IMU lighters fleeing Konduz, where some 300 of them had been helping Taliban resist the US baked forces of the Northern Alliance A top IMU aide, Akbotoev was being ordered to the soldier's funeral The bodies, wrapped in blankets, were virtually unrecognizable One in particular, he says "was just meat There wasn't much left" But he knew who it was because the dead man's name had just been mentioned in the farewell prayer: Juma Namangani, a former Soviet paratrooper and leader of the IMU A mysterious and supposedly pious man, Namangani's name had symbolized the lingering Islamist dream of establishing a Taliban-style state in the former Soviet republic o central Asia Until Namangani's death, the IMU had made its own name through military-style insurgency At its peak, the group claimed about 1,200 hard-core fighters, along with thousands more family members and followers In the late 1990s, the guerrillas were concentrated in terrorist training camps in Tajikistan and Afghanistan, from where they launched military-style attacks against the secular, dictatorial regime in Uzbekistan They say a disorganized, weakened IMU could become more Quaedalike in its structure and thereby harder to defend against in an inherently unstable region Newsweek (15/9/2002) ...HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGE FACULTY HOÀNG THỊ MINH HẢO A STUDY OF MAJOR SOURCES OF BORROWINGS IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY (NGHIÊN CỨU NHỮNG NGUỒN VAY MƯỢN CHÍNH TRONG TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG... Norman Conquest in 1066 exercised a major influence on the English language because French was an invading language or the official language of law and administration As the language of the aristocracy... Meaning AD Latin Anno Domini Afterthe Christain era Am Latin Ante meridiem In the morning Cf Latin Confer Compare e.g Latin Exempli gratia For example etc Latin Et cetera And so on i.e Latin