The ethnological approach in vietnamese studies the emergence of vietnamese studies in japan in relation to the development of french ethonography case study of matsumoto nobushiros research

THE ETHNOLOGICAL APPROACH IN VIETNAMESE STUDIES: THE EMERGENCE OF VIETNAMESE STUDIES IN JAPAN IN RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH ETHONOGRAPHY: CASE STUDY OF MATSUMOTO NOBUSHIRO’S RESEACH1 Petra Karlova* Introduction This paper aims to clarify the significance of the French research of Indochina for the development of the Japanese research of Southeast Asia, especially of Vietnam Indochina studies which were parts of South Seas studies in the pre-war period were the predecessor of Vietnamese studies The author of the first systematic research in Indochina, Matsumoto Nobuhiro2, belongs among important Japanese scholars o f these studies Therefore, the study case o f his writings can contribute to the understanding o f the formation of the ethnological and nonSinocentric stream in Japan’s Southeast Asian studies that cannot be explained only from the perspective of the Japanese Oriental studies in the first half of the twentieth century Matsumoto Nobuhiro (1897-1981) was a professor at Keio University and the Keio Institute of Cultural Linguistic Studies established by his initiative became an important basis of Vietnamese studies Namely, leading Japanese scholars in Vietnamese studies like Matsumoto’s student Kawamoto Kunie (1929) or Kawamoto’s student Shimao Minoru (1963), Kawamoto’s student, are affiliated with this institute The specificity o f Matsumoto’s ideas in his writings consists of his focus on the early culture of Asian nations Thanks to this, Matsumoto learnt the importance * PhD Candidate, Waseda University (Japan) The term ethnography (ethnographie in French) was used in the early twentieth century by the French for analytical and descriptive studies o f customs and culture o f non-W estem nations including traditions described in documents like myths and legends Consequently, it encompassed disciplines which had later differentiated as archaeology, Oriental history, ethnology, mythology, linguistics etc In this paper, the Japanese names are in the traditional order: the surname comes first 413 V lfT NAM HQC - KY y £ u H Q l THAO Q U 6C TE LAN T H lf TlT of peculiar cultural heritage o f each nation for human history In this sense, he represented a contradiction to the assimilation policy which the Japanese government adopted towards the peoples of Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere This paper will examine how Matsumoto’s ideas are related to the development o f the French school of ethnographic studies of Asia, and what role they played in the formation o f Japan’s Southeast Asian studies and Vietnamese studies in the period 1915-1945 Matsumoto Nobuhiro’s Path for Ethnology in the 1910s and the 1920s The first chapter clarifies the development of Matsumoto Nobuhiro’s academic career towards his adoption of the ethnological approach It namely discusses the period o f his studies at Keio University (1915-1920) and at Sorbonne University (1924-1928) Matsumoto was bom in 1897 in Tokyo, in the turbulent period of the Meiji reforms In the late nineteenth century, Japan integrated prefectures of Okinawa and Hokkaido to its empire Moreover, Taiwan became the Japanese colony as an acquisition from the victorious war over China in 1895 Concurrently, the Tokyo Government kept its eyes on the Asian continent where Western powers intensified their encroachment When Matsumoto entered Keio University in 1915, Japan had already occupied the German colonies in Southern Pacific as an ally of the Triple Entente during the First World War Thus, the Japanese expansion south called Southern Advance began gaining attention next to the issues related to China and Korea Under these circumstances, Matsumoto became interested in southern cultures However, his path to Southeast Asian studies was not clear-cut From the beginning o f his studies, Matsumoto was attracted to the early history of the humanity and its social and religious developments rather than to the classical history.1 Therefore, even though he majored in history at the Faculty of Letters of Keio University, he did not aim to modem political history that was popular at that time.2 Fortunately, the spirit of Keio University based on Fukuzawa Yukichi’s thinking had respect for individual approach Thus, when Matsumoto met folklorist Yanagita Kunio (1875-1962), the founder of the folklore studies, Matsumoto promptly joined his research circle Although Yanagita strictly limited Matsumoto, N obuhiro, “Osutoro-Ajiago ni kansuru shom ondai” in Kawai kydju kanreki kinen ronbunshu, Kawai Teiichi kyoju kanreki kinen ronbunshuhen, Tokyo, 1931, pp 519520 Matsumoto, N obuhiro, “Tanaka hakushi wo itamu” in Mila hydron, Mita hy5ron hakk5jo No 316, Tokyo, D ecem ber 1923, p 27 414 THE ETHONOLOGICAL APPRO ACH IN VIETNAMESE his research to the Japanese territory, his concept o f the roots of Japanese culture included also southern culture It is because he considered new territories including Okinawa and Taiwan as an inseparable part of the Japanese Empire Moreover, at his travels along Japan, he could observe that the ancient southern culture is still alive in Kyushu and Ryukyu Islands This Yanagita’s search for the authentic Japanese culture corresponded to Matsumoto’s interest in the ethnographic approach to the Japanese history Moreover, Matsumoto was reading works of social evolutionists and French Sinologists, such as Tylor, Morgan, Frazer, Chavannes, Granet, etc Consequently, Matsumoto’s ideational basis in the late 1910s and the early 1920s was formed by his classes at Keio University, by his reading and by influence of Yanagita’s folklore studies In the 1920s, French Oriental studies, especially ethnography and Sinology, prospered as one of the largest academic centres of the world Moreover, French School of Sociology represented by Durkheim’s disciple Marcel Mauss spread its influence on various disciplines of humanities However, many Japanese scholars including Matsumoto’s teachers studied in Germany or America Thus, Matsumoto who studied in Paris from 1924 to 1928 was an exception Not only was he trained in sociological method by Mauss, Granet, Przyluski etc., but he was also the first Japanese to receive doctoral degree at Sorbonne University in 1928.1 Naturally, he maintained contacts with French researchers including Henri Maspero and ẫmile Gaspardone of ẫcole Franỗaise dExtrờme Orient (EFEO) after his return to Tokyo This Matsumoto’s connection with the French academic circles was strengthened by his field trip to Vietnam in 1933 His stay there was successful especially thanks to good relations with Émile Gaspardone who worked for EFEO in Hanoi at that time For this reason, the influence o f French ethnography in Matsumoto’s writing was more substantial in comparison with other Japanese scholars Matsumoto’s long-lasting ties with the French scholarship were certified by the fact that Matsumoto received the academic award (Les palmes académiques) from the French government for his contribution to the Franco-Japanese cultural exchange in 1955.2 Among scholars of the Japanese Oriental studies, Yamamoto Tatsurô (19102001) is usually mentioned as founder o f Vietnamese studies together with Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, Le japonais et les langues austroasiatiques: étude de vocabulaire comparé, Essai sur la mythologie Japonaise, P G euthner, Paris, 1928; Nobuhiro, Matsumoto, “ Pari yori” 1, II, III in Minzoku , Minzoku hakkôjo, Vol 2, N o (1926); Vol 2, No (1927); Vol 3, No (1927) “Matsumoto Nobuhiro sensei ryakunenpu" in Ine, fune, matsuri: Matsumoto Nobuhiro sensei tsuitô ronbunsü , Kyôshuppan, Tokyo, 1982, p 694 415 V l£T NAM HQC - KY YfcU HOl THAO Q U 6C T t LAN THlT TlT Matumoto Yamamoto, too, had frequent contacts with French researchers due to his connection with EFEO and with the Tokyo Bunko He visited Indochina in 1936 where he received guidance from George Ccedes (1886-1969), director o f EFEO in Hanoi.1 However, his French training was shorter and of different kind than that of Matsumoto who studied almost four years in French metropolis In addition, Yamamoto studied history at Tokyo Imperial University, and thus he adopted the positivist approach to the history of Indochina in contradiction to Matsumoto In Matsumoto’s case, his studies at Sorbonne University formed the basis of his ethnographic approach to ancient history together with the influence of Yanagita’s folklore studies in Japan Ethnology did not separate from folklore studies until 1935 This explains why Matsumoto considered the symbiosis of these two academic disciplines very natural the 1920s The Relation of French Ethnography with M atsumoto’s research in The second chapter aims to clarify the connection o f French ethnography with Social Evolutionism and Oriental studies in France and Japan in relation to Matsumoto Nobuhiro’s early work First, it will discuss the approach of French ethnography to the cultural history of Asian people Then, it will discuss the French influence on Matsumoto’s research in ancient China and his interest in Southeast Asia 3.1 Social Evolutionism and French Ethnography In his early research, Matsumoto drew on following scholars Lewis Henry Morgan, James George Frazer, Edward Burnett Tylor, Edouard Chavannes, Emile Durkheim, Marcel Mauss, Lucien L6vy-Bruhl, Marcel Granet, Wilhelm Schmidt, etc This discloses his interest in cultural and social evolution o f Asian nations Indeed, the theories of social evolutionists emphasizing progress had deep impact on Japanese thinking in the nineteenth century The Japanese minister in London Kaneko Kentaro even approached famous Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) and asked him for advice concerning Japan’s progress.2 Spencer together with Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) were representatives of unilinear Social Evolutionism, they developed their ideas concurrently with Charles Darwin Many Tonan Ajia Indo no shakai to burtka: Yamamoto Tatsuro hakushi koki kinen, jo , Yamakawa shuppansha, Tokyo, 1980, pp 7-8 Spencer, Herber, “Advice to the Modernizers o f Japan” (1892) in On Social Evolution Selected Writings, edited and with and Introduction by J D Y Peel, The University o f Chicago Press, Chicago, 1972, p 253 416 THE ETHONOLOGICAL APPROACH IN VIETNAMESE of them believed in universality of the natural law, and thus shared Darwin’s supposition that all civilized countries were once in “barbarous condition”.1 Consequently, they considered the stage of the native peoples in Australia or America similar to the “infant” stage of the civilized Euro-American nations The “primitive condition” of these societies was the main subject of famous works of the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, such as The Ancient Society (1877) and Frazer’s treaties The Golden Bough (1890-1915) and Totemism and Exogamy: a Treatise on Certain Early Forms o f Superstition and Society (1887-1937) Indeed, Morgan’s theory of classificatory kinship system and Frazer’s theories of totemism and exogamy played important role in shaping of the emerging ethnographic researches and appeared also in the theoretical framework of Matsumoto’s thesis in early Chinese history at Keio University in 1920.2 Namely Frazer’s activities in the French academic circles influenced the formation of the theories on primitive society and religion presented by French School of Sociology.3 After Durkheim’s death, Frazer’s relationship with French scholars continued through Durkheim’s fellow Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (1857-1939) and Durkheim’s student Marcel Mauss who taught the religion of primitive people at Sorbonne University in the 1920s.4 Thus, Matsumoto encountered the evolutionist theories first in his readings and lectures at Keio University and then at his studies in Paris However, from the early twentieth century, criticism grew against the unilinear evolutionist perspective o f the societies o f various ethnic groups Namely, Durkheim introduced the sociologist category o f “représentations collectives” which he defined as “the result o f interactions between the external world and society”, and thus he argued that each group has its specificities.5 In this sense, French sociologists believed in multilinear evolution that implies the divergence of Darwin, Charles The Descent o f Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Penguin Books, L ondon,2004, pp 169-171 Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, Töa minzoku bunkaronkö, Seibundö shinkösha, Tokyo 1968, pp 444-447 Venn, J A., “Frazer, Jam es George” in Alumni Cantabrigienses, Part II, Vol II, p 569 Cambridge University Press 1944 Ackerman, Robert, J G Frazer His Life and Work, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 1987, p and 288 Carls, Paul, “Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)” in Internet Encyclopedia o f Philosophy, A PeerReviewed Academic Resource (founder and general editor: James Fieser, general editor: Bradley Dowden), http://www.iep.utm.edu/durkheim/#SH3e (retrieved on October 2012) 417 VIÊT NAM HQC - KŸ YÈU H 0I THÀO QUÔC TÉ LAN THÛ- TlT species coming from the same origin Matsumoto also seems to adhere to this individual approach to different ethnic groups in the history of mankind.1 This was probably result o f his attendance of lectures by Marcel Mauss (1872-1950), his fellow Lucian Levy-Bruhl (1857-1939) and his disciples Marcel Granet (18841940), Jean Przyluski (1885-1944), etc This development in the evolutionist thinking affected also the strategies taken towards native inhabitants in the territories under the French rule including Indochina In case o f French Indochina, the direct rule and the assimilation policy in Cochinchina proved to be improper Consequently, Governor General Paul Beau (1902-1907) adopted the association policy that had more respect for the traditions and customs of Indochina people.2 This consisted of a clear racial and cultural discrimination between the French citizens and the native population The theoretical basis for this different treatment was the belief in the inferiority of Indochina people due their lower stage o f evolution which prevented them from the full appropriation o f French civilization Thus, the multiple origins o f human races often implied the inferiority o f other than white race.3 Especially, Levy-Bruhl claimed that there was an essential difference between the mentality o f primitive people and the thinking o f civilized people His point was that the primitive people not appreciate the matters that the civilized people consider miracles; and on the contrary, Western people not share the primitive belief in the mystical forces of nature.4 Shortly said, many Western scholars ascribed this mutual disaccord coming from the different culture to the stupidity and naivety o f the primitive people (including Asians) This concept o f innate racial inequality hindered Japanese advance in the international society Despite the prompt modernization and Japan’s growth in a great power, Japanese were not treated equally with Western people For this reason, Matsumoto’s attitude to the theory o f multiple origins of human races was ambiguous On the one hand, Matsumoto considered people o f less developed Nobuhiro, M atsumoto, “Shina kosei to totem izum u” in Tôa minzoku bunkaronkô, Seibundô shinkôsha, Tokyo, 1968 (1921), p 458 Ennis, Thom as E., French Policy and Developments in Indochina, The University o f Chicago Press, Illinois, 1936, p 100 Consultation with Masaya Shiraishi, Professor o f Waseda University Graduate School o f Asia-Pacific Studies (Tokyo), on October 2012 Spencer, Herbert, La Mentalité Primitive by L Lévy-Bruhl, The Herbert Spencer Lecture delivered at Oxford, 29 May 1931, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1931, pp 10-11, 14 418 THE ETHONOLOGICAL APPROACH IN VIETNAMESE countries than Japan inferior Moreover, he called the members of tribes without script, such as Taiwanese or Australian aborigines, uncivilized or savages.'On the other hand, he insisted that ancient Japanese society recorded in the Japanese annals was in relatively advanced stage and thus cannot be called “primitive.2 Nevertheless, Matsumoto shared Western scholars’ opinion that the research of the different cultures and ancient traditions had a crucial importance for the understanding of the primitive stages of human civilization He also understood that the ethnographic research is necessary for the French colonial administration.3 3.2 French Ethnography and Oriental Studies Oriental studies both in Japan and France are closely related to Matsumoto’s research because the history of Asian states was treated also within this discipline Indeed, Matsumoto’s specialization in ethnology is result of a broad historical background of the close cooperation o f French ethnographers and Orientalists from the late nineteenth century It is because Oriental studies developed concurrently w ith the evolutionist and sociologist discourses The beginnings of Oriental studies in France are marked by the foundation of the Société Asiatique in 1822 The society unified French and foreign Orientalists and spread information about the Orient in its Journal asiatique.4 In the mid-1810s, two of its founders, Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat and Antoine-Léonard de Chézy, became the first professors, respectively, in Chinese and Sanskrit at the Collège de France.5 Gradually, Oriental studies were established in other academic centres like Sorbonne University, École des Hautes Études, Lyon University, etc Scholars carried out their field work in Egypt, Near East, India or China Consequently, French Oriental studies gradually differentiated into departments, including For example: Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, “Kodai bunkaron” in Gendai shigaku laikei, Vol 10, Kyôritsusha shoten, Tokyo, 1932, pp 59, 99 Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, Essai sur la mythologie Japonaise, P Geuthner, Paris 1928, p 79 Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, “Pari yori” in Mimoku, Minzoku hakkôjo Vol 2, No 1, Tokyo, March 1926, p 141; “ Furansu ni okeru minzokugakuteki kenkyü” in Nihon minzokugaku kenkyü, (ed by Yanagita), Iwanami shoten, Tokyo, 1935, p 376 Journal asiatique: ou recueil de mémoires, d'extraits et de notices relatifs l'histoire, la philosophie, aux sciences, la littérature et aux langues des peuples orientaux, Société asiatique, Tome I, Paris, 1822, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb34348774p/date (retrieved on 18 Oetober 2012) Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, “Gendai Furansu ni okeru Tôyôgaku” in Furansu no shakaigaku kiigaku” - gendai ni okeru shokeikô -, Furansu gakkaihen, Tokyo, 1930, p 586-587, 592 419 VIÇT NAM HQC - KŸ U HQl THÀO QC TÉ LAN THỴT T Ü Indology and Sinology.1 Thus, the formation o f individual academic disciplines of Oriental studies took place during the second half of the nineteenth century in the time of highest discussion on the human evolution This trend was visible also in Sinology whose establishment in France is mainly ascribed to Edouard Chavannes (1865-1918) Namely his translation and analysis of Sima Qian’s Historical Records (1895-1905) and his study of the Chinese cult o f Mount Tai represent the foundation stones in the modem Sinology.2 In his writings, Chavannes pointed out the important stages in the development of the early Chinese civilization.3 He also played significant role in education of experts in Chinese studies, such as Marcel Granet, Paul Peliot, Henri Maspero, etc Thus, the evolutionist perspective in Sinology was followed by Granet who did the content analysis of another of the Chinese classics, the Book o f Odes However, Granet also studied under Durkheim’s disciple Marcel Mauss and therefore he focused on the social phenomena in early China even more than Chavannes This combination of Sinology with ethnography and sociology shaped Matsumoto’s ideas during his historical studies at Keio University Undoubtedly, Matsumoto’s choice to study southern cultures was encouraged by Chavannes’ emphasis on the fact that Sima Qian’s encompassed the issues related to non-Han tribes, the barbarians, into his records.4 Further, Matsumoto was strongly interested in Granet’s idea o f connecting the ancient Chinese customs with the present customs of primitive people in Tonkin and Vietnam and the tradition of ancient Japan.5 Also, Granet’s argument emphasizing importance of seasonal rhythm6 in the Matsumoto, Nobuhiro, “Gendai Furansu ni okeru tôyôgaku” in Furansu no shakaigaku kagaku ” - gendai ni okeru shokeikô -, Furansu gakkaihen, Tokyo, 1930, p 554-599 Chavannes, Edouard, Le T'ai chan: essai de monographie d ’un culte chinois - Appendice: Le dieu du sol dans la Chine antique, Ernest Leroux, Paris, 1910 For example, absence o f Buddhism in Sima Q ian’s records, developm ent o f the ancestors cult and the dualism Heaven-Earth in the Chinese religion, etc Chavannes, Edouard, Les mémoires historiques de Se-Ma Ts'ien, Société asiatique, Ernest Leroux, Paris, 1895, pp LXVII, LXIV, XCV1 Chavannes, Edouard, Les mémoires historiques de Se-Ma Ts ’ien Société asiatique, Ernest Leroux, Paris, 1895, p CVII Granet, Marcel, Fêtes et chansons anciennes de la Chine, 1919; La Polygynie sororale et le sororat dans la Chine féodale, 1920; La Religion de Chinois, 1922; Danses et Légendes de la Chine ancienne, 1926; La Civilisation Chinoise, 1929 Granet, Marcel, Fêtes et chansons anciennes de la Chine, 2nd edition (1st edition in 1919), Librarie Ernest Leroux, Paris, 1929, pp 238-244 “ La polygynie sororale et le sororat dans la Chine féodale” in Essais sociologiques sur la Chine, Paris, 1920 420 THE ETHONOLOGICAL APPROACH IN VIETNAMESE so cial life c o m p lie d w ith Y a n a g ita ’s fo lk lo re stu d ie s M o re o v e r, G n e t claim e d th at the b arbarian trib e s p la y e d s ig n ific a n t ro le in th e fo rm a tio n o f th e C h in e se s ta te T h is statem en t p ro b a b ly c a m e fro m C h a v a n n e s ’ h y p o th e s is th a t th e re w as n o t a la rg e cultural g a p b e tw e e n th e p ro g re s s o f th e C h in e se a n d th e so -c a lle d b a rb a ria n s b e fo re the c re a tio n o f th e C h in e se k in g d o m These arguments shaped Matsumoto’s earliest writing on the ancient history Chavannes’s Historical Records and Mount Tai, Granet’s Ancient Festivals and Songs o f China appear as sources o f Matsumoto’s papers in the early 1920s: “The Mountains Legends Seen in Fudoki”, “Research of Mount Tai”, “Research in Ancient Family Names of China”, “Ancient Family Names of China and Totemism”, “Ancestor Worship of Peoples in Ancient China” All of these papers dealt or were connected with society and traditions o f ancient China before the birth of the Chinese kingdom In this sense, the existence of Chavannes’ and Granet’ writings and of evolutionists’ works directed Matsumoto’s attention towards the barbarian tribes in pre-Qin China Under this influence, Matsumoto became involved in the research of the ancient Asian culture excluding the typical elements o f the Han civilization which were established by famous Chinese dynasties This Matsumoto’s focus was consistent with Japan’s Southern Advance and the theories o f the southern genealogy which searched for Japan’s lost links with Southeast Asia in the antiquity Thus, Matsumoto had natural tendency to share Yanagita’s preoccupation with the southern elements transmitted to the Japanese tradition 3.5 Matsumoto’s Studies in Paris and Ethnography o f Southern Cultures When Matsumoto arrived to Paris in 1924, ethnographic and Oriental studies have displayed numerous significant results Marcel Mauss evoked sensations in academic circles when he presented his Essay on the Gift (1924) Marcel Granet inspired by Mauss’s idea demonstrated in his study Danses and Legends o f Ancient China (1926) how the mythic and ritual themes in the ancient texts are related to the Grane:, Marcel, Chinese Civilization, Knopf, New York 1930, pp 31, 77, 80 Chavannes, Edouard, Les mémoires historiques de Se-Ma Ts'ien, Société asiatique, Ernest Leroux, Paris, 1895, pp LXIII-LXIV, XCVII “Fudoki ni arawaretaru sangaku densetsu” in Tôkôkô, Vol I, Keiôgijukudaigaku taiikukai, Sangacubu nenpô, Tokyo, 1920, pp 23-40; “Taizan no kenkyü” in Tôkôkô II, K eiôgjukudaigaku taiikukai, Sangakubu nenpô, Tokyo, 1921; “Shina kodai seishi no kenkyi” in Tôa minzoku bunka ronkô, Tokyo, 1968 (1921), pp 411-452; “Shina kosei to tôtem iaim u” in Tôa minzoku bunka ronkô, Tokyo, 1968 (1921), pp 453-490, “ Kodai Shina m irm xu no sosen sühai” in Shigaku, Vol 1, No 4, Mita shigakkai, Tokyo, August 1922, pp 49-71 421 VlÇT NAM HQC - KŸ U H