Preview Chemistry for CSEC by Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman, Jennifer Murray, Anna Bowman (2014) Preview Chemistry for CSEC by Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman, Jennifer Murray, Anna Bowman (2014) Preview Chemistry for CSEC by Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman, Jennifer Murray, Anna Bowman (2014) Preview Chemistry for CSEC by Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman, Jennifer Murray, Anna Bowman (2014) Preview Chemistry for CSEC by Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman, Jennifer Murray, Anna Bowman (2014)
Chemistry for ® CSEC Anne Elizabeth Tindale Ritchie Dianne Sarah Luttig Chapman Jennifer Anna Murray Bowman s s er P ytisrevinU dr o f x O I N C LU D E S fo Edition CD t r aP 2nd Chemistry for ® CSEC Anne 2nd Tindale Edition Elizabeth Ritchie Dianne Sarah Chapman Jennifer Anna Luttig Murray Bowman Great Clarendon Oxford It University furthers and Oxford © Anne The First This in means, Press, as Enquiries should must impose Data No sent part of prior United of Dianne in law, reproduction other trade mark of countries Sarah Chapman 2014 2014 Press by any of rights the 2014 be reproduced, form or Oxford licence outside Department, in may in writing reprographics Rights scholarship, registered 2014 publication by Oxford asserted transmitted, in a of research, Luttig, Press University permission in is certain been Ltd University Oxford in Ritchie, have the Kingdom excellence University permitted the and this or appropriate to UK Oxford system, the the the Thornes by of worldwide authors Nelson concerning be British by 6DP, department Oxford the OX2 objective Elizabeth expressly address You of retrieval with a in © published without or agreed Press reserved a is publishing Tindale, published rights the by rights edition stored Press illustrations moral Oxford, University’s University Original All the education Text Street, or by any University under terms organization scope Oxford of the above University Press, at above not this circulate same Library this work condition Cataloguing on in in any any other form and you must acquirer Publication Data available 978-1-4085-2503-6 10 Printed in India by Multivista Global Pvt Ltd Acknowledgements Cover photograph: Illustrations: Page make-up: Thanks are due development Photo 8.2.1, 18.3.1, 4.4.2; 18.3.2, 9.3.1, 18.3.5, (NT) James Andrew van PA der Volk Photos Library/Andrew Hanns-Frieder /Maximilian Banton we copyright cases the the this notied, to for have Ltd made the 501 Gateshead for Vision their contributions PL C V1 10.5.2, 4.4.1b, /JERRY /Pascal 2.1.3b, effort publication publisher will CD2 14.1.4; party materials the 2.2.1a, Sandy 6.1.2, has rectify 18.3.3, Marshall 8.4.6, 18.1.1, 17.2.1, /Sue and not any contact been errors all possible or in omissions websites only contained are provided Oxford in any by disclaims third party Oxford any in good faith responsibility website referenced for in 22.1.1, all at Mike 20.4.4, and 15.3.5, 20.5.2; M 20.4.5; Photo /Astrid DESIGN and Gallery/ Science Baker (NT) 15.3.10, 21.1.4; 18.3.8, 20.3.4; /LAGUNA 3.3.2, Picture 20.5.1, www.tropix.co.uk/V trace this 17.1.3, 8.1.1a, Goetgheluck 17.2.2, 17.3.1, Corel Evans iStockphoto Garland 8.1.5, 17.1.2, 20.4.1; Greg Anne 8.1.1b, 16.2.12b, 20.5.3; opportunity third in 20.5.6; 5.5.4a, Corbis 19.1.1; Leslie 17.1.1, MASON 22.2.2; (NT) Ltd 2.5.3, 16.2.12a, Fotolia 1.1.3, 16.1.5, 21.2.1; to 21.2.2, 18.3.7; Chillmaid 2.5.2, 16.1.4, 20.4.2; (NT) Holdings 2.2.3b, 15.1.9, 20.6.1, Photography 11.2.4, /Photoshot (NT) Bhadur/AP every before information work Ltd, Murray 2.1.3c, 9.3.2b, Ingram 2.5.1, Shutterstock holders earliest Links and If Lambert Stock 9.1.1; Although /Shirley 2.2.2, 1.3.2, 20.4.3, Corel Martyn 2.2.3a, Michler 1.2.9, 19.2.1, 2.1.3a; 4.4.1c; 2.2.1b, 4.4.1a, Tech-Set Jennifer Rogers Lauritz/Digital Lambert and 9.3.2a, 5.5.4b; (greg@gregevans.net) 15.3.8; Bowman 1.2.10b, 9.1.2, 18.3.4, 340 and Gateshead book 1.2.10a, 8.4.8, Corel Anna this Publishing Ltd, Alamy/Helene 1.1.2, 8.4.2, Tech-Set to of credits: Tindale iStockphoto GreenGate Shawn Birley 3.3.3 Contents Introduction A5.5 Str ucture Key Section A1 A Principles States of of chemistry matter Practice The A1.2 Evidence proper ties of solids par ticulate nature of matter 86 exam-style questions for Chemical t he equations and reactions matter Writing and balancing chemical The t hree states Key concepts of matter Types of exam-style questions A2.1 and their Elements, separation compounds A2.2 Solutions, A2.3 Solubility 96 concepts 99 questions The mole concept 101 and mixtures colloids A7.1 The mole and mass A7.2 The mole and gas 101 A7.3 The mole and concentration 16 volumes 106 19 of 22 solutions A2.4 Separating mixtures A2.5 Extraction of sugar Key sucrose A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae 1 A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions 13 Key concepts from cane 30 exam-style questions structure The str ucture A3.2 The electronic A3.3 of atoms Key configuration Acids, bases The periodic A4.1 A4.2 and table radioactivity reactions of acids 121 A8.2 Proper ties and reactions of bases 128 A8.3 Strengt h A8.4 Salts A8.5 Neutralisation A8.6 Volumetric questions and of periodicity elements in A4.4 Trends Group 46 46 II of t he in Group VII of A9 Period 55 of t he Structure Formation A5.3 Writing ionic A5.4 questions bonding A5.2 bonding of ionic chemical bonds formulae compounds Formation metallic of questions 154 and reactions reduction 156 – an Oxidation Oxidising Key 156 numbers and 159 reducing agents concepts Practice 164 170 exam-style questions 171 62 exam-style Chemical Oxidation A9.3 periodic concepts A5.1 152 exam-style A9.2 60 and 148 introduction A10 A5 145 analysis Oxidation–reduction A9.1 t he table in Practice 132 135 reactions concepts Practice periodic table Key alkalis t he table in periodic and 45 51 Trends acids 40 table A4.3 of 44 Arrangement Trends 121 and 37 exam-style periodic salts Proper ties Key A4 and A8.1 of concepts Practice 120 34 atom Isotopes questions 34 A3.1 an exam-style 33 A8 Atomic 19 32 Practice A3 108 25 concepts Practice 100 16 and suspensions exam-style 15 A7 Mixtures reactions 14 Practice A2 chemical Key Practice 89 A6.2 A1.3 89 par ticulate equations of 88 A6.1 t heor y 80 A6 A1.1 and concepts covalent bonds Electrochemistry 173 64 A10.1 The 65 A10.2 Electrical 65 A10.3 Electrolysis 69 A10.4 Quantitative A10.5 Industrial of 72 and 76 electrochemical series conduction 173 176 179 electrolysis applications 188 of electrolysis 191 Key 195 concepts Practice exam-style questions 197 iii Contents A11 Rates of reaction A11.1 Measuring A11.2 Factors Key 198 rates of affecting reaction rates of reaction concepts Practice exam-style questions C18 Reactivity, 198 metals 202 C18.1 The reactivity 209 C18.2 The extraction 210 C18.3 Uses Energetics 212 A12.1 Energy A12.2 Calculating Key changes during energy reactions changes concepts Practice questions of B Organic chemistry Introduction to organic B13.1 Organic B13.2 Homologous 217 C19 chemistry B14.1 Sources – Alkanes: alkanes C questions and extraction Metals 224 B14.3 Alkenes: C Key alkenes in living systems Alcohols, corrosion of The impact metals H and alkanoic Alkanoic Esters: C20.2 Chemical proper ties questions acids C H and esters OH 2n acids: 239 of uses C20.5 Harmful and of C H COOH 2n Key 253 non-metals of 324 non-metals compounds 326 chemistr y 330 concepts 334 exam-style questions 336 255 Water 338 C21.1 The unique proper ties C21.2 The treatment of water 338 260 of water for pur poses 342 269 questions concepts 345 271 exam-style questions 346 Qualitative analysis polymers concepts C22.1 Identification of cations questions chemistry of C17.1 Physical C17.2 Chemical C22.2 Identification of anions 351 C22.3 Identification of gases 354 281 concepts Reactions of of metals 283 compounds concepts Practice 282 and metals metal exam-style 356 questions 358 periodic table 360 282 of proper ties exam-style 282 metals proper ties reactions 347 275 279 exam-style Inorganic 347 272 The iv uses polymers Condensation Key 318 and 263 exam-style Characteristics C17.3 non-metals preparation effects t heir Green Practice C17 of 321 The Key – 316 and 272 Practice C non-metals gases C20.4 C20.6 C22 Section of 255 concepts Addition Key 315 Polymers B16.2 questions proper ties Laborator y Practice B16.1 31 313 316 Physical Key B16 environment exam-style C20.1 C20.3 251 RCOOR Practice living concepts domestic Key 309 on Non-metals 246 n B15.3 t he metals 2n n B15.2 of exam-style Alcohols: the 237 C21 B15.1 and The Practice B15 308 309 Practice 239 concepts Practice questions C19.2 226 242 2n n 307 C19.1 of H n 302 236 hydrocarbons B14.2 299 alloys 230 exam-style and t heir 226 series concepts Hydrocarbons metals and exam-style reactions B14 of 294 226 compounds Practice metals environment C20 Key of concepts Practice Key B13 of metals systems Section uses 212 223 exam-style and 294 Key A12 extraction 288 291 questions 293 Index 361 Introduction To the Chemistr y you student for achieve experienced for you The to CSEC® your is best teachers master Chemistr y Principles t he a t he who course examination have included It designed has been features to to help written make it by easier is divided Chemistry, into Section B, t hree sections; Organic Section Chemistry, A, and Section C, Inorganic Chemistry Chapters 1–12 of t his book cover topics in Section Chapters 17–22 A, Chapters cover topics 13–16 in the The cover Section topics in Section B, and writing t he of Chemistr y CSEC® syllabus It for are Caribbean provides a for presented chapters based grasp on impor tant dened met, CSEC® has been driven by experienced each in t he t he in and is of of order topics concepts, each t hat coverage t he chapter units, and content is appropriate and students complete material teaching, C teacher Caribbean science educators to ensure t hat bot h t he requirements of relevant concepts syllabus of comprehensive in key To of t he for t hen which t he t he CSEC® syllabus you syllabus syllabus as broken a To one of t he to into wit h divided help teacher down develops and students manage several t hese t he into your clearly impor tant Key terms are highlighted t hroughout t he text to help you to ‘home concepts in’ on t he key concepts Impor tant denitions and laws which you chapter also All must be able to quote are given in Key fact boxes Each to includes Did you know? boxes which contain facts to impor tant be able identify your interest, help you You will and pass Exam your tip boxes which contain denitions quote are and given laws in which ‘Key fact’ t he students boxes for are expected students to valuable tips and t hen clearly learn to examination A range in also to stimulate nd a large number of clear diagrams and t he of practical syllabus can activities be found which closely t hroughout relate t he to text t hose You suggested can use t hese colour to help you develop a practical approach to your teaching and also to photographs to enliven and enrich your learning, and a wide assess range of different designed your use to help learning some practical of you using t hese (SBA) skills Each chapter a activities develop your ‘hands-on’ activities to These practical approach assess your activities skills Your and have to teacher School-Based enhance may also Assessment Clear, The learning beginning of broken down objectives t he unit so into for t hat several each you unit can see clearly are dened clearly what you given are are units at t he expected in t he unit These learning objectives relate fully to t he to found Assessment (SBA) skills of your students you help in all diagrams students and gain a colour better photographs understanding which of each are topic chapters know?’ boxes wit h facts to stimulate t he student’s interest, and ‘Exam tip’ boxes containing valuable tips to prepare students for t heir examination appear t hroughout t he text to Each learn School-Based explanator y designed ‘Did is t he been unit begins wit h a list of learning objectives for students to specic clearly see what t hey are expected to master in t he unit These relate objectives given in t he syllabus Each unit t hen ends wit h a selection fully to t he specic objectives in t he syllabus of summary questions to test your comprehension of t he material covered in t he Revision unit questions designed At t he end of each chapter you will nd a list of t he key is help you followed two to by revise a t he variety exam-style impor tant of content of multiple-choice questions to help you to t he chapter questions apply t he are provided students to at t he consolidate end of t heir each unit knowledge which of t he are key concepts material to for This and usually knowledge found in t he unit list you A list of key students concepts revise t he is key given content at t he of t he end of each chapter to help chapter gained in t he chapter to answer t he different question types t hat you Multiple-choice, str uctured and extended response questions similar will encounter during your examination The rst of t he exam-style to questions is a str uctured question requiring shor t answers and t hose chapter your CSEC® Examination you will be given spaces on t he on t he CSEC® Examination are included at t he end of each in for students to test t heir knowledge and understanding of question t he mater ial covered in t he chapter and hone t heir examination paper for your answers The second is an extended response question skills requiring a greater element of essay writing in your answers The A marks allocated for t he different par ts of each question are complete 60-question multiple-choice test wit h answers is to clearly be found on t he CD This will enable your students to test t heir given knowledge and understanding of t he material covered in t he entire On t he CD you will nd a complete multiple-choice test composed of text 60 questions to test your knowledge and understanding of material A Data Analysis section on t he CD provides information on answering taken from all sections of t he syllabus If you work t hrough all t he t he Data Analysis question toget her wit h t hree practice questions for end of will be chapter questions and t he complete multiple-choice test you students well prepared for your The On t he CD you will also nd a section on Data Analysis you wit h det ails CD about t he Data Analysis question be required allocations you for infor mation School-Ba sed you of read study t his to you answer to as practise about what Assessment section before t he skills required in answering t his question well as There is also required (SBA) you t hree is It is questions a section from you extremely embark on your wit h whic h in includes for a students section to gain which an provides detailed understanding of information what t hem over t heir two-year programme of is required study mark gives ter ms impor t ant two-year also SBA you from will develop whic h about provides to examination of t hat course Chemistr y Each activity SBA may for CSEC® practical may section be adopts activity be used provides used for t he a practical begins as a t he wit h basis for location different a SBA in types approach suggestion The t he of table book of wherever indicating which t he possible how t he follows t he activities which assessment Section A States of matter A1 Chemistry is the study of the structure and behaviour of Objectives By the be able end of this topic you matter will Everything has ● give a ● give the denition four of main matter ideas both beings of us is made of matter Matter explain theory why particulate of and of and volume animals are all Air, water, matter sand, Matter human exists in states The three main states of matter are solid, matter scientists theory mass the various particulate ● around to: nd the liquid and gas matter useful identify ● the three main states the relationship of A1.1 The particulate nature of matter matter explain ● Matter between temperature and the As motion of far bac k idea a t hat piece half Exam is important definitions Chemistry provided boxes of that key These for you you know terms in the the ‘Key in how for par ticles called example, many cuts a will t hought He Democr itus piece you t hat of have it asked gold, to ended t his developed in make at question: half and before some t hen you point, ‘f t he cut can t he you cut cut it it smallest in no and t hat building t hese bloc k s of smallest matter bits of Today matter, scientists or particles , have added would to be bits t he Democr itus’ of matter book particulate particulate t heor y is theory theory ver y of useful of matter because matter states it t hat helps all us matter to is explain made bot h of par ticles t he physical fact proper ties of matter and also t he differences between t he t hree states of matter We Matter is anything occupies that has will Key that looking at t he t hree states of matter in detail in Unit A1.3 space par ticulate matter is t heor y ● all made ● t he ● t here are spaces ● t here are forces par ticles are of of in matter has four main ideas: par ticles constant, random motion fact particulate states be mass The The philosopher of fact’ This ! Greek idea and now descr ibe matter and its proper ties using t he par ticulate t heor y are The and a Democr itus matter, basic the used definitions throughout Key matter, again, The ! BC consisted tip of It 460 matter of fur t her?’ ✔ as particles all theory matter is of between t he par ticles matter made up of attraction between t he par ticles of particles matter of The is made par ticles par ticles Figure constant 1.1.1 par ticulate The particulate t heor y of are theory matter in there motion of can are between spaces par ticles matter be used to explain many physical phenomena t hat we obser ve in our ever yday lives Examples of some of t hese are given on t he next page t explains: States of The ● and How is it can Why ● e.g e.g be t he States density rise in liquid freezer can smelt at t he get of of cause forms gas harder between it vibrate in in t he e.g why matter pebbles change into a solid, e.g when water side of you a room, t he e.g when chicken is fr ying, kitchen wit h an increase in temperature, drive become crisper when soaked in water, liquids, e.g cer tain in insects can ‘walk’ on water Figure 1.1.2 Pebbles sink in water matter common in to increases as vegetables tension t hese Par ticles gases, of potatoes of most and nature ice Matter can exist in various forms or t he liquids t hroughout ot her a solids, particulate water can it move pressure cer tain raw a a tyres Surface ● in smell car Why ● a in bubbles cooling placed Why ● The difference sink ● matter states t he t heir liquid are lies solid xed state t he solid, in t he state have energy have position states The t hree states of matter t hat are liquid t he and medium and and least t hey amount are amounts gaseous states arrangement packed of of of t hey difference par ticles energy, closely energy, The t he t hey toget her move simply Par ticles about slowly and t hey have small spaces between t hem Par ticles in t he gaseous state have t he greatest spaces The energy par ticles in its t he faster of hanging a t hey will can is g reater t his directly This substance The move study change temperature substance t hey energy, You par ticles matter temperature t he of t hem of and changing t he amount between one change of and detail to t he physical state t he kinetic rapidly greater related from increases t he about in energy t hey Unit to of par ticles large of anot her because energ y t he have 1.3 temperature state occurs kinetic in t he by increasing t he par ticles possess, t he move state by changing temperature is a physical change A physical change occurs when t he form of t he substance is changed wit hout changing its chemical t he same gaseous composition, chemical state, i.e Summary State If a the of the water the Explain What are What is water in water t he as a liquid solid, i.e state and ice, as has exactly water in t he Figure three vapour of main ideas potassium purple particulate evidence example, as 1.1.3 states The of drinks illustrate the matter questions three crystal water, for par ticles colour theory of the particulate manganate( VII ) spreads of is theory dropped throughout matter does this the of matter into water a beaker What observation of features provide for? why scientists the the three nd states relationship the of particulate theory of matter useful matter? between temperature and the movement of particles? Evidence for the particulate theory of matter A1.2 Objectives By the be able end of States this topic you Evidence for the particulate theory of of matter matter will n t he previous unit we mentioned t hat scientists nd t he par ticulate t heor y to: of matter ver y useful because it allows t hem to explain t he physical proper ties explain ● evidence which of supports the particulate matter suppor t of and the processes same ideas time There t hough, are simple scientists practical have to provide activities evidence involving to d iffusion diffusion and describe experiments osmosis which we can perform to provide evidence for t he existence of and ● t he t heir matter explain ● At theory movement of par ticles osmosis which Diffusion demonstrate diffusion and osmosis explain ● sugar and We the to uses control preserve of salt and garden food have into pests items a all freshener t he smell t hrough of had baker y, All matter air are Key Diffusion particles t hese to is in concentration ! cosmetic of seems t he experience a smells travel as a one of being or are of t he air of and a smell, into at a This d iffusion motion lower aware climbing produced t hrough result constant to of shop a point move t hat in process Diffusion will whet her car t he of shop t he occurs from a it is walking contains or smell air but travelling because region an car, par ticles of higher concentration fact is the from movement an area concentration to concentration until an of area they of higher of Investigating lower are the particulate theory of matter evenly Your teacher may use this activity to assess: distributed ● observation, recording ● analysis interpretation Y ou will be potassium and supplied with and a manganate( VII) reporting straw, a beaker containing distilled water and a crystal Method Place the bottom Drop the moving Very straw of the vertically crystal the in the beaker of water until it touches the beaker of potassium manganate( VII) into the straw without straw carefully remove the straw trying to disturb the water as little as possible ✔ Exam tip the It is very important questions in distinguish and to must your or while what you If the If what examinations are are you colour immediately begins to spread throughout Leave the beaker to has and spread observe conclusion can throughout after you draw all a the few days water in Note the that beaker the purple What about: asked then is a the spaces b the movement between the water particles you of the potassium manganate( VII) particles? and used being asked conclude then purple would experiment you would experiment, you the water colour observations you how answering observations, describe performed when between conclusions give see tests Observe to state from must the The potassium illustrated in manganate(VII) Figures 1.2.1 and cr ystal 1.2.2 are t he bot h water composed in of t he experiment minute particles give The par ticles in t he cr ystal are packed closely toget her and t hose in t he water what you can deduce from the have observations A deduction is ver y minute by using data from the small spaces between t hem When t he cr ystal is in t he water, t he made cr ystal par ticles slowly separate from each ot her and diffuse into t he experiment spaces between t he water par ticles This continues until all t he par ticles have to arrive at a conclusion separated from t he cr ystal and have diffused between t he water par ticles Structure and properties of solids Structure and bonding Allotropy Key ! fact Diamond t hey Allotropes are different are same of the same physical bot h graphite made are out of known t he as same allotropes element, of carbon carbon, This is but, in t he occurence of t hese because solid state, structural t heir forms and element in carbon atoms are bonded differently The different the allotropes state is known as allotropy Because diamond and graphite are bot h composed of carbon atoms, t hey have t he Key ! same different Allotropy is the existence structural forms t hey proper ties have physical different However, cr ystal t heir atoms str uctures are which bonded result in differently, t hem having proper ties of Several different chemical t herefore, fact of ot her elements exhibit allotropy These include sulfur and the phosphor us, when in the solid state, and oxygen, when in the gaseous state same element in the same physical state Summary Did ? you Converting to diamond dream the of high its to bonding that the and force consuming and long crystal is Potassium structure does each of the following have? b Iodine c Ice d Graphite e Calcium bromide held extremely carbonate temperatures carbon to have Why Compare Why are Why can can sodium chloride dissolve in water? change meant extremely the melting points of an ionic solid and a simple molecular solid time- diamonds extremely hard? energy-intensive Consequently it achieved any with a the structure process of a graphite throughout However, pressures required been scientists world type know? inexpensive has What questions has not real yet been graphite conduct an electric current? success Key ● concepts Atoms bond wit h conguration, ● Atoms can electronic ● There are each i.e lose, t hat gain ot her of or to t he share attain nearest a more noble valence stable gas in electrons to electronic t he periodic attain a table stable conguration t hree main types of chemical bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic ● A chemical t he ● ● redistribution Chemical can be There are V alence form Ionic t hree Metal form 86 force t heir by main formulae number ot her of atoms form negative of valency a result chemical t hat results from is t he positive of ionic or covalent bonding formulae: molecular formulae, formulae t he number number composed called atoms formulae Valence forming ions as empirical involves between electrons types atoms atoms, attraction formed and or of chemical compounds bond ing non-metal ● of a compounds wit h formulae ● is represented str uctural ● bond of transfer two of of can bonds be used different electrons an to atom write can empirical elements from metal atoms to ions ions called anions cations and non-metal atoms Structure ● n ionic t he ● A ● onic ions lattice metal Atoms forces n to or The strong electrons Four ● The ● Simple in a t he of as attraction ionic solids between bonds, an t he empirical ions made arrangement hold shar ing from of shared of formula par ticles or formula present several polyatomic A in held t he a atoms bonded ions electrons pair of are between electrons bonded chemical toget her nuclei electrons cations non- for ms a of by t he toget her strongly reaction t he strong atoms and electrostatic t he bonding become which delocalised remain These and are able delocalised to move electrons are electrons force of attraction cations forms between t he t he metallic delocalised bond which holds toget her metals solid of are due str uctures wit hin t he different par ticles result t he and from molecular crystals be solid t he bonding identied str uctures arrangement bonding and anions composed t hree-dimensional wit hin based t he on way to forces depend of They are t he are held arrangement are intermolecular t he metal t he way lattice t he solids ionic cations to can t he t hree-dimensional Weak which unit are positive of which regular, lattice atoms between bonded t heir repeating, ● t he single molecule lattice are in of a electrostatic crystals lattice as molecules mobile proper ties Ionic of are known regular using ratio involves as metal different between t he forces known of electrons proper ties par ticles are valence as and metal ● represented group a of t he known The anions, properties lattice compounds for m a t he also ● is pairs metals, t he cr ystal give ions attraction between ● are behave wit hin of electrostatic t hree-dimensional ionic to a strong negative and bond molecule pair a bond ing atoms enough ● in t he and in which These covalent ● of ions Covalent A is compounds toget her ● cations toget her bot h Many Structure compounds, cr ystal unit, ● bonding positive t hese ● and by of create strong a in ionic a bonding of an ionic regular, bonds molecules simple t he t he composed toget her small between on par ticles arranged molecular molecules hold t hem toget her ● onic and ● Simple polar ● cr ystals t hey molecular solvents Gi ant bonds in molecular high melting electricity cr ystals and molecular covalent giant have conduct t hey have crystals a Diamond and graphite are ● Diamond and graphite are ● carbon, Diamond is ver y are also ● element, not regular, lattice, but t heir hard, has points, when low or melting conduct dissolve of points, as a of allotropes atoms high are polar in most in solvents water dissolve any non-metal t hree-dimensional known in dissolved electricity composed examples a most molten in non- state atoms arrangement bonded to form by a macromolecule giant They are bonded melting molecular cr ystals composed of t he same differently point and does not conduct electricity ● Graphite conduct is ‘sof t’ and lubricating, has a high melting point and does electricity 87 Practice exam-style questions Structure Practice exam-style Multiple-choice Which of calcium t he Ca (PO B Ca(PO A isotopes B isomers C allotropes following is t he correct formula for D allomers carbon of of carbon carbon Structured question The table gives t he mass number and atomic number of Ca (PO X of ) four The are: carbon questions of PO D graphite questions ) 4 Ca and bonding phosphate? A C Diamond and Y elements ) formula and different of would t he compound formed between Element Mass number Atomic fluorine 19 neon 20 10 aluminium 27 13 phosphorus 31 15 number atoms be: a i) Which element would not be capable of forming compounds? ii) b A XY B X Give Two an ionic Name (1 reason elements form i) a in for t he your table answer are (2 capable of mark) marks) bonding to compound t hese elements (1 mark) Y ii) C Give t he formula of t his compound (1 mark) XY iii) D X By means bonding A two B a occurs c between: Two and a i) non-metal ii) metalloid and a An two cross diagram, show atom wit h an atomic number of 15 and an atom a in covalent Name Give formed table are (3 capable of atomic number A form a B form an elements formula of t his compound Draw a dot and cross diagram to show C form a D not of covalent bonding in ionic metallic bond aqueous wit h solution A water B electrons mark) t his Describe t he compound (2 marks) i) Why is bonding aluminium in able aluminium to conduct an (2 marks) electric compound can Total only conduct electricity when conduct become free a electricity when t hey free when t hey t he lattice are are response Wit h in i) aqueous ii) become in aqueous b marks when t hey are in question of a sodium diagram in EACH case, describe chloride reference each sodium to of t he of: graphite Wit h i) free aid str ucture explain become 15 in solution protons mark) ot her because: molecules ions (1 lattice each solution D mark) (1 compound compounds t he (1 would: Extended C to t he current? onic marks) bonding compound t hese t he is t he wit h ii) how non-metals d an and non-metal iii) D compound elements form metals metal a dot t his onic C a Y of t he t he str ucture and type of (3 marks) (3 marks) bonding, following: chloride is able to conduct electricity aqueous when molten (2 marks) solution ii) Which of t he molecular following is/are t he proper ties of a simple They are usually They conduct They have A iii) soluble electricity in in water any state is able to conduct electricity in state compound? graphite (2 bot h sodium melting c Some t he types chloride and graphite have points of sand high (3 consist of silica, SiO solid marks) marks) Silica is low melting points relatively state and and C and D has a does high not conduct melting electricity point in Describe any t he only bonding B hard, which you would expect to nd in silica only (2 and Total 88 only mark) only 15 marks Chemical equations and A6 reactions Chemical equations use symbols and formulae to Objectives represent chemical standards for change writing There chemical are universal equations which make By the be able for chemists all over the world to interpret of this the understand the conventions equations written by others The theory behind is very important in the chemical you will different used when writing chemical chemical reactions topic to: it ● possible end industry It ● write equations balanced chemical equations reduces the risk of accidents, can improve productivity ● and can increase the yield of chemicals soluble ● A6.1 A Writing chemical using formed The equation symbols reactants, and and are t he and any all on t he reactions, i.e are representation The lef t chemical chemicals side t he of t he by a an are or a compound insoluble balanced in ionic is water equations equations chemical are equation products, separated of t hat write whether reaction reacting, and shown t he on t he i.e t he chemicals right side arrow: products Understanding that shor t hand products reactants Chemists a formulae shown during reactants is balancing predict use person the chemical same reading a equations conventions chemical when equation writing will chemical understand equations exactly so what it means The conventions used when writing chemical equations are as follows: ● The symbol side of on ● An t he A plus ● A state and ● ( ) on is t he and products solid is The liquid gas (aq) aqueous conditions a above specic about to of each symbol separate or reactant formula t he state is of reactants catalyst wit hout A are a a used 1.2 t he solution for is a up t he as placed each on t he product lef t is placed from t he products and t he symbol where t he or state water reaction to temperature, t he each right product it means formula of t he The ‘and’ of each reactants follows: chemical in on physical are specic For and af ter used required e.g catalyst being Unit brackets i.e reactant wit h’ indicates symbols arrow, each ‘reacts in This which in separate solution, t he catalysts to means written reaction used used lef t (l) or t he ‘produces’ (g) written is product (s) Any a means symbol reactant formula and side ) sign sign chemical ( arrow plus or equation right arrow The ● t he a is occur solvent can specic substance reaction t he You which will be pressure speeds learn up more example, 898 °C CaCO (s) CaO(s) CO This shows decompose (g) t hat into calcium calcium carbonate oxide and requires carbon heating to 898 °C for it to dioxide 89 Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical ● f t he reaction NH is reversible, Cl(s) NH ● will The equation balance When learn on more must each t he AgNO (g) an about arrow ( ) in so t he t he t hat arrow sections equation, following (aq) of each reactions t he is number t he t hat par t in same For example, of 6.2 atoms will or ions learn of how each to follow represents a word or a statement example: KCl(aq) AgCl(s) KNO (aq) equation chloride used Unit You The is reactions HCl(g) reversible balance side equations reading Consider double and You element a equations reads solution as to follows: ‘silver produce solid nitrate silver solution chloride reacts and wit h potassium potassium nitrate solution’ Balancing You should chemical have noticed equations t hat in t he t hree chemical equations above, t he atoms are not changed during t he reactions The way in which t he atoms are bonded to each ot her changes, but t here is t he same number of atoms of each element created When on nor bot h writing atoms of sides destroyed each a of in each chemical element equation chemical equation, on t he n ot her reactions, right you side t hey must of words, are ensure t he atoms only t hat equation are neit her rearranged is t he t he number same as of t he number on t he lef t side A chemical equation t hat conforms to t his is known as a balanced You learnt about understand 2H ● 2H ● H chemical how represents represents equation writing to chemical balance two one formulae chemical atoms of hydrogen, molecule of in equations, not hydrogen, Unit consider bonded To t he help you to following: toget her consisting of two atoms of hydrogen ● 2H bonded represents toget her two molecules of hydrogen and, in total, four atoms of hydrogen H ● 3CO represents t hree molecules of carbon dioxide n total, t he number of ● atoms Ca(NO of ) each element represents one is 3C and formula 6O unit atoms of calcium nitrate, which consists 2 of one Ca ion and two NO ions; t herefore, t he number of atoms of 2H each ● element 2Ca(NO ) Figure 6.1.1 Different atoms and 1Ca, 2N represents and two 6O formula units of calcium nitrate n total, t he representations number of is of atoms of each element is 2Ca, 4N and 12O molecules The number in front of each formula in t he list above is called t he A coefcient equations to produce formulae H as (g) of is not t he hydrogen written reaction chloride Coefcients between gas We are used hydrogen can gas summarise when and t his balancing chlorine reaction gas using follows: Cl Studying one Consider coefcient (g) HCl(g) t his equation we can see t hat t here are two atoms of hydrogen on t he lef t side, but only one atom on t he right side Also, t here are two atoms of chlorine on t he lef t side, but only one atom on t he right side The equation is, t herefore, not balanced f a coefcient, 2, is placed in front of t he formula 90 Chemical for of equations hydrogen chlorine H (g) chloride, on t he Cl The t ver y cannot be t he elements writing write should Write now two atoms of hydrogen and two balancing chemical equations atoms balanced t he of t heir The of t hat when number t he of always balancing balancing atoms coefcient in remain balanced and be note must of front t he t he of a t he elements formula formulae can The only be subscripts same chemical chemical equations equations equations, t he guidelines outlined followed correct t he – Seven to changing When note gives and 2HCl(g) changed by to ● now Writing side: (g) is How below t his right impor tant changed af ter reactions equation is and chemical formula for each reactant and product, taking following: t he free common st ate These elements are H , involving any of t hese exist N , O , as F elements, , diatomic Cl wr ite , Br t he molecules and n when in reactions for mula for t he diatomic molecule – n reactions atomic wr ite involving symbol of t he ot her elements element, e.g if in a t heir free reaction st ate, wr ite involves t he magnesium, Mg ● Separate t he ● Separate each ● Write ● Star t t he reactants and reactant state and symbol balancing t he products each af ter in an product each elements by by reactant t he arrow a plus and product sign product immediately af ter t he arrow rst ● Any polyatomic ion which appears unchanged from one side to t he ot her can be balanced as a unit, e.g if SO appears at bot h sides, ✔ consider it as a single unit (see Example It ● f any compounds contain hydrogen Exam or oxygen, balance is essential from last and balance oxygen last (see Examples and f any elements balance, e.g occur Fe, Ca, in Cl , t heir Use of coefcients each in element t he leave t hese until t he ver y last to of the each lef t and formula right to sides balance The t he number formulae must of not atoms reactions Always same front on state, O ● free you chemical can write equations for 3) all ● that hydrogen balanced second tip 4) of check type each you that and arrow, and the correct you on that encounter have number element the will of both you the atom sides have of given be state symbol for each changed reactant ● Check t hat t he coefcients are in t he lowest possible and product ratio Examples Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in which magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide as the only product Write t heir each t he chemical state element Mg(s) formulae symbols on O Af ter each (g) of t he doing side of reactants t his, t he and determine products t he toget her number of wit h atoms of arrow: MgO(s) Reactants Products Mg Mg O O 91 Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical O does not balance Mg(s) O Balance by placing a in equations front of t he and reactions MgO 2MgO(s) (g) Reactants Now Products Mg Mg O O Mg does 2Mg(s) not O balance Balance by placing a in front of t he Mg 2MgO(s) (g) Reactants The gas a (C Mg O O Write t heir is now balanced H on Mg equation Write Products ) and balanced chemical oxygen to equation form t he each C chemical symbols side H of (g) t he O formulae and of t he determine reaction and between propane steam of leaving (g) CO (g) H C H H O O elements oxygen t he products atoms of toget her each O(g) CO balance in its free Balance Balance state t he t he until H by carbon last and Balance placing a in hydrogen t he C front by of H (g) O t he H still (g) 3CO (g) 4H O(g) C C H O O not Products H does a O Reactants O rst, placing C wit h element Products of of t he and number C t he front reactants t he arrow: Reactants in t he dioxide state None for carbon balance Balance by placing a 10 in front of t he O C H (g) 5O (g) 3CO The 4H C C H O 10 O t he is now ) (aq) 10 balanced following Ca(HCO O(g) Products H equation Balance (g) Reactants equation: HCl(aq) CaCl (aq) CO (g) H O(l) Determine the number of atoms of each element on each side of the arrow: Ca(HCO ) (aq) HCl(aq) CaCl (aq) 92 Ca H CO (g) Reactants Ca H C C O O Cl Cl H O(l) Products Chemical Star t equations by arrow front and balancing Ca of t he balances, t he reactions Writing elements but Cl does in t he not product balance immediately Balance ) (aq) 2HCl(aq) CaCl (aq) front of Ca H C O Cl t he CO Ca H C O 2 Cl carbon CO Ca(HCO ) and hydrogen Balance t he H next by Balance placing a t he in C by front (aq) 2HCl(aq) CaCl (g) H C O Cl t he of (aq) ) t his is O(l) placing t he 2CO H a in O H C O Cl (aq) (g) 2H O(l) balanced equation NaOH(aq) Al(OH) (s) NaNO t he now reaction, H Products Ca following Al(NO n in 2 Ca equation Balance 2 Reactants equations Products The chemical t he a Reactants t he af ter placing balancing HCl Ca(HCO Balance by and NO and t he OH ions are (aq) polyatomic ions which remain treated unchanged as element single at each Al(NO ) from units side (aq) one when of t he side to t he ot her determining t he They number of t herefore, atoms NaOH(aq) Al(OH) (s) NaNO Al NO of (aq) Products Al NO Na Na OH OH Start with the product immediately after the arrow Balance by placing a in front of the OH does not balance NaOH Move on to the next product does not balance Balance by placing a in front of the NaNO 3 Al(NO ) (aq) 3NaOH(aq) Al(OH) Al NO State 3NaNO Al NO 3 Na Na OH OH is now symbols (aq) Products equation (s) Reactants The each arrow Reactants NO are, of balanced ionic compounds n Unit 5.5 you learnt t hat most ionic compounds are soluble in water Some ionic compounds involving ionic compound is are, however, compounds, soluble or it insoluble is ver y insoluble in in water impor tant water f it to is When know writing equations whet her insoluble, t hen t he it ionic would 93 Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical always t he t he be state solubility T able 6.1.1 Solubility All and t he of state (aq) ionic Solubility symbol Table (s) 6.1.1 compounds of ionic e.g f it gives in is soluble t he it would solubility and reactions usually r ules for be given determining water compounds rule compounds soluble, All given symbol equations in water Exceptions of Group I compounds metals of are lithium, None sodium potassium ammonium Most nitrates compounds and are ethanoates soluble are None soluble Silver ethanoate (CH COOAg) is only slightly soluble Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are Those soluble (PbCl of ) lead and and silver lead(II) are insoluble bromide (PbBr soluble Most sulfates are soluble Those in of (CaSO ) hot All Exam hydrogencarbonates are soluble Lead(II) are chloride moderately water lead and and barium silver sulfate are insoluble (Ag ✔ ) SO ) are Calcium slightly sulfate soluble None tip Most carbonates and phosphates are Those of Group I metals and ammonium are soluble Those of Group I metals and ammonium are soluble insoluble It is essential that you learn the Most solubility rules so that you metal hydroxides are insoluble can Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH) ) is moderately soluble, give the correct state symbols calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ) is slightly soluble and when This writing is chemical particularly magnesium equations important ionic metal oxides t hey of a ions Those two an ion ● an element very slightly of Group water to I metals, form the calcium equivalent and barium, react hydroxides t he end atoms up in a or ions which different state actually from take t he one par t in in a which known form be in a may as a to free form an insoluble compound wit hin precipitate covalent conver ted its join to state compound an atom, may be i.e composed it may conver ted to be an of molecules discharged ion, i.e it may ionised following Write 2) Rewrite t he steps should balanced t he individual be followed chemical equation, but when equation show any for ions writing t he t hat ionic equations reaction are present in solution in solution as ions solution 3) Delete bot h not 4) any sides take Rewrite 5) t Cancel is ions of par t t he change, i.e t he acid which t he in remain equation t he ionic t hose to equation which note (HNO (aq)) unchanged, These are i.e called which are spectator ions and t hey to t hat and showing actually t he only take lowest when acids, sulfuric t he par t in possible acid such (H as SO atoms t he or ions which reaction ratio if necessar y hydrochloric (aq)), are in acid (HCl(aq)), aqueous solution t hey ionise to form on reaction coefcients impor tant nitric 94 soluble example, may may 1) precipitate only result, solution solution, ions a For in ● The Example is equations show as ● be a and, star ted t he 6.1.2 ionic equations two ● in insoluble with reaction formed are equations onic Figure ) when Writing (Mg(OH) Most writing hydroxide hydrogen ions, or H ions, and negative anions Chemical equations and reactions Writing and balancing chemical equations Examples Write t he chloride 1) ionic Write t he Pb(NO ) 2) equation solution Rewrite to balanced (aq) for t he produce chemical between lead lead chloride nitrate and 2NaCl(aq) PbCl (s) 2NaNO t he equation solution sodium 2NO showing (aq) sodium solution ions (aq) present in solution as individual (aq) and nitrate equation: 2 Pb reaction insoluble 2Na ions: (aq) 2Cl (aq) PbCl (s) 2Na (aq) 2NO (aq) 3) Delete t he Na (aq) and NO (aq) ions since t hey remain unchanged: 2 Pb (aq) 2Cl (aq) PbCl (s) 2 4) Rewrite t he ionic equation: Pb (aq) 2Cl (aq) PbCl (s) 2 Write t he SO (H 1) ionic (aq)) to equation produce for t he 2KOH(aq) H SO between sulfate (aq) K 2K SO 2) reaction potassium and potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid water (aq) 2OH (aq) 2H 2H O(l) (aq) (aq) SO (aq) 2K (aq) SO 2OH (aq) 2H (aq) (aq) 2H O(l) 2 2H O(l) 4) 2OH (aq) 2H (aq) 2H O(l) 5) OH (aq) H (aq) H O(l) Write t he (HCl(aq)) ionic to equation produce for t he Key ! reaction magnesium between chloride and magnesium hydrogen and hydrochloric acid It is give 1) Mg(s) 2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq) H 2) Mg(s) 2H 2 (aq) 2Cl (aq) Mg the that you correct (g) extremely important gas fact (aq) 2Cl (aq) H state symbols when writing ionic (g) equations 3) Mg(s) 2H and 2 (aq) (aq) H that (g) the equations balance 4) Mg(s) 2H 2 (aq) Mg (aq) H (g) Summary Write questions balanced a Aluminium b N c CH (g) H (g) The The to f State reaction the Na b KOH(aq) CO Ba(NO H O(g) potassium between aluminium between Na hydrogen and water to and dioxide oxygen are ) hydroxide and equations HCl(aq) (NH and then ) write NaCl(aq) or (NH ) (aq) SO Na (aq) SO K SO (aq) (aq) (s) in equation H water: for each reaction: O(l) (g) (HCl(aq)) NH BaSO acid steam insoluble ionic (g) hydrochloric PO the CO and water potassium produce soluble KMnO and to 3 produce hydrogencarbonate carbon compounds CO following (aq) chloride, following ) c (g) between the Fe(NO a oxide (g) CO aluminium reaction Balance reactions: gas 3 NH (g) reaction whether AgI following aluminium produce The the O hydrogen e for oxygen (g) d equations NaNO H O(l) (aq) 95 Types of chemical reactions Chemical A6.2 Objectives By the be able end of this topic you identify Chemical the seven main t ake ● chemical give ● write the of reactions reactions place in for m our an integ ral bodies, suc h as par t of our respiration lives, whic h from reactions c hanges energy, to complex reactions, whic h produce glucose phar maceutical reactions examples types chemical reactions types into of of and will to: t hat ● Types equations of the chemical balanced different products There are descr ibed below se ven main types of c hemical reactions whic h are main reactions equations types of for chemical Synthesis reactions reactions Synthesis reactions chemically A to synt hesis form Examples a reaction A of are reactions in which two or more substances combine single is O generally B synt hesis 2Mg(s) product symbolised by: AB reactions are as follows: (g) 2MgO(s) (g) 2FeCl 2FeCl (s) Cl Decomposition Did ? you down being islands coral largely When of in the islands, calcium the started of sugar are composed carbonate industry Barbados, and carbonate roasted calcium in oxide a first coral was lime The into compound or if an juice then used during the to state or is at one from time current dissolved decomposition kilns to produce calcium was island a A in A clarify the cane, major (Unit in if t he compound is passed aqueous reaction B is A a single reactant reaction will is broken occur is t hrough solution heated t he (t hermal if t he compound decomposition) when in t he liquid (electrolysis) generally symbolised by: B of decomposition reactions are as follows: cane of heat (s) CaO(s) which CO (g) heat industry ) (s) 2PbO(s) 4NO (g) O (g) 2.5) Single A single displacement d isplacement in its of (displaces) will free ● state always reactions A metal This and a be may t he type of of Mg(s) reaction a element less divided displace single t his involves The in reactive into from t he type CuSO of (aq) single 2HCl(aq) from a free A between state more an takes reactive compound element t he place element Displacement from a compound or it may acid reaction AX can generally MgSO (aq) reaction Cu(s) ZnCl (aq) be symbolised B displacement Zn(s) its compound metal an BX reaction in types displacement t he element element two anot her hydrogen A Examples reactions compound anot her displace can displace 96 which decomposition oxide the reactions island, 2Pb(NO within are products quarried extraction sugar more unstable, CaCO sucrose reactions or electric Examples was two Caribbean, A calcium reactions know? Decomposition Many (s) H (g) are as follows: by: Chemical equations Writing t hese and as reactions ionic Types Cu 2H reactions 2 (aq) Mg Zn(s) chemical equations: 2 Mg(s) of (aq) Cu(s) 2 (aq) Zn (aq) H (g) n t he above appears ● A examples, above non-metal This type of may single X An example Cl (g) of magnesium hydrogen in displace t he anot her displacement AY t his of single 2KBr(aq) more reactive series non-metal reaction AX type is reactivity can t his Ionic Ionic be displacement 2KCl(aq) Br (g) as an ionic a and zinc compound generally symbolised by: reaction is as follows: (aq) 2Br equation: (aq) 2Cl (aq) Br n from copper 18.1) t his Cl t han Unit Y Writing (see (aq) example, chlorine precipitation precipitation is more reactive t han bromine reactions reactions are sometimes referred to as double d isplacement reactions They usually involve two compounds which are in solution, An ionic AX where t he compounds precipitation BY reaction AY exchange is ions generally symbolised by: BX To have a successful ionic precipitation reaction, one or bot h of t he products must be because incapable t hey form of one undergoing product t he which reverse is reaction insoluble, known This as a is generally of ionic precipitation reactions are as precipitate that follows: forms result AgNO (aq) KBr(aq) AgBr(s) KNO BaCl of a in is a an insoluble solution, chemical solid often as a reaction (aq) (aq) Na Writing fact precipitate A Examples Key ! SO t hese as (aq) BaSO ionic (s) 2NaCl(aq) equations: Ag (aq) Br 2 Ba AgBr(s) (aq) (aq) SO BaSO (aq) Neutralisation Neutralisation acid The salt acid are a and An example reactions reactions is (s) 4 are neutralised reactions by t he between base (or a alkali) base and (or t he an alkali) products and an formed water of a NaOH(aq) neutralisation reaction HCl(aq) is: NaCl(aq) H O(l) Writing t his as an ionic equation: OH (aq) H (aq) H O(l) Redox Redox in reactions reactions, which reactions or oxidation–reduction one reactant will be is covered reduced in more and t he detail in reactions, ot her Unit are chemical reactant is reactions oxid ised Redox 97 Types of chemical reactions Chemical Reversible Reversible can be one f and reactions reactions reactions reversed reactants equations occur easily, again Most i.e when t he t he direction products reactions are not can react reversible; of to a chemical produce t hey can t he only change original proceed in direction a reaction is reversible, a double arrow ( ) is used n a reversible reaction, we refer to t he for ward reaction as proceeding from lef t to right and t he A reverse reversible A For ring of backward reaction B NH is C example, ammonia white or for ms near symbolised ammonium hydrogen Cl(s) proceeding from right to lef t by: D chloride NH ammonium as generally when and reaction (g) chloride is heated, it decomposes into gases: HCl(g) chloride the top f t he ammonia temperature) NH (g) and t hey hydrogen react to chloride form HCl(g) gases ammonium NH are cooled (or mixed at room chloride: Cl(s) ammonium The chloride reaction is, t herefore, reversible and t he equation can be written as follows: NH Cl(s) NH n Figure 6.2.1, hydrogen is Bunsen much cooler many t he and can 6.2.1 chloride HCl(g) t he ammonium gases, and which when t he chloride diffuse gases up reach is heated t he test here, it forms tube t hey The react ammonia top and Heating ammonium chloride reversible same time products enter backward reached or f dynamic t he t he are a inside t he occurs stage equal is of reaction reaction reaction t hen reactions Balance t hat t he leave, around reactions, such Summary form t he a and tube can always in a ring of directions at tube proceed contains sealed reached The t he system where reaction t he does in a where rates not bot h mixture of stop the Mg(NO ) b Fe(s) following equations, single then displacement, (s) MgO(s) Zn(s) classify ionic NO the reactions precipitation (g) or Cl (g) FeCl HCl(aq) NaOH(aq) AgNO (aq) O (g) (s) H ZnCl SO e substances for ward said to and have (aq) (aq) MgBr (aq) (g) Na SO 2 H (aq) AgBr(s) H O(l) Mg(NO ) (aq) as synthesis, neutralisation 2 d 2 c is reactants questions reactions: a no t he and of equilibrium decomposition, 98 of bur ner n Figure as chloride ammonium (g) Chemical Key ● equations Chemical The t he ● n ● state solid, a (l) of are shown each for representations at liquid, each are are t he Ionic lef t of an ionic equations and, t hey Writing chemical reactions of chemical reactions using equation and t he products on any determine Spectator t herefore, gas and on bot h r ules in sides in for must of t he front Formulae which given (aq) t here placed water is can These be aqueous be t he formula using (s) solution same formulae never used are its number of equation of must af ter to useful be They determine in are used changed t he solubility determining state compounds show as a only result, t he end atoms up in a or ions which different actually situation take from t he par t one in in star ted ionic showing for product equation numbers solubility reaction and equations compounds of (g) element There ionic reactant chemical balancing which ● are when a of formulae balanced symbols ● of Coefcients of ● equations and reactants atoms ● Types right The for ● reactions concepts symbols ● and equations ions which ions t hat ions are remain involves are t he writing present not ions in change which unchanged These t he full solution in any not are as rst, but ions to way take lef t equation individual par t out of in a t he reaction nal and, ionic equation ● There are seven main decomposition, redox ● A and ● A A its An ionic A of A a is to redox a is any synt hesis, precipitation, neutralisation, in which two or more reactants reaction where a single reactant is products reaction compound is any where reaction to insoluble reaction t he between element an element displaces anot her usually produce solid a t hat involves two compounds in precipitate forms in a solution, of ten as a reaction reaction salt reaction reaction more reacting an a reactions: ionic compound chemical form chemical product or precipitation neutralisation alkali) ● t he any reaction two and solution precipitate result ● state from aqueous A into is single d isplacement free element ● a of displacement, reactions reaction form down single in ● to decomposition broken ● reversible synthesis combine types single and occurs occurs when an acid reacts wit h a base (or water when one reactant is reduced and t he ot her is oxidised ● A reversible can be reaction reversed reactants easily, occurs i.e t he when t he products direction can react of to a chemical produce change t he original again 99 Practice exam-style questions Chemical Equations Practice exam-style questions Write Which of t he following a correctly represents The sulfuric reaction acid to between produce sodium sodium and NaOH(aq) H SO B 2NaOH(aq) (aq) NaSO H b (aq) H SO (aq) Na reaction 2NaOH(aq) H SO (aq) SO The reaction (H O(l) (s) 2H Na each of t he aluminium chloride as and t he chlorine only to product SO between (aq)), aluminium which oxide produces and sulfuric aluminium sulfate 2 between aluminium SO and water The reaction and hydrochloric O(l) c C for and water? acid A equation t he hydroxide sulfate chemical reactions produce chemical reactions write balanced following a and questions Multiple-choice to equations between potassium carbonate solution (aq) 2H acid (HCl(aq)) to produce O(l) potassium D Na(OH) (aq) H SO (aq) NaSO chloride, carbon dioxide and water (aq) d The reaction between et hane (C H 2H (g)) and oxygen to O(l) make Which of t he following compounds is soluble in copper(II) B magnesium C zinc sulfate The reaction nitrate and aqueous potassium The reaction and ammonium sulfate solutions to make of lead(II) lead(II) sulfate nitrate between potassium Aqueous solutions react of which of t he following sodium B zinc to form a chloride sulfate precipitate when and and copper(II) magnesium ammonia hydroxide to form solution potassium C potassium D lead hydroxide nitrate and chloride and sodium ammonium The reaction between (HCl(aq)), which h The reaction between hydroxide following water calcium makes and hydrochloric calcium sodium and chloride and and water to produce hydrogen nitrate The reaction between magnesium carbonate hydrogencarbonate t he and hydrogen i nitrate gas mixed? sodium Consider solution compounds acid A sulfate phosphate g steam hydroxide calcium would between potassium and sulfate, and carbonate f D dioxide water? e A carbon solution and nitric acid reaction: (HNO (aq)), which produces magnesium nitrate, Mg(HCO ) (aq) 2HCl(aq) MgCl (aq) carbon 2CO (g) 2H The best ionic equation for t his reaction dioxide and water O(l) j is: The reaction and sulfuric and water between acid (H 2 A Mg (aq) 2HCO (aq) 2H 2 (aq) Mg sodium SO (aq)) hydroxide to make solution sodium sulfate (aq) 2CO (g) 2H O(l) Write balanced f, and ionic equations for B 2HCO (aq) 2H (aq) 2CO (g) 2H O(l) C HCO (aq) 2H (aq) CO (g) H O(l) D HCO (aq) H (aq) CO What to type H of reaction would you O(l) consider t he following be? 2Al(s) 3H SO 100 (g) (aq) Al A a neutralisation B a single C a double D a synt hesis (SO reaction displacement reaction displacement reaction reaction ) (aq) 3H (g) g, i j in question above t he reactions in c, e, ... Chemistry for ® CSEC Anne 2nd Tindale Edition Elizabeth Ritchie Dianne Sarah Chapman Jennifer Anna Luttig Murray Bowman Great Clarendon Oxford It University furthers and Oxford © Anne The... sent part of prior United of Dianne in law, reproduction other trade mark of countries Sarah Chapman 2014 2014 Press by any of rights the 2014 be reproduced, form or Oxford licence outside Department,... scholarship, registered 2014 publication by Oxford asserted transmitted, in a of research, Luttig, Press University permission in is certain been Ltd University Oxford in Ritchie, have the Kingdom excellence