1.Discuss the relationships between language, culture and communication.Culture is complexes of learned behaviour patterns and perceptions. It is a form of communication, governed by hidden rules, that involves both speech and actions. Communication is sending and receiving information. It described as the general ability to use language accurately and appropriately, consisting of grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence. A language is a particular kind of system for encoding and decoding information. Some would argue that the very heart of a culture is its language and that a culture dies if its language dies. A language will remain vital and strong if groups of people who live near one another use the language regularly (that is called communication). If we are to successfully communicate across culture, we must recognize the power of languageLanguage is a communication tool used by everyone in their daily life as a means to convey information and arguments to others. In this case, the language cannot be separated from culture because language represent its nation and has close relation to the attitude or behavior of groups of speakers of the languages. The role of language as a tool to express culture reality can be seen from: 1) Language is part of culture, 2) Even the language and the culture is in different, but have a very close relationship, 3) Language is strongly influenced by culture, and 4) Language significantly influence culture and way of thinking of people living within. In the communication, language used by people is
MID- TERM TEST ON ‘CROSS - CULTURAL COMMUNICATION’ Student: Nguyễn Thị Hồng Liên Group: K20M-NNA01 Discuss the relationships between language, culture and communication Culture is complexes of learned behaviour patterns and perceptions It is a form of communication, governed by hidden rules, that involves both speech and actions Communication is sending and receiving information It described as the general ability to use language accurately and appropriately, consisting of grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence A language is a particular kind of system for encoding and decoding information Some would argue that the very heart of a culture is its language and that a culture dies if its language dies A language will remain vital and strong if groups of people who live near one another use the language regularly (that is called communication) If we are to successfully communicate across culture, we must recognize the power of language Language is a communication tool used by everyone in their daily life as a means to convey information and arguments to others In this case, the language cannot be separated from culture because language represent its nation and has close relation to the attitude or behavior of groups of speakers of the languages The role of language as a tool to express culture reality can be seen from: 1) Language is part of culture, 2) Even the language and the culture is in different, but have a very close relationship, 3) Language is strongly influenced by culture, and 4) Language significantly influence culture and way of thinking of people living within In the communication, language used by people is influence their culture or vice versa If used parables, the culture and language like Siamese twins, the two things that cannot be separated Or as a coin; side one is the language and the other is culture What are the dimensions along which investigations into cultures are to be conducted? Initially, Dr Geert Hofstede identified four dimensions that could distinguish one culture from another The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task-orientation versus person- orientation) Later, Dr Hofstede added fifth and sixth dimensions, in cooperation with Drs Michael H Bond and Michael Minkov Overall, there are dimensions Power Distance Index (high versus low) Individualism Versus Collectivism Masculinity Versus Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Index (high versus low) Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation Indulgence Versus Restraint Point out the major differences between high-context cultures and low-context cultures Give typical examples for illustration Low-context cultures place less emphasis on the context of a communication (such as implied meaning or nonverbal messages) and rely on explicit verbal messages LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES Relies on explicit (literal) communication Emphasizes verbal communication over nonverbal communication High-context cultures emphasize the context in which a communication takes place and pay a great deal of attention to implicit, nonverbal messages HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURES Relies on implicit communication Emphasizes nonverbal communication Separates job tasks from relationships: Subordinates tasks to relationships Emphasizes individual initiative and decision making: value individual initiative, decision making, and achievement Views employer/employee relationship as mechanistic Emphasizes collective initiative and decision making Relies on facts, statistics, and other details as supporting evidence, They trust numbers over intuition -“Numbers never lie” Uses direct style in writing and speaking, get right to the point of their message Relies on intuition or trust rather than facts and statisticss Views employer/employee relationship as humanistic rather than mechanistic way Prefers indirect style in writing and speaking: need more space and time to establish rapport, businesspeople from high-context cultures may begin a letter or email entirely indirectly Prefers linear reasoning Adheres to the letter of the law: signature in documents is final agreement A low-context style of communication would be stating more directly what you want or feel (the words and what you say is important): "I am unhappy with how that meeting went We were not prepared with the most current data sets." low-context cultures like the United States and Germany prefer to limit communication to smaller, more select groups of people, sharing only that information which is necessary Favors circular or indirect reasoning: People from high-context cultures will discuss issues from a holistic viewpoint with topics arising in random rather than linear order Adheres to the spirit of the law: generally rely less on written contracts than their counterparts in low-context cultures, Their attitude is not that laws were meant to be broken,but rather that laws should make sense given the surrounding events and changing circumstance (i.e., the "context” of the situation) High-context communication is more reliant on environmental cues (how you say something and where): After an unsatisfactory meeting, the boss invites an employee to their office They not offer them a seat and after a long pause says: "Do you think that could have gone better?" employees from high-context cultures like China and France share very specific and extensive information with their "in-group members" (good friends, families, close coworkers, etc) The first pair of advertisements is from the Crest toothpaste They are advertised in the following way: The first advertisement: Now there is something more dentists can recommend for your gums that’s proven to help get them healthier Crest Plus Gum is the only cavity fighting toothpaste that’s so effective, and it’s clinically proven to help reserve the gum disease-gingivitis Just what the dentists ordered The second advertisement: Behind that healthy smile, there’s a Crest kid From the first advertisement, we can clearly obtain all the information about the product The English advertisement uses concise words to describe this product At first, we know this is an advertisement for Crest toothpaste, and then we know the function of the product: to help your gums to become healthier, reserve the gum disease-gingivitis and the word “only” in the advertisement can show its unique function―fighting cavity What’s more, the last sentence tells the audience that the dentists, the authority of this product, just ordered this kind of toothpaste From all the information above, it is clear that this advertisement is exhibited in the low-context cultures for its direct and explicit expressed message about the product People in that culture can easily understand this form of advertisement However, if this advertisement is presented in a high-context culture, such as China, people in this culture already have some previous existed assumptions that the product is good and will be healthy for the teeth and they not like to what the dentists ordered and some expressions of this advertisement will make them feel not comfortable and not decide to buy this product The second advertisement is much vague compared to the first one In the second one, we can just get the information such as healthy smile, and a Crest kid Beyond this, nothing is expressed in it From the indirect and implicit message presented to the audience, it can be concluded that this one is typically a mode of the high-context culture Thus, this advertisement should be interpreted from contextual perspective and taken into account the cultural factors, such as beliefs and values For instance, if this advertisement is interpreted by the Chinese, as audience from high-context culture, they can perceive this advertisement in a very cohesive and concise way, and as a result, the effects of this advertisement will be achieved The Chinese will perceive the advertisement in this way: in China, we often say that everything should begin from the kids and people in China care about the kids with exhausted efforts Under such pre-existed contextual assumption, it is evident that it is better to start brushing teeth from the kids which will make them have healthy smile Without describing the function and quality of this product directly, the audience has already obtained the main function of this product and the contextual effects will be inferred However, if this advertisement is interpreted by the audience from the low-context culture, they will be confused by the little and vague information in it and they will not have the desire to buy this product From all above, it is obvious that different advertising language will have different effects in high-context culture and low-context one Some advertisements are presented with a blending of pictures and written words The following two pictures are two advertisements from high-context culture and low-context culture Let’s see how they are different from each other 4 In what way(s) are individualist cultures different from collectivist cultures? Illustrate this with typical examples a) Individualist cultures -If we view ourselves as independent and self-reliant, if we prize personal recognition and achievement, we probably belong to an individualist culture -If, on the other hand, we see ourselves as interdependent, as part of a larger group, if we value closeness and harmony with others over personal goals, then we probably belong to a collective culture +Cultures are seldom monolithic or completely uniform: subcultures may influence how individuals define themselves +Ethnic communities may cause value variations: Ethnic communities may cause value variations: different ethnic communities may display distinctive individual and collective values +Gender may influence values +Generations may cause variance: individualistic or collective attitudes may be shaped by birth generation - In North America, most of northern and western Europe,and in countries like Australia and New Zealand, people place great importance on individuality, independence, and self-reliance Children are taught to be autonomous-to think and speak for themselves,to ask questions in class,to make choices, to assume responsibility for their decisions, and to be accountable for their actions Core beliefs of people in individualist cultures are discussed below +The pivotal unit is the individual.The goal in most individualist cultures is to develop responsible citizens capable of assuming accountability for personal problems and issues ·Life decisions:Professional and career choices, marriage partners · Individual identity: individual rights and needs take precedence over group rights and needs ·Breakable contracts: all relationships as contracts that can be broken whenever one party chooses if they threaten personal goals +Space and privacy are important Because individualist cultures value personal freedom, most of them have a greater physical space and privacy requirement than that seen in collective cultures This requirement for privacy can be seen in both business and personal environments +Communication tends to be direct,explicit,and personal: One of the most powerful ways in which human beings express their individuality is through communication How you express your thoughts, ideas, opinions, and feelings is what makes you unique · Direct explicit messages · Linear logic ·Personal accountability +Business is transactional and competitive · Measurable results ·Competitiveness · Separation of relationships and business contracts b) Collectivist cultures Collectivism is com mon in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America, and the Pacific Islands.Children are taught to listen, to defer to elders, to fit in with the family or clan-the group ensures survival + The pivotal unit is the group: Members of collective cultures see themselves as elements in a closely-knit network with others Groub decisions: The individual consults others before making decisions, relying on the group for a broader perspective ·Collective values: The “we" is emphasized over the “I", and group rights and needs dominate + Space and privacy are less important than relationships: generally need less space than cultures that value individualism + Communication is intuitive, complex, and impressionistic: Explicit and direct communication is less important in collective cultures indirect, ambiguous messages circuitous logic: seem to favor rambling or metaphorical statements In English: impt inf given first, Japanese, less impt first + Business is relational and collaborative Most collective cultures believe that relationships, rather than deals or contracts, facilitate results · Subordination of data · Relational interpretation of data · Emphasis on the long term When conducting business in individualist cultures Focus on the transaction Use data and logic Communicate directly Value time When conducting business in collective cultures Focus on the context of a business relationship Make decisions consensually, contextually, and for the long term Communicate indirectly, Avoid direct questions Allow time for relationship building, Be patient: Plan to spend double the time you think necessary Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the two communication channels: (i) verbal and (ii) nonverbal Give examples for illustration Nonverbal messages that function to clarify, elaborate, explain, reinforce, and repeat the meaning of verbal messages complement the verbal message Many U.S Americans shake their heads up and down while saying yes to reinforce the verbal affirmation Similarly, smiling while talking to someone helps to convey a generally pleasant tone and encourages a positive interpretation of the verbal message Pointing forcefully at someone while saying “He did it!" helps to elaborate and underscore the verbal message Nonverbal messages can also contradict the verbal message These contradictions could occur purposefully, as when you say yes while indicating no with a wink or a gesture; or they may be out of your conscious awareness, as when you say, “I'm not upset” while your facial expression and tone of voice indicate just the opposite Contradictions between the verbal and nonverbal channels often indicate that something is amiss Although the contradictory cues might indicate an attempt at deception, a less evaluative interpretation might simply be that the verbal message is not all that the person could convey In intercultural communication, these apparent incongruities, when they occur, might serve as a cue that something is wrong When nonverbal messages help to maintain the back-and-forth sequencing of conversations, they function to regulate the interaction Conversations are highly structured, with people typically taking turns at talking in a smooth and highly organized sequence Speakers use nonverbal means to convey that they want the other person to talk or that they not wish to be interrupted, just as listeners indicate when they wish to talk and when they prefer to continue listening Looking behaviors, vocal inflections, gestures, and general cues of readiness or relaxation all help to signal a person's conversational intentions Finally, nonverbal messages that are used in place of the verbal ones function as a substitute for the verbal channel They are used when the verbal channel is blocked or when people choose not to use it Head nods, hand gestures, facial displays, body movements, and various forms of physical contact are often used as a substitute for the verbal message The specific nonverbal messages used to accent, complement, contradict, regulate, or substitute for the verbal messages will vary from culture to culture In intercultural communication, difficulties in achieving competence in another verbal code are compounded by variations in the nonverbal codes that accompany the spoken word What types of message conveyed in cross-cultural communication are preferred in individualist cultures and in collectivist cultures respectively? Point out the strengths and weaknesses of these types Illustrate the points raised with typical examples a) Individualist cultures +Communication tends to be direct, explicit, and personal: One of the most powerful ways in which human beings express their individuality is through communication How you express your thoughts, ideas, opinions, and feelings is what makes you unique · Direct explicit messages: Because individualist cultures value what is unique or unusual about people,they expect communication to retlect the speaker or writer and appreciate clear, direct, and explicit com munication that can be decoded easily · Linear logic: Most individualist cultures have Western European roots; Western logic emphasizes a linear, cause-and-effect thought patterm ·Personal accountability: Messages are expected to capture personal opinion and express personal accountability.Thus, individuals may “sell” themselves and assert their accomplishments in resumes and interviews and assume responsibility for mistakes b) Collectivist cultures Communication is intuitive, complex, and impressionistic Explicit and direct communication is less important in collective cultures ·Indirect, ambiguous messages: Meaning is often implicit, inferred, and transmitted “between the lines.” When a definite message is required (e.g., to solve a problem), it is often subtle -rendered indirectly or ambiguously.The underlying belief is that communication should not be used merely to deliver content; it should nurture the relationship, maintain harmony, and prevent loss of face (personal identity or dignity) by diffusing personal responsibility · Circuitous logic: Because reality is considered complex, the logic that is employed is seldom linear or cause-and-effect Situations or problems are presented holistically, within a larger context.Thus, communicators from collective cultures may seem to favor rambling or metaphorical statements E.g The order in which information is presented in Japanese sentences is different In English,important information tends to be given first,with less important items tacked on the end In Japanese, lessimportant items are gotten out of the way first, setting the stage for the important information,which comes at the end The Japanese hint at what has to be done,and even the hints are softened by using impersonal statements in passive constructions What is meant by ‘face’? Discuss the pivotal concepts in each of the politeness theories you have been informed of? Face is self image in public of a person Politeness is showing awareness of other’s face -Positive politeness: the need to be connected, surrounded with other people Positive politeness orients to preserving the positive face of other people When we use positive politeness, we use speech strategies that emphasize our solidarity with the hearer, such as informal pronunciation, shared dialect or slang expressions, nicknames, more frequent reference to speaker and hearer as ‘we’, and requests which are less indirect -Negative politeness: the need for being independent, free, giving deference for personnal, not want to be imposed Negative politeness orients to preserving the negative face of other people This is much more likely if there is a social distance between the speaker and hearer When we use negative politeness, we use speech strategies that emphasize our deference for the hearer Nicknames, slang and informal pronunciation tend to be avoided and requests tend to be more indirect and impersonal Negative politeness also involves more frequent use of other mitigating devices, expressions that ‘soften the blow’, like ‘please, might, just, I am sorry but ’ What, in your opinions, are the possible pedagogical implications that can be drawn from cross-cultural communication studies? Knowledge of how to adapt to specific context of communication How, as far as you have been informed of, is the written message viewed in such cultures as Southern European, Mediterranean, Central and South American cultures? - The written message is a substitute for personal contact, and nurturing the relationship is more important than the rapid, efficient delivery of facts or ideas As a result, the direct, English language approach—immediately and without preamble identifying the issue to be discussed-appears abrupt, unfriendly, and impersonal People from these cultures prefer written messages that fulfill a social as well as a business role: evoking the existing relationship, recalling the last meeting, inquiring after children and family members, and maintaining a warm and highly personal tone =>The writers prefer indirect messages - Because these cultures value feelings over business contracts, they may delay writing immediately about problems.They may allow time to cast further light on an issue or to diffuse a situation which may cause embarrassment or pain to responsible individuals=> The writers may delay writing - Business communicators from Southern European, Mediterranean, Central, and South American cultures often favor lengthy, flowery, and overly qualified sentences This may not only be a carry-over from their mother tongues-the Romance languages— but may also demonstrate a desire to spare the feelings and dignity of others Ambiguity and indirectness diffuse responsibility and can mean that the writer is taking care not to accuse or blame=> Writers of other languages place less emphasis on clarity and conciseness Because writers from other cultures rely more heavily on context than on linguistic messaging to capture meaning,their messages may seem circuitous 10 Communicators from high-context cultures often employ implicature for the sake of politeness in verbal communication Discuss how implicature can be created in verbal communication via conversation Provide examples for illustration of this statement: ‘Politeness can be conveyed via indirectness and implicature’ Communicators from high-context cultures often employ implicature for the sake of politeness in verbal communication by the implied meaning generated intentionally Implicatures that derive from the cooperative principle of conversation and maxims: maxims of quantity, maxim of manner, maxim of quality, maxim of realtion We can use the conversational maxims to generate implicatures by a Adhering to the maxim b Violating a maxim c Flouting maxims Provide examples for illustration of this statement: ‘Politeness can be conveyed via indirectness and implicature’: when you want to say they dont fit with the suits they are going to buy We dont say” Oh, You are very ugly in that suits” Instead, we say,” The other suits will fit you better” or” oh, you are good in that suits But this one will look prettier” ... possible pedagogical implications that can be drawn from cross- cultural communication studies? Knowledge of how to adapt to specific context of communication How, as far as you have been informed... in the nonverbal codes that accompany the spoken word What types of message conveyed in cross- cultural communication are preferred in individualist cultures and in collectivist cultures respectively?... of a communication (such as implied meaning or nonverbal messages) and rely on explicit verbal messages LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES Relies on explicit (literal) communication Emphasizes verbal communication