1.Discuss the relationships between language, culture and communication.Culture is complexes of learned behaviour patterns and perceptions. It is a form of communication, governed by hidden rules, that involves both speech and actions. Communication is sending and receiving information. It described as the general ability to use language accurately and appropriately, consisting of grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence. A language is a particular kind of system for encoding and decoding information. Some would argue that the very heart of a culture is its language and that a culture dies if its language dies. A language will remain vital and strong if groups of people who live near one another use the language regularly (that is called communication). If we are to successfully communicate across culture, we must recognize the power of languageLanguage is a communication tool used by everyone in their daily life as a means to convey information and arguments to others. In this case, the language cannot be separated from culture because language represent its nation and has close relation to the attitude or behavior of groups of speakers of the languages. The role of language as a tool to express culture reality can be seen from: 1) Language is part of culture, 2) Even the language and the culture is in different, but have a very close relationship, 3) Language is strongly influenced by culture, and 4) Language significantly influence culture and way of thinking of people living within. In the communication, language used by people is
Trang 1MID- TERM TEST ON ‘CROSS - CULTURAL COMMUNICATION’Student: Nguyễn Thị Hồng Liên Group: K20M-NNA01
1.Discuss the relationships between language, culture and communication.
Culture is complexes of learned behaviour patterns and perceptions It is a form of communication, governed by hidden rules, that involves both speech and actions
Communication is sending and receiving information It described as the general ability to use language accurately and appropriately, consisting of grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence A language is a particular kind of system for encoding and decoding information Some would argue that the very heart of a culture is its language and that a culture dies if its language dies A language will remain vital and strong if groups of people who live near one another use the language regularly (that is called communication) If we are to successfully communicate across culture, we must recognize the power of languageLanguage is a communication tool used by everyone in their daily life as a means to convey information and arguments to others In this case, the language cannot be separated from culture because language represent its nation and has close relation to the attitude or behaviorof groups of speakers of the languages The role of language as a tool to express culture reality can be seen from: 1) Language is part of culture, 2) Even the language and the culture is in different, but have a very close relationship, 3) Language is strongly influenced by culture, and 4) Language significantly influence culture and way of thinking of people living within In the communication, language used by people is influence their culture or vice versa If used parables, the culture and language like Siamese twins, the two things that cannot be separated Or as a coin; side one is the language and the other is culture
2.What are the dimensions along which investigations into cultures are to be conducted?
Initially, Dr Geert Hofstede identified four dimensions that could distinguish one culture
from another The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values
Trang 2person-orientation) Later, Dr Hofstede added fifth and sixth dimensions, in cooperation with Drs Michael H Bond and Michael Minkov Overall, there are 6 dimensions.
1 Power Distance Index (high versus low).2 Individualism Versus Collectivism.3 Masculinity Versus Femininity.
4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (high versus low).5 Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation.
6 Indulgence Versus Restraint.
3.Point out the major differences between high-context cultures and low-context cultures Give typical examples for illustration.
Low-context cultures place less emphasis on the context of a communication (such as implied meaning or nonverbal messages) and rely on explicit verbal messages
High-context cultures emphasize
the context in which a communication takes place and pay a great
deal of attention to implicit, nonverbal messages.
LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURES
Relies on explicit (literal) communication Relies on implicit communicationEmphasizes verbal communication over
nonverbal communication
Emphasizes nonverbal communication
Separates job tasks from relationships: Subordinates tasks to relationships
Emphasizes individual initiative and decision making: value individual initiative, decision making, and achievement
Emphasizes collective initiative and decision making
Views employer/employee relationship as mechanistic
Views employer/employee relationship as humanistic rather than mechanistic way
Relies on facts, statistics, and other details as supporting evidence, They trust numbers over
Trang 3intuition -“Numbers never lie”
Uses direct style in writing and speaking, get right to the point of their message
Prefers indirect style in writing and speaking: need more space and time to establish rapport,businesspeople from high-context cultures may begin a letter or email entirely indirectly
Prefers linear reasoning Favors circular or indirect reasoning: People from high-context cultures will discuss issues from a holistic viewpoint with topics arising in random rather than linear order.
Adheres to the letter of the law: signature in documents is final agreement.
Adheres to the spirit of the law: generally relyless on written contracts than their
counterparts in low-context cultures, Their attitude is not that laws were meant to be broken,but rather that laws should make sensegiven the surrounding events and changing circumstance (i.e., the "context” of the situation).
A low-context style of communication would be stating more directly what you want or feel(the words and what you say is important): "I am unhappy with how that meeting went We were not prepared with the most current data sets."
High-context communication is more reliant on environmental cues (how you say
something and where): After an un-satisfactory meeting, the boss invites an employee to their office They do not offer them a seat and after a long pause says: "Do you think that could have gone better?"low-context cultures like the United States
and Germany prefer to limit communication to smaller, more select groups of people, sharing only that information which is necessary.
employees from high-context cultures like China and France share very specific and extensive information with their "in-group members" (good friends, families, close coworkers, etc).
Trang 4The first advertisement: Now there is something more dentists can recommend for your gumsthat’s proven to help get them healthier Crest Plus Gum is the only cavity fighting toothpastethat’s so effective, and it’s clinically proven to help reserve the gum disease-gingivitis Just what the dentists ordered
The second advertisement: Behind that healthy smile, there’s a Crest kid
From the first advertisement, we can clearly obtain all the information about the product TheEnglish advertisement uses concise words to describe this product At first, we know this is an advertisement for Crest toothpaste, and then we know the function of the product: to help your gums to become healthier, reserve the gum disease-gingivitis and the word “only” in theadvertisement can show its unique function―fighting cavity What’s more, the last sentence tells the audience that the dentists, the authority of this product, just ordered this kind of toothpaste From all the information above, it is clear that this advertisement is exhibited in the low-context cultures for its direct and explicit expressed message about the product People in that culture can easily understand this form of advertisement However, if this advertisement is presented in a high-context culture, such as China, people in this culture already have some previous existed assumptions that the product is good and will be healthy for the teeth and they do not like to do what the dentists ordered and some expressions of thisadvertisement will make them feel not comfortable and not decide to buy this product The second advertisement is much vague compared to the first one In the second one, we can just get the information such as healthy smile, and a Crest kid Beyond this, nothing is expressed in it From the indirect and implicit message presented to the audience, it can be concluded that this one is typically a mode of the high-context culture Thus, this
Trang 5describing the function and quality of this product directly, the audience has already obtainedthe main function of this product and the contextual effects will be inferred However, if this advertisement is interpreted by the audience from the low-context culture, they will be confused by the little and vague information in it and they will not have the desire to buy thisproduct
From all above, it is obvious that different advertising language will have different effects in high-context culture and low-context one Some advertisements are presented with a
blending of pictures and written words The following two pictures are two advertisements from high-context culture and low-context culture Let’s see how they are different from eachother.
4.In what way(s) are individualist cultures different from collectivist cultures? Illustrate this with typical examples.
a) Individualist cultures
-If we view ourselves as independent and self-reliant, if we prize personal recognition and achievement, we probably belong to an individualist culture.
-If, on the other hand, we see ourselves as interdependent, as part of a larger group,if we value closeness and harmony with others over personal goals, then we
probably belong to a collective culture
+Cultures are seldom monolithic or completely uniform: subcultures may influencehow individuals define themselves
+Ethnic communities may cause value variations: Ethnic communities may cause value variations: different ethnic communities may display distinctive individual and collective values
Trang 6+Generations may cause variance: individualistic or collective attitudes may be shaped by birth generation
- In North America, most of northern and western Europe,and in countries likeAustralia and New Zealand, people place great importance on individuality, independence, and self-reliance Children are taught to be autonomous-to think and speak for themselves,to ask questions in class,to make choices, to assume responsibility for their decisions, and to be accountable for their actions.
Core beliefs of people in individualist cultures are discussed below.
+The pivotal unit is the individual.The goal in most individualist cultures is to develop responsible citizens capable of assuming accountability for personal problems and issues.
·Life decisions:Professional and career choices, marriage partners
· Individual identity: individual rights and needs take precedence over group rights and needs.
·Breakable contracts: all relationships as contracts that can be broken whenever one party chooses if they threaten personal goals.
+Space and privacy are important Because individualist cultures value personal freedom, most of them have a greater physical space and privacy requirement than that seen in collective cultures.
This requirement for privacy can be seen in both business and personal environments.
Trang 7communication How you express your thoughts, ideas, opinions, and feelings is what makes you unique.
· Direct explicit messages· Linear logic·Personal accountability+Business is transactional and competitive· Measurable results·Competitiveness· Separation of relationships and business contractsb) Collectivist cultures
Collectivism is com mon in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America, and the Pacific Islands.Children are taught to listen, to defer to elders, to fit in with the family or clan-the group ensures survival.
+ The pivotal unit is the group: Members of collective cultures see themselves as elements in a closely-knit network with others
Groub decisions: The individual consults others before making decisions, relying on the group for a broader perspective.
·Collective values: The “we" is emphasized over the “I", and group rights and needs dominate.
Trang 8+ Communication is intuitive, complex, and impressionistic: Explicit and direct communication is less important in collective cultures.
indirect, ambiguous messages
.circuitous logic: seem to favor rambling or metaphorical statementsIn English: impt inf given first, Japanese, less impt first
+ Business is relational and collaborative Most collective cultures believe that relationships, rather than deals or contracts, facilitate results.
· Subordination of data
· Relational interpretation of data· Emphasis on the long term
When conducting business in individualist culturesWhen conducting business in collectiveculturesFocus on the transactionFocus on the context of a business relationship
Use data and logicMake decisions consensually,
contextually, and for the long term
Communicate directlyCommunicate indirectly, Avoid direct
questions
Value timeAllow time for relationship building,
Be patient: Plan to spend double the time you think necessary
5.Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the two communication channels: (i) verbal and (ii) nonverbal Give examples for illustration.
Trang 9shake their heads up and down while saying yes to reinforce the verbal affirmation.Similarly, smiling while talking to someone helps to convey a generally pleasant tone andencourages a positive interpretation of the verbal message Pointing forcefully atsomeone while saying “He did it!" helps to elaborate and underscore the verbal message.Nonverbal messages can also contradict the verbal message These contradictions couldoccur purposefully, as when you say yes while indicating no with a wink or a gesture; orthey may be out of your conscious awareness, as when you say, “I'm not upset” whileyour facial expression and tone of voice indicate just the opposite Contradictionsbetween the verbal and nonverbal channels often indicate that something is amiss.
Although the contradictory cues might indicate an attempt at deception, a less evaluativeinterpretation might simply be that the verbal message is not all that the person couldconvey In intercultural communication, these apparent incongruities, when they occur,might serve as a cue that something is wrong.
When nonverbal messages help to maintain the back-and-forth sequencing ofconversations, they function to regulate the interaction Conversations are highlystructured, with people typically taking turns at talking in a smooth and highly organizedsequence Speakers use nonverbal means to convey that they want the other person to talkor that they do not wish to be interrupted, just as listeners indicate when they wish to talkand when they prefer to continue listening Looking behaviors, vocal inflections,gestures, and general cues of readiness or relaxation all help to signal a person'sconversational intentions.
Finally, nonverbal messages that are used in place of the verbal ones function as asubstitute for the verbal channel They are used when the verbal channel is blocked orwhen people choose not to use it Head nods, hand gestures, facial displays, bodymovements, and various forms of physical contact are often used as a substitute for theverbal message.
The specific nonverbal messages used to accent, complement, contradict, regulate, orsubstitute for the verbal messages will vary from culture to culture In interculturalcommunication, difficulties in achieving competence in another verbal code arecompounded by variations in the nonverbal codes that accompany the spoken word.
6 What types of message conveyed in cross-cultural communication are preferred inindividualist cultures and in collectivist cultures respectively? Point out the strengths andweaknesses of these types Illustrate the points raised with typical examples.
a) Individualist cultures
Trang 10communication How you express your thoughts, ideas, opinions, and feelings is what makes you unique.
· Direct explicit messages: Because individualist cultures value what is unique or unusual about people,they expect communication to retlect the speaker or writer and appreciate clear, direct, and explicit com munication that can be decoded easily.
· Linear logic: Most individualist cultures have Western European roots; Western logic emphasizes a linear, cause-and-effect thought patterm.
·Personal accountability: Messages are expected to capture personal opinion and express personal accountability.Thus, individuals may “sell” themselves and assert their accomplishments in resumes and interviews and assume responsibility for mistakes.
b) Collectivist cultures
Communication is intuitive, complex, and impressionistic Explicit and directcommunication is less important in collective cultures.
·Indirect, ambiguous messages: Meaning is often implicit, inferred, and transmitted“between the lines.” When a definite message is required (e.g., to solve a problem),it is often subtle -rendered indirectly or ambiguously.The underlying belief is thatcommunication should not be used merely to deliver content; it should nurture therelationship, maintain harmony, and prevent loss of face (personal identity ordignity) by diffusing personal responsibility.
· Circuitous logic: Because reality is considered complex, the logic that isemployed is seldom linear or cause-and-effect Situations or problems arepresented holistically, within a larger context.Thus, communicators from collectivecultures may seem to favor rambling or metaphorical statements.
Trang 11Japanese hint at what has to be done,and even the hints are softened by usingimpersonal statements in passive constructions.
7 What is meant by ‘face’? Discuss the pivotal concepts in each of the politeness theories youhave been informed of?
Face is self image in public of a person Politeness is showing awareness of other’s face.-Positive politeness: the need to be connected, surrounded with other people Positivepoliteness orients to preserving the positive face of other people When we use positivepoliteness, we use speech strategies that emphasize our solidarity with the hearer, such asinformal pronunciation, shared dialect or slang expressions, nicknames, more frequentreference to speaker and hearer as ‘we’, and requests which are less indirect.
-Negative politeness: the need for being independent, free, giving deference forpersonnal, not want to be imposed Negative politeness orients to preserving the negativeface of other people This is much more likely if there is a social distance between thespeaker and hearer When we use negative politeness, we use speech strategies thatemphasize our deference for the hearer Nicknames, slang and informal pronunciationtend to be avoided and requests tend to be more indirect and impersonal Negativepoliteness also involves more frequent use of other mitigating devices, expressions that‘soften the blow’, like ‘please, might, just, I am sorry but ’
8 What, in your opinions, are the possible pedagogical implications that can be drawn from cross-cultural communication studies?
Knowledge of how to adapt to specific context of communication
9 How, as far as you have been informed of, is the written message viewed in such cultures asSouthern European, Mediterranean, Central and South American cultures?
-The written message is a substitute for personal contact, and nurturing the relationship ismore important than the rapid, efficient delivery of facts or ideas As a result, the direct,English language approach—immediately and without preamble identifying the issue tobe discussed-appears abrupt, unfriendly, and impersonal People from these culturesprefer written messages that fulfill a social as well as a business role: evoking the existingrelationship, recalling the last meeting, inquiring after children and family members, andmaintaining a warm and highly personal tone =>The writers prefer indirect messages.
- Because these cultures value feelings over business contracts, they may delay writing
Trang 12- Business communicators from Southern European, Mediterranean, Central, and SouthAmerican cultures often favor lengthy, flowery, and overly qualified sentences This maynot only be a carry-over from their mother tongues-the Romance languages— but mayalso demonstrate a desire to spare the feelings and dignity of others Ambiguity andindirectness diffuse responsibility and can mean that the writer is taking care not toaccuse or blame=> Writers of other languages place less emphasis on clarity andconciseness Because writers from other cultures rely more heavily on context than onlinguistic messaging to capture meaning,their messages may seem circuitous.
10 Communicators from high-context cultures often employ implicature for the sake ofpoliteness in verbal communication Discuss how implicature can be created in verbalcommunication via conversation Provide examples for illustration of this statement:‘Politeness can be conveyed via indirectness and implicature’.
Communicators from high-context cultures often employ implicature for the sake ofpoliteness in verbal communication by the implied meaning generated intentionally.Implicatures that derive from the cooperative principle of conversation and 4 maxims:maxims of quantity, maxim of manner, maxim of quality, maxim of realtion.
We can use the conversational maxims to generate implicatures bya Adhering to the maxim
b Violating a maximc Flouting maxims